Mine Gases

Dr. Nuhindro Priagung Widodo

Teknik Pertambangan
Fakultas Teknik Pertambangan dan Perminyakan
Institut Teknologi Bandung
2010

1
 Mine Gases
• The mine ventilation/air conditioning engineer must be
concerned not only with the quantity of air the mine
ventilation system can deliver but also with the chemical
composition of air.
• The part of total air conditioning dealing with the purity of
air is termed quantity control.
• Unlike an industrial environment where impurity sources
are localized and the ventilation system can be and is
designed to isolate the contaminant source, all the
underground mine working contain the potential for
release of air contaminants such as strata gas, dust,
blasting gases, and diesel exhaust.

2
 Contaminant
• Contaminant is broadly defined as any undesirable
substance not normally present in air or present in an
excessive amount.
• Contaminant or impurities may be either nonparticulate
(gases or vapor) or particulate (liquids and solids).
• Liquid particulate contaminants include mist and fogs
• Solid contaminants include dust, fumes, smoke, and
organisms (bacteria, pollen, etc.).

3
 Threshold limit values (TLV)
• TLV, as recommended by the America Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), refer to
airborne concentrations of substances and conditions to
which is believed that nearly all workers may be
repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse health
effects.
• As presented by ACGIH, these limits are intended for
use in the practice of industrial hygiene as guidelines or
recommendations in the control of potential health
hazards and for no other use. However, where used
directly or by inference in federal/and or state laws, they
themselves become law.

4
 TLV-TWA
• Threshold Limit Value – Time Weighted Average (TLV-
TWA). Is the time-weighted average concentration for a
normal 8-h workday or 40-h work week to which nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day,
without adverse effect. In industry the TLV-TWA is
commonly referred to as the TLV.

5
 TLV-STEL
• Threshold Limit Value – Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV-
STEL). Is the maximum concentration for exposures up
to 15 min without suffering from (a) irritation, (b) chronic
of irreversible tissue change, or (c) narcosis of sufficient
degree to increase accident proneness, impair self
rescue, or materially reduce work efficiency.
• This is provided that (a) no more than four exposures per
day are permitted, with at least 60 min between
exposures, and (b) the daily TLV-TWA is not exceeded.

6
 TLV-C
• Threshold Limit Value – Ceiling (TLV-C). Is the
concentration that should not be exceeded even
instantaneously. Substances that are fast acting are best
controlled by a ceiling limit.

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Classification of Gases Most Commonly Found in
Subsurface Opening

In addition to the method of detections listed, most of gases can be

detected by gas chromatography and stain tubes

8
Classification of Gases Most Commonly Found in
Subsurface Opening

In addition to the method of detections listed, most of gases can be

detected by gas chromatography and stain tubes

9
Classification of Gases Most Commonly
Found in Subsurface Opening

In addition to the method of detections listed, most of gases can be

detected by gas chromatography and stain tubes
10
Classification of Gases Most Commonly Found in
Subsurface Opening

In addition to the method of detections listed, most of gases can be

detected by gas chromatography and stain tubes

11
 Kepmen 555
 Kepala Teknik Tambang harus menjamin tersedianya aliran udara bersih
yang cukup untuk semua tempat kerja dengan ketentuan volume
oksigennya tidak kurang dari 19,5 persen dan volume karbon dioksidanya
tidak lebih dari 0,5 persen (Bagian Kedelapan - Pasal 369 Ketentuan
Umum, ayat 1a)
 (Pasal 369 ayat 3) Volume udara bersih yang dialirkan dalam sistem
ventilasi harus:
a. Diperhitungkan berdasarkan jumlah pekerja terbanyak pada suatu
lokasi kerja dengan ketentuan untuk setiap orang tidak kurang dari 2
meter kubik per menit selama pekerjaan berlangsung dan
b. Ditambah sebanyak 3 meter kubik per menit untuk setiap tenaga kuda,
apabila mesin diesel dioperasikan.

