Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:

Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure

deflects, or flexes, under loading. A flexible pavement structure is typically
composed of several layers of materials. Each layer receives loads from the above
layer, spreads them out, and passes on these loads to the next layer below. Thus the
stresses will be reduced, which are maximum at the top layer and minimum on the
top of subgrade. In order to take maximum advantage of this property, layers are
usually arranged in the order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest
load bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on the top and the lowest load
bearing capacity material (and least expensive) on the bottom.
1.2 COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:
A typical flexible pavement consists of four components: (i) soil subgrade
(ii) sub-base course (iii) base course (iv) surface course or wearing course. The
flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the lower
layers by grain to grain transfer through the point of contact in the granular
structure.

Fig-1: Cross section of flexible pavement

1
1.2.1 COMPONENT FUNCTIONS:
Subgrade:
It is the top of the ground or formation on which the road rests. It should
have sufficient strength, good drainage, case of compaction and permanency of
compaction and strength. Its functions are
(i) To support the road structure.
(ii) To form a bed for the road at the designed level.
Sub-base course:
It is a layer of cheap material placed between the base course and subgrade. It
is formed locally available cheap materials like sand, gravel, rubble, ashes or
stabilized soil. If subgrade and its drainage are good it may be omitted. Its
functions are
(i) To protect the subgrade.
(ii) To reduce the intensity of loading on the subgrade
(iii) To improve drainage.
(iv) To prevent the base and wearing course from being affected by the poor
qualities of subgrade such as swelling, shrinkage, settlement, etc.
Base course:
It is the layer below the wearing course. It is an important structural part of
the road. It should be strong enough to bear the loads of the traffic. It is made of
good materials like broken stone well compacted. Its functions are
(i) To support the wearing course and prevent distortions in it.
(ii) To bear the loads of the traffic.
(iii) To reduce the intensity of loading on the sub base and subgrade.
(iv) To increase the structural strength of road.
(v) To prevent the volume changes in the poor subgrade.
(vi) To reduce the thickness of wearing course.
2
Wearing course:
This is the top most layer of a road which is in direct contact with the traffic. It
should be capable of withstanding the wearing effects of the traffic and also
impervious. Its functions are

(i) To provide a smooth surface for traffic.

(ii) To drain away the rain water and prevent the percolation of water.
(iii) To give strength to the road structure.
(iv) To act as a cushion between the wheels and base.
1.3 PAVEMENT MATERIALS:

The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to

the lower layers by grain to grain transfer through the point of contact in the
granular structure. A well compacted granular structure consisting of strong graded
aggregate can transfer the compressive stresses through a wider area and thus
forms a good flexible pavement layer. The load spreading ability of this layer
therefore depends on the type of materials used for road construction. These are
classified in to following types.

 Subgrade soil
 Stone aggregate
 Bituminous materials
1.3.1 SUBGRADE SOIL:

Subgrade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it

provides the support to the pavement from beneath. The subgrade soil and its
properties are important in the design of pavement structure. Soil consists of
mainly of mineral matter formed by the disintegration of rocks, by the action of
water, frost, temperature, pressure, or by plant or animal. Based on the individual

3
grain size of soil particles, soils have been classified as gravel, sand, silt and clay.
The characteristics of soli grains depend on the size, shape, surface texture,
chemical composition and electrical surface charges. Moisture and dry density
influence the engineering behavior of soil mass.

1.3.2 STONE AGGREGATE:

Aggregates form the major portion of pavement structure and they form
the prime materials used in pavement construction. Aggregates have to bear the
stresses occurring due to the wheel loads on the pavement and on the surface
course they also have to resist wear due to abrasive action of traffic. These are used
in pavement construction in cement concrete, bituminous concrete and other
bituminous constructions and also as granular base course underlying the superior
pavement layers. Therefore the properties of the aggregates are of considerable
significance to the highway engineers.

1.3.3 BITUMINOUS MATERIALS:

Bituminous materials used in highway construction may be broadly divided

as (i) bitumen (ii) tar.

Bitumen may be further divided as petroleum asphalt or bitumen and native

asphalt. There are different forms in which native asphalts are available. Native
asphalts are those which occur in a pure or nearly pure state in nature.

Generally above three materials are used for road construction. But here we
are try to design a pavement by using steel slag instead of stone aggregates.

