Unit - 1 Introduction To Embedded Systems
Unit - 1 Introduction To Embedded Systems
Unit - 1 Introduction To Embedded Systems
Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is highly
specialized to the application domain.
Applications are alterable by the user The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
programmed and it is non alterable by the
end-user
Performance is the key deciding factor in the Application specific requirements are the key
selection of the system. deciding factor
Response requirements are not time-critical For certain category of embedded systems
like mission critical systems, the response
time requirement is highly critical
Need not be deterministic in execution Execution behaviour is deterministic for
behaviour certain types of embedded systems like “
Hard Real Time Systems”
In the olden days embedded systems were built around the old vacuum tube and transistor
technologies and the embedded algorithm was developed in low level languages. The first
recognized modern embedded systems are the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) developed by
MIT Instrumentation Laboratory for lunar Expedition. The first mass-produced embedded
system was the guidance computer for the Minuteman-1 missile in 1961it was the ‘Autonetics D-
17’ guidance computer
Classification of Embedded Systems:
Based on the execution behavior, Real Time embedded systems are classified into
hard and soft real time systems.
1. First Generation: The early Embedded systems were built around 8bit microprocessors
like 8085, Z80 and 4bit microcontrollers. Simple in H/W circuits with firm ware
developed in Assembly code. Example Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control
units etc.
2. Second Generation: These Embedded systems were build around 16bit
microprocessors and 8 or 16bit microcontrollers. The instruction set is much more
powerful than first generation processors/controllers. Some of the Embedded systems
contain Embedded operating systems for their operation. Example Data Acquisition
systems, SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition) Systems etc.
3. Third Generation: These Embedded systems were build around 32bit microprocessors
and 16bit microcontrollers. The instruction set of processors became more complex and
powerful and the concept of instruction pipelining also evolved. Example robotics,
media, industrial process control and networking etc.
4. Fourth Generation: These Embedded systems are making use of high performance real
time embedded operating systems for their functioning. Example Smart phone devices,
mobile internet devices (MIDs), etc.
1. Small Scale Embedded Systems:-- Embedded System which are simple in application
needs and where the performance requirements are not time critical , 8 or 16 bit
microprocessor or microcontrollers are used. May or may not contain Operating system
for its functioning. Example Electronic Toy.
2. Medium Scale Embedded Systems: -- Embedded Systems which are slightly complex in
hardware and firmware requirements, 16 or 32 bit microcontroller or processors with
operating .
3. Large Scale Embedded systems which involve highly complex hardware and firmware
requirements, 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/controllers or Reconfigurable SoC’s or Multi-
core processors and programmable logic devices etc. are used with Real time operating
system
1. Data collection/Storage/Representation
2. Data Communication
3. Data (Signal) processing
4. Monitoring
5. Controlling
6. Application specific user interface
Elements of Embedded Systems:
Cost of the entire system increases Cost of the entire system is low
Due to external components, the entire Since external components are low, total
power consumption is high. Hence it is not power consumption is less and can be
suitable to used with devices running on used with devices running on stored
stored power like batteries. power like batteries.
Most of the micro controllers have power
Most of the microprocessors do not have saving modes like idle mode and power
power saving features. saving mode. This helps to reduce power
consumption even further.
Since memory and I/O components are all Since components are internal, most of
external, each instruction will need external the operations are internal instruction,
operation, hence it is relatively slower. hence speed is fast.
Microprocessor have less number of Micro controller have more number of
registers, hence more operations are registers, hence the programs are easier to
memory based. write.
Microprocessors are based on von Neumann Micro controllers are based on Harvard
model/architecture where program and data architecture where program memory and
are stored in same memory module Data memory are separate
Used mainly in washing machine, MP3
Mainly used in personal computers
players
1. DSPs are powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessors designed to meet the
computational demands and power constraints of audio , video , and communication
applications.
2. DSPs are faster than general purpose microprocessors in signal processing applications.
6. Program Memory: Memory for sorting the program required by DSP to process data.
7. Data Memory: Working memory for storing temporary variables and data/signal to be
processed.
8. Computational Engine: performs the signal processing in accordance with the stored
program memory.
9. I/O Unit: Acts as interface b/w outside world and DSP. It is responsible for capturing
signals to be Processed and delivering the processed signals.