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(Pasal 370 Standar Ventilasi, ayat 1 & 2)
1) Temperatur udara di dalam tambang bawah tanah harus dipertahankan
antara 18 derajat Celcius sampai dengan 24 derajat Celcius dengan
kelembaban relatif maksimum 85 persen.
2) Selain ketentuan sebagaimana dimaksud dalam ayat (1) huruf a, kondisi
ventilasi ditempat kerja harus:
a. Untuk rata-rata 8 jam
1) Karbon monoksida (CO) volumenya tidak lebih dari 0,005 persen
2) Methan (CH4) volumenya tidak lebih dari 0,25 persen;
3) Hidrogen sulfida (H2S) volumenya tidak lebih dari 0,001 persen dan
4) Oksida nitrat (NO) tidak lebih dari 0,0003 persen.
b. Dalam tenggang waktu 15 menit:
1) CO tidak boleh lebih dari 0,04 persen dan
2) NO tidak boleh lebih dari 0,0005 persen.

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 Oxygen, O2
Respiratory
quotient

0.75

0.90
1.00

Note: Respiratory quotient is ratio of carbon dioxide expelled to the oxygen consumed

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Assuming vigorous activity, an oxygen content of 21%, and a
carbon dioxide content of 0.03% in the intake air, find the
quantity of air Q that must be supplied per individual if the
downstream air current is to be maintained at acceptable
levels (i.e., 19.5% O2 and 0.5% CO2)
Solution: Required O2 = 4.7 x 10-5 m3/s. Respiratory quotient =
1.0
(O2 in intake) – (O2 consumed) = (O2 downstream)
0.21 Q – (4.7 x 10-5 m3/s) = 0.195 Q
Q = 3.2 x 10-3 m3/s
(CO2 in intake) + (CO2 produced) = (CO2 downstream)
0.0003 Q + 1 x (4.7 x 10-5 m3/s) = 0.005 Q
Q = 0.01 m3/s

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 Nitrogen, N2
• Nitrogen constitutes approximately 78 percent of air and
is, therefore, the most abundant gas in a ventilated
system. It is fairly inert and occurs occasionally as a
strata gas, usually mixed with other gases such as
methane and carbon dioxide.

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 Methane, CH4
• Methane is produced by bacterial and chemical action
on organic material. It is evolved during the formation
of both coal and petroleum, and is one of the most
common strata gases. Methane is not toxic but is
particularly dangerous because it is flammable and
can form an explosive mixture with air. This has
resulted in the deaths of many thousands of miners
over the past two centuries. A methane: air mixture is
sometimes referred to as firedamp.
• Although methane is especially associated with coal
mines, it is often found in other types of subsurface
openings that are underlain or overlain with
carbonaceous or oil-bearing strata.
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 Methane, CH4
• Methane burns in air with a pale blue flame. This can
be observed over the lowered flame of a safety lamp at
concentrations as small as l+percent. In an abundant
supply of air, the gas burns to produce water vapour
and carbon dioxide.

• Unfortunately, within the confines of mined openings

and during fires or explosions, there may be insufficient
oxygen to sustain full combustion, leading to formation
of the highly poisonous carbon monoxide.

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 Methane, CH4
• The explosible range for methane in air is normally
quoted as 5 to 15 percent, with the most explosive
mixture occurring at 9.8 percent. While the lower limit
remains fairly constant, the upper explosive limit reduces
as the oxygen content of the air falls. The flame will
propagate through the mixture within the range 5 to 14
percent (flammability limits).
• Next Figure illustrates a well known diagram first
produced by H. F. Coward in 1928. This can be used to
track the flammability of air: methane mixtures as the
composition varies.

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Coward Diagram for Methane in Air

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21
 Methane, CH4
• Mining law specifies actions that must be taken when
certain fractions of the lower flammable limit have been
reached. For example, electrical power must be switched
off when the methane concentration exceeds 1 to 14
percent. Personnel other than those concerned with the
improvement of ventilation should leave any area when
the methane concentration exceeds 2 to 2+percent. The
legislation of the relevant country or state must be
consulted for the precise values of limiting concentrations
and required actions. Other regulations specify the
frequency at which measurements of methane
concentration must be taken and threshold limit values to
be applied in specified locations.
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 Methane, CH4
• In many countries, underground mines are classified as either gassy
or non-gassy. These legal terms relate to the potential for methane to
be emitted into the workings. It is prudent that all underground coal
mines should be designated as gassy. Any other mine may become
legally gassy if
(a) methane emissions from the roof, floor or sides of openings have
been observed or the surrounding strata are deemed capable of
producing such emissions,
(b) a methane ignition has occurred in the past, or
(c) the mine is connected underground to another mine that has
already been classified as gassy.
• Imposing a gassy designation on a mine can result in a significant
increase in capital and operating costs as all equipment and
operating procedures must then be designed and maintained to
minimize the risk of igniting a methane: air mixture.
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 Carbon dioxide, CO2
• Carbon dioxide appears in subsurface openings from a
variety of sources including strata emissions, oxidation of
carbonaceous materials, internal combustion engines,
blasting, fires, explosions and respiration.
• Stagnant mixtures of air in sealed off areas often have
an increased concentration of carbon dioxide and a
decreased oxygen content. Such mixtures are
sometimes called blackdamp.