4
1.4 STEEL SLAG:

Steel slag aggregate (SSA) is a byproduct of the manufacturing of steel

in an electric arc furnace. The high iron oxide content of the aggregate results in an
aggregate that is very hard and very dense (SSA is 20-30% heavier than naturally
occurring aggregates such as basalt and granite). It also contains a high content of
calcium and magnesium oxides, which make it, expand when it comes into contact
with moisture. It is very angular and porous.

The primary use of SSA is as a substitute for natural aggregates in the production
of hot-mix asphalt (HMA). It is used less often in supporting courses (bases and
sub bases) beneath HMA or bituminous surface treatment (BST) wearing courses.
It is not used in cement concrete pavements or other concrete applications due to
the expansive nature of the aggregates since expansion causes the concrete to
crack. All users specify that the aggregate be cured in a water saturated condition
for a period of 3-6 months prior to use in non-HMA applications. Many states
require an expansion test in addition to the water curing.

Fig-2: Pictorial view of steel slag

5
1.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL SLAG:

The iron and steel slag that is generated as a byproduct of iron and
steel manufacturing processes can be broadly categorized in to,

 Blast furnace slag and

 Steel making slag.

Blast furnace slag is recovered by melting separation from blast

furnaces that produce molten pig iron. It consists of non-ferrous components
contained in the iron ore together with the lime stone as an auxiliary materials and
ash from coke. Depending up on cooling method is used; it is classified either as
air-cooled slag or granulated slag.

Steel making slag consists of converter slag (basic oxygen furnace

slag) that is generated by a converter and electric arc furnace slag that is generated
during the electric arc furnace steel making process that uses steel scrap as the raw
material.

The quantity of generation of slag is around 24 lakh MT per year from

different steel industries in India. Use of steel slag in asphaltic concrete minimizes
potential expansion and takes advantages of the positive features in giving high
stability, stripping resistance asphalt mixes with excellent skid resistance.

Presently, this steel slag is not utilized and is dumped on the costly
land available near the plants. Study was carried out to utilize the slag in different
layers of road construction. Being cohesion less material, it was mixed with local
soil in the range of 5-25% and their geotechnical properties were evaluated.
Technical specifications of slag were developed for utilization in the construction

6
of embankment, subgrade, and sub base layers of road pavement. Slag was
investigated for its feasibility in bituminous layers.

1.4.2 ADVANTAGES OF STEEL SLAG AGGREGATE:

The advantages of using SSA in both bituminous and Portland cement
concrete applications are as follows:
Advantages when used in bituminous pavements (HMA, SMA and chip seals)
 High skid resistance.
 Resistant to wear.
 High stability.
 Resistant to stripping in the presence of moisture.
 Resistant to rutting.
 Higher stiffness.
 Fatigue resistant.
 Resistant to permanent deformation.
 High cohesive strength.
 Electrically conductive (electrical currents can be applied to the pavement to
melt snow and ice).
 Compatible with typical asphalt binders.
Advantages when used in Portland cement concrete pavements
 Better abrasion resistance.
 Low permeability.
1.4.3 DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL SLAG AGGREGATE:
Disadvantages when used in bituminous pavements
 High volume expansion potential in the presence of moisture.
 Increased binder demand (24% to 30%) due to its porous structure.

7
  High specific gravity results in lower volumes of pavement mix and higher
transportation costs.
 Overall higher cost of applications.
Disadvantages when used in Portland cement concrete pavements
 Volume expansion.
 High density results in heavy concretes.
 High porosity results in higher water demand.
 Durability is a question due to lack of long-term field evidence.
 Freeze-thaw durability is a question.

8
 Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Khanna (2011) describes the group index method and California
bearing ratio test for design of flexible pavements. In California bearing ratio
method the thickness is obtained first determining the California bearing ratio of
soil, the curves are plotted between CBR percent and depth of construction. He is
also describes the tests for different materials which are used for pavement
construction.

International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology

(IJEIT), volume 5, issue 11 (May 2016) presents that concept of steel slag used in
pavement design and it also presents the properties of steel slag and tests which are
required to investigate the suitability of steel slag in different layers of pavement.