RISC Vs CISC Processors/Controllers:
1. From programmer point of view RISC processors are comfortable since there is a need to
learn only few instructions where for a CISC processor need to learn more number of
instructions.
Memory:
3. Code memory contains the content even after power is turned off.
4. It is Non-Volatile memory.
1. MROM is one time programmable device. MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not
possible to alter bit information.
4. Advantages:
6. Low cost
7. Disadvantage: Inability to modify the device firmware against firm ware upgrades
4. Fuses which are not blown represents logic “1” and blown represents logic “0”
5. The window is exposed to UV rays for a fixed duration. So the entire memory will be
erased.
6. IC has to be removed from circuit boar and put in a UV eraser device for 20 to 30
minutes.
EEPROM:
1. Stored information can be erased by using electrical signals at the register/ Bit level.
3. It includes chip erase mode and in this mode they can be erased in a few milliseconds.
4. Disadvantage is capacity is limited compared with standard ROM
FLASH:
1. FLASH is the latest ROM technology and is widely used in today’s embedded designs.
NVRAM:
2. Contains RAM based memory And small battery for providing supply to memory in the
absence of external power supply.
Read-Write Memory/RAM:
2. It is direct access memory i.e we can access the desired memory location directly.
1. SRAM stores data in the form of voltage. Made of Flip-Flop’s. Fastest form of RAM
available
2. SRAM is realized using six transistors (or 6 MOSFETS). Out of 6 transistors 4 are used
for building the latch up i.e FF part of memory cell and two for controlling the access.
3. SRAM is fast in operation due to its resistive networking and switching capabilities.
DRAM:
1. Dynamic RAM stores data in the form of charge. Made of MOS transistor gates.
2. MOSFET acts as gate for incoming and outgoing data where as capacitor acts as bit
storage unit.
1. Sensors: A Sensor is a transducer device that converts energy from one form to another
for any measurement or control purpose.
3. I/O Subsystem: Interaction of the Embedded system is through I/O Subsystem to the
external world.
1. LEDs can be used as an indicator for viewing various signal or situation status.
2. Examples: indicating presence of power supply like device is ON, Battery low or battery
charging etc.
4. For proper functioning the anode is connected to +ve and cathode is connected to –ve
terminal of power supply.
Communication Interface:
Embedded firmware
• Embedded firmware refers to the control algorithm (program instructions) and or the
configuration settings that an embedded system developer dumps into the code (program
) memory
• Write the programs in high level languages like Embedded C/C++ using an Integrated
Development environment(IDE )
• IDE consists of editor, compiler, linker, debugger and simulator
Eg: Keil Micro vision3 used for all family of 8051µc
• Write the programs in assembly level languages supported by application target processor
Distributed:
The term distributed means that embedded systems may be a part of larger systems. Many
numbers of such distributed embedded systems form a single large embedded control unit. An
automatic vending machine is a typical example for this. The vending machine contains a card
reader (for pre-paid vending systems), a vending unit. etc. Each of them are independent
embedded units but they work together
Small Size and Weight:
Product aesthetics is an important factor in choosing a product. For example, when you
plan to buy a new mobile phone, you may make a comparative study on the pros and corns of the
products available in the market. Definitely the product aesthetics (size, weight, shape, style,
etc.) will be one of the deciding factors to choose a product. People believe in the phrase "Small
is beautiful". Moreover it is convenient to handle a compact device than a bulky product. In
embedded domain also compactness is a significant deciding factor. Most of the application
demands small sized and low weight products.
Power Concerns:
Power management is another important factor that needs to be considered in designing
embedded systems. Embedded systems should be designed in such a way as to minimize the
heat dissipation by the system. The production of high amount of heat demands cooling
requirements like cooling fans which in turn occupies additional space and make the system
bulky. Now a day’s ultra low power component are available in the market. Select the design
according to the low power components like low dropout regulators, and controllers/processors
with power saving modes. Also power management is a critical constraint in battery operated
application. The more the power consumption the less is the battery life.