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 Carbon dioxide, CO2
• In addition to diluting oxygen in the air, carbon dioxide
acts as a stimulant to the respiratory and central nervous
systems. The solubility of carbon dioxide is about twenty
times that of oxygen.
• Diffusion of the gas into the bloodstream is rapid and the
effects on rate and depth of breathing are soon noticed.
The physiological effects of carbon dioxide listed by Strang and MacKenzie-Wood (1985)

Panting: to breathe hard and quickly 25

 Carbon monoxide, CO
• The high toxicity of carbon monoxide coupled with its lack
of smell, taste or colour make this one of the most
dangerous and insidious of mine gases. It has a density
very close to that of air and mixes readily into an airstream
unless it has been heated by involvement in a fire, in which
case it may layer with smoke along the roof.
• Carbon monoxide is a product of the incomplete
combustion of carbonaceous material. Although colourless,
it has the traditional name of whitedamp. The great
majority of fires and explosions in mines produce carbon
monoxide. Indeed, most fatalities that have occurred during
such incidents have been a result of carbon monoxide
poisoning.

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 Carbon monoxide, CO
• The mixture of gases, including carbon monoxide,
resulting from a mine explosion, is often referred to as
afterdamp. Carbon monoxide is formed by internal
combustion engines, blasting and spontaneous
combustion in coal mines.
• Carbon monoxide burns with a blue flame and is highly
flammable, having a wide range of flammability, 12.5 to
74.2 percent in air, with the maximum explosibility at 29
percent.

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 Carbon monoxide, CO
• Haemoglobin has an affinity for carbon monoxide that is
about three hundred times greater than that for oxygen. To
compound the problem, the new substance formed in the
bloodstream, carboxyhaemoglobin (CO.Hb), is relatively
stable and does not readily decompose.
• The consequences are that very small concentrations of
carbon monoxide cause the formation of
carboxyhaemoglobin which accumulates within the
bloodstream. This leaves a reduced number of red cells to
carry oxygen molecules throughout the body. The
physiological symptoms of carbon monoxide arise because
of oxygen starvation to vital organs, particularly the brain
and heart.

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Carbon monoxide, CO

(Hartman et.al., 1997)

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 Sulphur Dioxide, SO2
• This is another highly toxic gas but one which,
fortunately, can be detected at very low concentrations
both by its acidic taste and the intense burning sensation
it causes to the eyes and respiratory tracts. The latter are
a result of the high solubility of the gas in water to form
sulphurous acid.

• This, in turn, can oxidise to sulphuric acid, H2SO4.

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 Sulphur Dioxide, SO2
• First aid for sulphur dioxide poisoning includes the administration of
oxygen, immobility and warmth. The longer term treatment is for acid
corrosion of the eyes and respiratory system.
• Sulphur dioxide is formed in internal combustion engines and by the
oxidation of sulphide ores, for example,
• zinc blende

• or iron pyrites

• These and other similar reactions can occur when sulphide ores are
heated in a fire or byspontaneous combustion. Although sulphur
dioxide is colourless, white fumes may be seen due to condensation of
acidic water vapours or traces of sulphur trioxide, SO3.

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 Oxides of nitrogen, NOx
• Three oxides of nitrogen : Nitric oxide, NO, nitrous oxide, N2O, and
nitrogen dioxide, NO2, are formed in internal combustion engines
and by blasting. The proportion of nitrous oxide is likely to be small.
Furthermore, nitric oxide converts rapidly to nitrogen dioxide in the
presence of air and water vapour.