Wu et.al, (2007) documented a study done in China to assess the

feasibility of using SSA in Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA). China was searching for
new aggregate sources to supplement diminishing natural stone sources. The SSA
was wet cured for three years prior to use. The SSA mix was compared to one that
used basalt aggregate. The SSA mixes used 80% SSA, limestone powder, and
short-chopped polyester fibers. The SSA had a porous structure that required 24%
more asphalt binder than the basalt aggregate. Expansion rates were below 1%
confirming the use of the extended moist curing process.

Kehagia, (2009) reported on a Greek study of the skid resistance of

HMA wearing courses built with SSAs. The British Pendulum Tester was used to
measure the performance of pavements built with SSA and SSA with limestone
sand mixes. Tests performed over a one year period showed that the mixes with
SSA had better anti-skidding performance as compared with natural hard

9
aggregates. The high density, angular shape and the irregularities in the surfaces of
the SSAs were reported to ensure that pavements built with these aggregates would
be resistant to deterioration under construction and continuous traffic loading.

Pasetto & Baldo, (2011) performed a laboratory study of SSA for use
in HMA. Three SSA mixes were compared to one limestone aggregate mix. SSAs
were compatible with the asphalt binders normally used in HMA mixes. No
excessive permanent deformation was predicted by the two mix design methods.
Good overall performance was predicted in terms of stiffness and fatigue resistance
and susceptibility to moisture damage. Mixes with the highest percentage of SSA
(90%) performed the best as compared to the 60, 30, and zero percent SSA mixes.

NCHRP Synthesis 435 entitled “Recycled Materials and Byproducts in

Highway Applications” gathered the experiences of transportation agencies and
the beneficial use of SSA for highway applications (Stroup-Gardiner &
Wattenberg-Komas, 2013). Issues identified included the expansive nature of the
fresh slag, the higher specific gravities that result in lower yields of paving mixes
and higher transportation costs, and the need to use locally available sources to
reduce these haul costs.

10
 Chapter 3
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
3.1 TESTS ON STEEL SLAG

3.1.1 Specific gravity test

3.1.2 Grain size analysis

3.1.3 Moisture absorption test

3.1.4 Steel slag impact value test

3.1.5 Los Angeles abrasion test

3.2 TESTS ON SOIL

3.2.1 Compaction test

3.3 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST (Slag & Soil)

Slag and soil were blended manually as per percentage by weight in

the laboratory for investigation.

Table no: 1 – Mix designations of steel slag and soil.

Mix Designation Mixes

100LS 100% local soil
15S + 85LS 15% steel slag & 85% local soil
25S + 75LS 25% steel slag & 75% local soil
35S + 65LS 35% steel slag & 65% local soil
50S + 50LS 50% steel slag & 50% local soil
100S 100% steel slag
3.3.1 California bearing ratio test on mix designation 25S + 75LS

3.3.2 California bearing ratio test on mix designation 50S + 50LS

11
3.1.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST:

Aim:

To determine the specific gravity of a steel slag aggregate.

Apparatus:

 A balance of capacity about 3kg, to weigh accurate 0.5g, and of such a type
and shape as to permit weighing of the sample container when suspended in
water.
 A thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature at 100-110° C.
 A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container of
convenient size with thin wire hangers for suspending it from the balance.
 A container for filling water and suspending the basket.
 An air tight container of capacity similar to that of the basket.
 A shallow tray and two absorbent clothes, each not less than 75x45cm.
Theory:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of

strength or quality of the material. Stones having low specific gravity are generally
weaker than those with higher specific gravity values.
Procedure:
1. About 2 kg of aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines,
drained and placed in wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a
temperature between 22- 32º C and a cover of at least 5cm of water above
the top of basket.
2. Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample
by lifting the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and

12
 allowing it to drop at the rate of about one drop per second. The basket and
aggregate should remain completely immersed in water for a period of 24
hour afterwards.
3. The basket and the sample are weighed while suspended in water at a
temperature of 22° – 32°C. The weight while suspended in water is noted
=W1 g.
4. The basket and aggregates are removed from water and allowed to drain for
a few minutes, after which the aggregates are transferred to the dry
absorbent clothes. The empty basket is then returned to the tank of water
jolted 25 times and weighed in water=W2 g.
5. The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no
further moisture could be removed by this cloth. Then the aggregates are
transferred to the second dry cloth spread in single layer and allowed to dry
for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely surface dry. The
surface dried aggregate is then weighed =W3 g.
6. The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a
temperature of 110° C for 24 hrs. It is then removed from the oven, cooled
in an air tight container and weighted=W4 g.
Diagram: Fig-3: wire basket and water container