Quality attributes are the non-functional requirements that need to be documented properly
in any system design. The various quality attributes that needs to be addressed in any embedded
system development are broadly classified into two,
1. Operational Quality Attributes
2. Non-Operational Quality Attributes
The quality attributes of the embedded system when it is in the operational mode or
‘online’ mode are called as operational quality attributes. The important operational quality
attributes are listed below:
1. Response
2. Throughput
3. Reliability
4. Maintainability
5. Security
6. Safety
Response:
Response is a measure of quickness of the system. It gives you an idea about how fast your
system is tracking the changes in input variables. Almost All Real Time embedded systems
demand fast response. For example, an embedded system deployed in flight control application
should respond in a Real Time manner. Any delay in the response of the system will create
potential damages to the safety of the flight as well as the passengers. All embedded systems
should not be Real Time in response. For example, the response time requirement for an
electronic toy is not at all time-critical. There is no specific deadline that this system should
respond within this particular timeline.
Throughput:
Throughput deals with the efficiency of a system. In general it can be defined as the rate of
production or operation of a defined process over a stated period of time. The rates can be
expressed in terms of units of products, batches produced, or any other meaningful
measurements. In the case of a Card Reader, throughput means how many transactions the
Reader can perform in a minute or in an hour or in a day. Throughput is generally measured in
terms of 'Benchmark'. A ‘Benchmark’ is a reference point by which something can be measured
Reliability:
Reliability is a measure of how much% you can rely upon the proper functioning of the
system or what is the % susceptibility of the system to failures.
Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) and Mean Time To Repair (MTIR) are the terms used in
defining system reliability. MTBF gives the frequency of failures in hours/weeks/months.
MTTR specifies how long the system is allowed to be out of order following a failure. For an
embedded system with critical application need, it should be of the order of minutes.
Maintainability:
Maintainability deals with support and maintenance to the end user or client in case of
technical issues and product failures or on the basis of a routine system checkup. Reliability and
maintainability are considered as two complementary disciplines. A more reliable system means
a system with less corrective maintainability requirements and vice versa. As the reliability of
the system increases, the chances of failure and non-functioning also reduces, there by the need
for maintainability is also reduced. Maintainability can be broadly classified into two categories,
namely, 'Scheduled or Periodic Maintenance {preventive maintenance)' and ‘Maintenance to
unexpected failures (corrective maintenance)'. Some embedded products may use consumable
components or may contain components which are subject to wear and tear and they should be
replaced on a periodic basis.
A printer is a typical example for illustrating the two types of maintainability. An inkjet
printer uses ink cartridges, which are consumable components and as per the printer
manufacturer the end user should replace the cartridge after each 'n' number of printouts to get
quality prints. This is an example for 'Scheduled or Periodic maintenance'. If the paper feeding
part of the printer fails the printer fails to print and it requires immediate repairs to rectify this
problem. This is an example of Maintenance to unexpected failure’. In both of the
maintenances, the printer needs to be brought offline and during this time it will not be available
for the user. Hence it is obvious that maintainability is simply an indication of the availability
of the product for use. In any embedded system design, the ideal value for availability is
expressed as Ai= MTBF/(MTBF + MTTR) where Ai = Availability in 'the ideal condition,
MTBF = Mean Time Between Failures, and MTTR =Mean Time To Repair
Security :
1. Confidentiality, 'Integrity', and 'Availability’) are the three major measures of
information security.
2. Confidentiality deals with the protection of data and application from unauthorized
disclosure.
3. Integrity deals with the protection of data and application from unauthorized
modification.
4. Availability deals with protection of data and application from unauthorized users.
5. Example of the ‘Security’ aspect in an embedded product is a Personal Digital Assistant
(PDA). The PDA can be either a shared resource (e.g. PDAs used in LAB setups) or an
individual one. If it is a shared one there should be some mechanism in the form of a user
name and password to access into a particular person's profile-This is an example of
'Availability'.
6. Also all data and applications present in the PDA need not be accessible to all users. Some
of them are specifically accessible to administrators only. For achieving this,
Administrator and user levels of security should be implemented
7. -An example of Confidentiality. Some data present in the PDA may be visible to all users
but there may not be necessary permissions to alter the data by the users. That is Read
Only access is allocated to all users-An example of Integrity.