• As nitrogen dioxide is the most toxic of these oxides of nitrogen, it is

sensible to concentrate upon the physiological effects of this gas.
• At the temperatures found in underground openings, it is probable
that nitrogen dioxide will be mixed with a companion gas, nitrogen
tetroxide, N2O4, having similar physiological effects. The brown
fumes of nitrogen dioxide dissolve readily in water to form both
nitrous (HNO2) and nitric (HNO3) acids.

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 Oxides of nitrogen, NOx
• These acids cause irritation and, at higher concentrations, corrosive
effects on the eyes and respiratory system. The progressive
symptoms are as follows.

• The immediate treatment for nitrogen dioxide poisoning is similar to

that for sulphur dioxide, namely, the administration of oxygen,
immobility and warmth. An insidious effect of nitrogen dioxide
poisoning is that an apparent early recovery can be followed, soon
afterwards, by the development of acute bronchopneumonia.
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 Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S
• The presence of this highly toxic gas is readily detected by its
characteristic smell of bad eggs. This has given rise to the
colloquial name stinkdamp. Unfortunately, hydrogen sulphide has a
narcotic effect on the nervous system including paralysis of the
olfactory nerves. Hence, after a short exposure, the sense of smell
can no longer be relied upon.
• Hydrogen sulphide is produced by acidic action or the effects of
heating on sulphide ores. It is formed naturally by the bacterial or
chemical decomposition of organic compounds and may often be
detected close to stagnant pools of water in underground mines.
Hydrogen sulphide may occur in natural gas or petroleum reserves
and migrate through the strata in a weakly acidic water solution.

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 Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S
• It can also be generated in gob fires. In such cases, free sulphur
may be deposited by partial oxidation of the gas.

• This can sometimes be seen as a yellow deposit in burned areas.

However, in a plentiful supply of air, hydrogen sulphide will burn with
a bright blue flame to produce sulphur dioxide.

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 Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S
• The physiological effects of hydrogen sulphide

• A victim who recovers from hydrogen sulphide poisoning may be left

with longer term conjunctivitis and bronchitis.

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 Hydrogen, H2
• Although non-toxic, hydrogen is the most explosive of all the mine
gases. It burns with a blue flame and has the wide flammable range
of 4 to 74.2 percent in air. Hydrogen can be ignited at a temperature
as low as 580OC, and with an ignition energy about half of that
required by methane.
• Hydrogen occasionally appears as a strata gas and may be present
in afterdamp at about the same concentrations as carbon monoxide.
The action of water on hot coals can produce hydrogen as a
constituent of water gas.
• Dangerous accumulations of hydrogen may occur at locations where
battery charging is in progress. Hydrogen has a density only some
0.07 that of air. It will, therefore, tend to rise to the roof. Battery
charging stations should be located in intake air with a duct at roof
level that connects into a return airway.

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 Radon, Rn
• This chemically inert gas is one of the elements formed during
radioactive disintegration of the uranium series. Although its presence
is most serious in uranium mines, it may be found in many other types
of underground openings. Indeed, seepages of radon from the ground
into the basements of surface buildings have been known to create a
serious health hazard.
• Radon emanates from the rock matrix or from ground water that has
passed over radioactive minerals. It has a half life of 3.825 days and
emits alpha radiation. The immediate products of the radioactive decay
of radon are solids known as the radon daughters. These adhere to the
surfaces of dust particles and emit alpha, beta and some gamma
radiation.
• The entry of radon and, especially, its daughters into the respiratory
system is associated with a high incidence of lung cancer. This
appears to be synergistic with the effects of smoking. Uranium miners,
in particular, should be discouraged from smoking.
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Threshold limit values for gas mixtures

39
Threshold limit values for gas mixtures

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 GAS DETECTION AND MONITORING
• Detection method
- Catalytic-oxidation detectors: are used to measure the concentration of
combustible gases, most notably methane and carbon monoxide, by
measuring either the heat generated during the oxidation process pr the
change in resistance in an electrical circuit (Wheatstone bridge).
- Electrochemical sensors: have found application in determining the
concentration of Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, and
Oxides of Nitrogen.
- Optical detectors: two types.
Nondispersive infrared detector
Interferometer
- Electrical conductivity
- Stain tubes, uses reactive properties of gases and chemicals to cause
color changes in the chemical.