13
Observations:
 Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket = W1 g
 Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g
 Weight of saturated aggregate in water = W1 – W2 g
 Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g
 Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate = W3–(W1–W2)g
 Weight of oven dry aggregate = W4 g
Specific gravity = W3 / (W3– (W1– W2))
Table no: 2 – Determination of specific gravity
S.No. Description of item Sample 1
1. Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water 5100
with basket (W1 g)
2. Weight of basket suspended in water (W2 g) 2695
3. Weight of basket suspended in water (W2 g) 3405
4. Weight of oven dry aggregate (W4 g) 3286
5. Specific gravity = W3 / (W3– (W1– W2)) 3.405

Result:
The specific gravity of a given sample is 3.405
Conclusion:
The higher specific gravity results high weight of aggregate. The higher
weight of the SSA mix means that a given weight of mix will not cover the same
volume of pavement as a conventional mix with natural aggregate; therefore more
tons of mix is required to cover the same length, width and depth of pavement than
conventional HMA (hot-mix asphalt). This, along with the need for more asphalt
binder, raises costs.

14
3.1.2 GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS:

Aim:

To determine the fineness modulus of a steel slag by sieve analysis

Apparatus:

 Weighing balance
 Set of standard sieves

Theory:

It is an index number numerically equal to the sum of cumulative percentages

of material retained on a set of sieves divided by 100.

The fineness modulus is a numerical index of fineness giving some idea of

mean size of particles present in the aggregate. Fineness modulus can be regarded
as a weighted average size of sieve on which material is retained and sieves being
counted from bottom.

Diagram:

Fig-4: Set of sieves & Sieve analysis

15
Procedure:

1. Dry the given sample of steel slag by keeping it in oven a temperature of

1000C to 1100C for a period of 24 hours.
2. Take the weight of air dry sample. Keep the weight of sample of aggregate
in the top most sieve of the set with larger size at top and lower size at
bottom. Care shall be taken to ensure that the sieves are clean before use.
3. Each sieve shall be shaken separately over a clean tray for a period of not
less than 2minutes.
4. The shaking is done with a varied motion backwards and forwards, left and
right, clockwise and anti-clockwise so that the material is kept moving over
the surface in frequently changing directions.
5. Find the weight of aggregates retained on each sieve taken in order.
6. If sieving is carried out with a set of sieves on a machine, not less than
10minutes sieving will be required for each test.

Importance:

The grain size analysis is carried out to determine the percentage of

individual grain size present in a sample. This test become significant because the
size of particles plays important role in pavement mixes.

The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve
opening through which an aggregate may pass and not by the shape. Aggregates
which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical, angular,
flaky or elongated shape of particles.

WBM construction and bituminous construction as the stability due to

interlocking of rounded particles is less. In such construction angular particles are
preferred.
16
Table no: 3 – Determination of fineness modulus:

Initial weight of a sample = 1000g

IS sieve Weight Percentage of Cumulative % Cumulative

size retained retaining weight retained percentage
(mm) (gms) (%) “X” passing
N = (100-X)

4.75 385 38.5 38.5 61.5

2.36 182 18.2 56.7 43.3

1.18 156 15.6 72.3 27.7

0.60 64 6.4 78.7 21.3

0.425 61 6.1 84.8 15.2

0.3 40 4.0 88.8 11.2

0.15 41 4.1 92.9 7.1

0.075 41 4.1 97.0 3.0

Pan 30 3.0 100.0 0

Calculations:

Fineness modulus = [(Sum of cumulative % weight retained) /100]

= [(38.5+56.7+72.3+78.7+87.8+88.8+92.9+97.0+100)/100]

= 709.7/100 = 7.09

17
Graph: 1- graphical representation of sieve analysis:

SIEVE ANALYSIS
70

60

50
Percentage finer (%)

40

30
Y-Values

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Particle size (mm)

From graph, coefficient of curvature and coefficient of uniformity values of

steel slag as given below:

Coefficient of curvature = (D30)2 ÷ (D60×D10)

= (1.4)2 / (3.6×0.28) = 1.94

Coefficient of uniformity = D60 ÷ D10

= 3.6/0.28 = 12.85

Conclusion:

According to IJEIT (International journal of engineering and innovative

technology), the values of Cu, Cc are nearer to the resulted values.
18
3.1.3 MOISTURE ABSORPTION TEST:

Aim:

To determine the moisture absorption capacity of a steel slag aggregate.