Safety:
‘Safety’ and 'Security' are two confusing terms. Sometimes you may feel both of them as a
single attribute. But they represent two unique aspects in quality attributes. Safety deals with the
possible damages that can happen to the operators, public and the environment due to the
breakdown of an embedded system or due to the emission of radioactive or hazardous materials
from the embedded products. The breakdown of an embedded system may occur due to a
hardware failure or a firmware failure. Some of the safety threats are sudden (like product
breakdown) and some of them are gradual (like hazardous emissions from the product).
From the graph, it is clear that the total revenue increases from the product introduction
stage to the product maturity stage. The revenue peaks at the maturity stage and starts falling in
the decline/retirement stage. The profit increases with increase in sales and attains a steady value
and then. falls with a dip in sales. You can see a negative value for profit during the initial
period. It is because during the product development phase there is only investment and no
returns. Profit occurs only when the total returns exceed the investment and operating cost.
WASHING MACHINE-APPLICATION-SPECIFICEMBEDDED SYSTEM:
Embedded system contains Sensors, Actuators, Control unit and Application-specific
user interfaces like Keyboards, display units, etc. The actuator part of the washing machine
consists of motorized agitator Tumble tub Water drawing pump and Inlet valve to control the
flow of water into the unit. The sensor part consists of water temperature sensor Level sensor,
etc. The control part contains Microprocessor/controller based board with interfaces to the
sensors and actuators.
The control panel consists of a microprocessor/controller based board with I/0
interfaces and a control algorithm running in it. Input interface includes the keyboard which
consists of wash type selector namely" Wash, Spin and Rinse, cloth type selector namely' light,
Medium, Heavy duty and washing rime setting, etc.
Output interface consists of LED/LCD displays, status indication LEDs, etc. It is to be
noted that this interface may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and model to model. The
other types of l/0 interfaces which are invisible to the end user are different kinds of sensor
interfaces, namely, water temperature sensor, water level sensor, etc. and actuator interface
including motor control for agitator and tub movement control, inlet water flow control, etc.
The control panel consists of a microprocessor/controller based board with I/0
interfaces and a control algorithm running in it. Input interface includes the keyboard which
consists of wash type selector namely" Wash, Spin and Rinse, cloth type selector namely' light,
Medium, Heavy duty and washing rime setting, etc. Output interface consists of LED/LCD
displays, status indication LEDs, etc. It is to be noted that this interface may vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer and model to model. The other types of l/0 interfaces which are
invisible to the end user are different kinds of sensor interfaces, namely, water temperature
sensor, water level sensor, etc. and actuator interface including motor control for agitator and
tub movement control, inlet water flow control, etc.
The control panel consists of a microprocessor/controller based board with I/0
interfaces and a control algorithm running in it. Input interface includes the keyboard which
consists of wash type selector namely” Wash, Spin and Rinse, cloth type selector namely' light,
Medium, Heavy duty and washing rime setting, etc.
Output interface consists of LED/LCD displays, status indication LEDs, etc. It is to be
noted that this interface may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and model to model. The
other types of l/0 interfaces which are invisible to the end user are different kinds of sensor
interfaces, namely, water temperature sensor, water level sensor, etc. and actuator interface
including motor control for agitator and tub movement control, inlet water flow control, etc.
Washing machine comes in two models
1. Top loading machine and
2. Front loading machine.
In top loading models the agitator of the machine twists back and forth and pulls the cloth
down to the bottom of the tub. On reaching the bottom of the tub the clothes work their way back
up to the top of the tub where the agitator grabs them again and repeats the mechanism.
The front loading machines, the clothes are tumbled and plunged into the water over and
over again. This is the first phase of washing.
In the second phase of washing, water is pumped out from the tub and the inner tub uses
centrifugal force to wring out more water from the clothes by spinning at several hundred
Rotations per Minute (RPM). This is called a 'Spin Phase'.
The keyboard panel of washing machine has three buttons namely” Wash, Spin and Rinse.
The inner tub of the machine contains a number of holes and during the spin cycle the inner tub
spins, and forces the water out through these holes to the stationary outer tub from which it is
drained off through the outlet pipe.
AUTOMOTIVE - DOMAIN-SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM:
The major application domains of embedded systems are consumer, industrial, automotive,
telecom, etc., of which telecom and automotive industry holds a big market share.