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 GAS DETECTION AND MONITORING
• Types of instrumentation:
- Handheld detectors
- Machine-mounted monitors
- Area monitors
- Personal dosimeter
• Gas Monitoring: implies continuous or cyclic measurement of a
gaseous contaminant as opposed to gas detection, which implies
intermittent checks for contaminants.
• Monitors may be used for protection from a safety hazard such as
fires or explosives or for protection from a health hazard such as a
toxic gas.
• Machine-mounted methane monitors are required in coal mines on
all electric face-cutting equipment, continuous miners, longwall
face equipment, and loading machines.
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 GAS DETECTION AND MONITORING
• Laboratory analysis and Sampling
In some instances, a more exact analysis of the mine environment is
needed. On these occasions, grab-sampling techniques are used to
collect samples underground in suitable containers that are then
returned to the laboratory for analysis.

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 Control of Gases Underground
• Once a contaminant gas is identified, its source located, and its
release rate determined, the ventilation engineer must plan the
ventilation system to control the gas within its maximum allowable
level.
• Techniques to control gases in mines:
1. Prevention
2. Removal
3. Absorption
4. Isolation
5. Dilution

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 Techniques to control gases in mines
1. Prevention
a. Proper procedure in blasting
b. Adjustment and maintenance of internal-combustion (IC) engines
c. Avoidance of open flames, and so forth
2. Removal
a. Drainage in advance of mining
b. Drainage by bleeder entries
c. Local-exhaust ventilation
d. Water influsion in advance of mining
3. Absorption
a. Chemical reaction in IC engine conditioner
b. Solution by air-water spray in blasting
4. Isolation
a. Sealing off abandoned working of fires areas
b. Restricted blasting or off-shift blasting
5. Dilution
a. Local dilution by auxiliary ventilation
b. Dilution by main ventilation airstream
c. Local dilution by diffusers and water sprays
Dilution is the only control technique that is universally applicable. Other control measures are
suited to particular conditions, such as the source and occurrence of gas. A combination
techniques is often most effective.
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 Control of Gases Underground
• Control of strata gases
• Control of blasting gases
• Control of internal-Combustion Engine Exhaust
• Control of Fires and Explosions
• Control of Battery Gas (Hydrogen)

Dilution ventilation calculation

Methane drainage
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 Control of strata gases
• A dangerous effect called layering has been observed in coal mines with
methane (Leach and Thompson, 1968). If the ventilation airstream
generates insufficient turbulence, any methane present remains stratified
and forms a persistent layer mowing along the roof.
• Worse, if the mine opening is inclined and the airflow is “downhill”, a
methane layer can back “uphill” against the airstream. Ample air velocity
and turbulence are the primary safeguards against layering.

- Layering number

Nl : layering number
Vu: air velocity in the upper half the airway (m/s)
Qg: methane inflow (m3/s)
b: airway width (m)

Layering can be controlled if the air velocity is sufficient to maintain

Nl at values  5 in a horizontal airway, 5 in an airway with uphill flow (8 if
steep), and 3 in an airway with downhill flow (5 if steep).
In typical coal mine openings, with moderate gas inflows, high air velocities
(≥ 1 m/s) may be required to counteract the layering effect. 47
 Control of blasting gases
Prevention or reduction in the amount of gases liberated from blasting is
possible through the proper selection of explosives and proper
blasting techniques. In coal mines and gassy noncoal mines, only
explosives designated as permissible may be used. Proper
stemming is essential to reduce gases.
Removal of blasting gases through local-exhaust systems or auxiliary
ventilation is used quite often and is considered good practice.
Absorption of some ingredients of the gas formed in blasting is achieved
by an air-water spray. The spray is mounted in the drift or raise to
produce a curtain of fine mist across the opening, some distance
behind the face, and is turned on by the miners prior to blasting. It is
fairly effective for water soluble gases, such as Sulfur dioxide,
Hydrogen Sulfide, and Nitrogen Dioxide, but is ineffective for Carbon
Monoxide.
Blasting off-shift, or at restricted times, and localizing the blast are often
practiced as control measures.
48
 References
• Hartman, Mutmansky, Ramani, Wang, Mine
Ventilation and Air Conditioning, John Wiley & Sons,
rd
3 Edition, 1997.
• McPherson, Malcolm J., Subsurface Ventilation and
Environmental Engineering, Chapman & Hall, 1993.

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