Apparatus:

 Wire basket – perforated, electroplated or plastic coated with wire hangers

for suspending it from the balance.
 Water-tight container for suspending the basket.
 Shallow tray of minimum 650 sq.cm area.
 Air-tight container of a capacity similar to the basket.
 Oven.
Procedure:
1. The sample should be thoroughly washed to remove finer particles and dust,
drained and then placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at
a temperature between 22° and 32° C.
2. After immersion, the entrapped air should be removed by lifting the basket
and allowing it to drop 25 times in 25 seconds. The basket and sample
should remain immersed for a period of 24 + ½ hrs afterwards.
3. The basket and aggregates should then be removed from the water, allowed
to drain for a few minutes, after which the aggregates should be gently
emptied from the basket on to one of the dry clothes and gently surface-dried
with the cloth, transferring it to a second dry cloth when the first would
remove no further moisture. The aggregates should be spread on the second
cloth and exposed to the atmosphere away from direct sunlight till it appears
to be completely surface-dry. The aggregates should be weighed (Weight
‘A’).

19
 4. The aggregates should then be placed in an oven at a temperature of 100 to
110 C for 24hrs. It should then be removed from the oven, cooled and
weighed (Weight ‘B’).
Diagram:

Fig-5: wire basket and water container

Table no: 4 – Determination of water absorption value:

S.no Determination No. I II
1. Weight of saturated surface 2663 1085
dried sample in gms (A)
2. Weight of oven-dried sample in 2612 1072
gms (B)
3. Water absorption = 1.95 1.21
[(A-B) / B] × 100 (%)
Average value = [(1.95+1.21) ÷2] = 1.58%

20
Result:
The moisture absorption capacity of a steel slag is 1.58%.
Conclusion:
The materials have high moisture absorption capacity it leads to expansion in
the aggregate it results to develop the cracks in pavement. If the aggregate are
exposed to water the expansion will takes place.
According to above test the value of a moisture absorption capacity is less
than the limited value. The limiting value of a steel slag is between 1 to 2%.

21
3.1.4 STEEL SLAG IMPACT VALUE TEST:
Aim:

To determine the impact value of a steel slag aggregate.

Apparatus:

 Impact testing machine. Metal hammer of weight 13.5-14.0 kg having a free

fall from a height of 38cm.
 Cylindrical vessel.
 Tamping rod.
 IS- sieve.
 Weighing balance.
 Oven.

Theory:

A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stone or the resistance of the

aggregates to fracture under repeated impacts is called impact test. The aggregate
impact test is commonly carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of
aggregates.

The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of resistance of

aggregate to impact, which has different effect than the resistance to gradually
increasing compressive stress.

22
Diagram:

Fig-6: Impact testing machine

Procedure:

1. The test sample consists of aggregates passing to 12.5mm sieve and retained
on 10mm sieve and dried in an oven for 4 hours at a temperature of 100°C
and cooled.
2. The aggregates are filled up to 1/3rd depth in the cylindrical vessel and
tampered 25 times with the rounded end of the tamping rod. Further quantity
of aggregate is then added up to 2/3rd depth in the cylinder and 25 strokes
with tamping rod.
3. The vessel is now filled with the aggregate to overflow tampered 25 times
the surplus aggregates are struck off using the tamping rod as straight edge.
4. The net weight of aggregate in the vessel is determined to the nearest gram
by weighing on the balance.

23
 5. The impact machine is placed with its bottom plate that on the floor so that
the hammer guide columns are vertical. The cup is fixed firmly in position
on the base of the machine and whole of the test sample from the cylindrical
measure is transferred to the cup and compacted by tamping rod of 25 times.
6. Hammer is raised until the lower case is 38cm above the upper surface of
aggregates in the cup and allowed to fall freely on the aggregate.
7. The test sample is subjected to a total of 15 blows each being delivered at an
internal of not less than 1 second.
8. The crushed aggregate is when removed from the cup of whole of it is
sieved on the 2.36mm sieve empty more further significant amount passes.
The fraction passing through the sieve is weight accurate to 0.1gm.
9. The fraction retained on the sieve is also weighed and if the total weight of
the fraction passing and retained on the sieve is added which should not less
than the original weight of the specimen by more than one gram. The above
test is repeated on fresh aggregate sample.

Observations & Calculations:

Table no: 5- Determination of aggregate impact value:

Description of Weight of sample Weight of sample Aggregate impact value

sample taken (W1) gms passing from 2.36mm = [(W2/ W1)]×100
sieve (W2) gms (%)

Sample 1 345 96 27.8

Sample 2 340 102 30.0

Sample 3 350 94 26.8

Aggregate impact value = [(27.8+30.0+26.8) ÷ 3] = 28.20%

24
Result:

Aggregate impact value of a given sample = 28.20%

Standard limits:

Aggregates to be used for wearing course, its impact value should not exceed
30%. For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35% and for
water bound macadam base courses the maximum permissible value is 40%.

Conclusion:

By studying the standard limits, it is clear that the above sample is suited for
pavement construction.

25
3.1.5 LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST:

Aim:

 To determine Los Angeles abrasion value.

 To find out the suitability of aggregates in road construction.

Apparatus:

The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (part 4-1968) consists of:

 Los angles machine: it consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed of both the
ends with an internal diameter of 70mm and length 500mm and capable of
rotating about its horizontal axis.
 Abrasion change: cast iron or steel balls, approximate 48mm in diameter and
each weighing between 390to 445.
 Sieve.
 Balance of capacity 5-10kg
 Miscellaneous items like tray etc….

Principle:

The aggregate used in surface course of highway pavements are subjected to

wearing due to movement of traffic. When vehicles move on the road, the soil
particles present between the pneumatic tyres and roads surface causes abrasion of
road aggregates. The steel reamed wheels of animals driven vehicles also cause
considerable abrasion of the road surface. Therefore, the road aggregate should be
hard enough to resist the abrasion resistance to abrasion of aggregate is determined
in laboratory by Los Angeles test machine.

The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to produce the abrasive action by
the use of standard steel balls which when mixed with the aggregate and rotated in
26
a drum for specific number of revolutions also causes impact on aggregates. The
percentage wear of the aggregates due to rubbing with steel balls is determined and
is known as Los Angeles value.

Diagram:

Fig-7: Los Angeles abrasion test apparatus

Procedure:

1. The test sample the abrasive charge shall be placed in the Los Angeles
abrasion testing machine.
2. The machine is rotated at a speed of 20-33 revolution/minute for grading A,
B, C, D the machine shall be rotated for 500 revolutions and for grading E,
F, G it shall be rotated for 1000 revolutions.
3. After conducting the test the crushed aggregate is then sieved on 1.7mm IS
sieve and the weighs the powdered aggregate passing this sieve.
4. The result of abrasion test expressed as percentage of wear or the percentage
passing 1.7mm sieve in terms of its original weight of sample.

27
Calculations:

 Weight of steel slag aggregate (W1) = 5000gms

 Weight of aggregate passing through 1.7mm sieve (W2) = 986gms
 Abrasion value = (W2 / W1) × 100
= (986 / 5000) × 100
= 19.7%

Result:

Abrasion value of an aggregate is = 19.7%

Standard limits:

A maximum value of 20% is allowed for WBM base course in Indian

conditions. For bituminous pavement a maximum value of 25% is specified.

Conclusion:

By studying the standard limits, it is clear that the above sample is suited for
pavement construction. The Los Angeles (LA) abrasion test provides an indication
of aggregate toughness and abrasion characteristics. Lower numbers indicate
greater toughness and abrasion resistance.

28
3.2 TESTS ON SOIL:

3.2.1 COMPACTION TEST

Aim:

To determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of a

steel slag by using proctor test.

Apparatus:

 Compaction mould capacity 1000ml

 Rammer mass 2.6kg
 Detachable base plate
 Collar
 IS sieve 4.75mm
 Oven
 Straight edge
 Weighing balance
 Large mixing pan
 Graduated jar
 Trowels

Theory:

Compaction is a process of densification of a sample by reducing air voids.

The degree of compaction of a given soil is measured in terms of its dry density.
The dry density is maximum at the optimum moisture content. A curve is drawn
between the water content and the dry density to obtain the maximum dry density
and the water content.

29
Diagram:

Fig- 8: Compaction test apparatus

Procedure:

1. Take about 3kg of sample which is passing through 20mm sieve and
retained on 4.75mm sieve.
2. Place the sample in large tray and add the water content of 4% of total
weight of sample.
3. Clean the mould and apply grease gently inside the mould and base plate.
4. Take empty weight of a mould with base plate,
5. Firm the collar and place the mould on a solid base.
6. Place the first layer of a sample inside the mould. Compact the sample with
a rammer of weight 2.6kg, each layer should be compacted by 25 blows.
7. Now place the second layer of the sample inside the mould and repeat the
same procedure. After that place the third layer and given 25 blows of the
standard rammer weighing 2.6kg and having drop of 310mm.

30
 8. Remove the collar and trim the excess sample with trimming knife and
weight the mould with compacted sample.
9. Take the representative sample from the mould for determining the water
content.
10. Repeat the above procedure for different water content values.

Observations and Tabulation:

 Diameter of the mould = 10cm

 Height of the mould = 13cm
 Volume of the mould = area × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝜋
= [ ×102] ×13
4

= 1020.01cm3

Table no: 6- Determination of optimum moisture content:

Empty Added Weight of Weight of Bulk density= Dry density=

weight of a water mould + sample in Weight/volume ρd=[ρ÷(1+w)]
mould content sample the mould (gm/cc)
(gms) W1 (%) (gms) (gms) (ρ)
W2 W=W2-W1

5740 4 8060 2320 2.27 2.18

5740 6 8456 2716 2.66 2.50
5740 8 8987 3247 3.18 2.94
5740 10 8760 3020 2.97 2.70
5740 12 8410 2670 2.61 2.33

31
Graph: 2 – Graphical representation of modified proctor’s compaction test:

COMPACTION TEST GRAPH

3.5

3
Dry density (g/cc)

2.5

1.5
Y-Values
1

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Moisture content (%)

Result:

Maximum dry density of steel slag = 2.94g/cc

Optimum moisture content in steel slag = 8%

32
3.3 California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR TEST):

The California bearing ratio method of testing was developed to

determine the thickness of a pavement and the layers below. This method is widely
used for the design of flexible pavements. In this method, a laboratory load
penetration test or an in-situ test is performed and with the help of empirical design
charts, the thickness of the layer required is determined. The design charts are
available for different classes of traffic (based on number of vehicles per day
exceeding 3 tons loaded weight).

Laboratory determination of CBR: (As per IS: 2720 (part 16) - 1979):

Aim:

To determine the CBR value of a mix of soil and steel slag aggregate.

Apparatus:

 A CBR mould 150mm in diameter and 175mm height.

 A detachable collar of 50mm height.
 A detachable perforated plate.
 A spacer disc 50mm deep, which helps in getting a specimen of 125mm,
when kept in the mould during specimen preparation.
 Slotted surcharge weight of 147mm diameter and a central hole of 53mm
diameter and weight 2.5kgs.
 Penetration plunger of 50mm diameter.
 Loading machine with a movable base or head capable if travelling at a
uniform rate of 1.25mm/min for forcing the plunger into the soil specimen.

33
Theory:

The California bearing ratio test is conducted for evaluating the stability of
the sub-grade and the materials used in sub-base and base of a flexible pavement.
The plunger in the CBR test penetrates the specimen in the mould at the rate of
2.5mm per minute. The loads required for penetration level of 2.5mm or 5mm.

CBR value = [Penetration load/ Standard load] ×100

The CBR value is determine to both penetration levels. The greater of these
values is used for the design of flexible pavements.

Procedure:

1. Sieve the sample through 20mm IS sieve. Take the material passing 20mm
IS sieve for the test. However, make allowance for large size material by
replacing plus 20mm sieve material by an equal amount of material which
passes 20mm IS sieve but is retained on 4.75mm IS sieve.
2. Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of the material as obtained in step -1.Mix it
thoroughly with the required quantity water. If the sample is to be
compacted at optimum water content and the corresponding dry density as
found by compaction test, take exactly the quantity of water and the soil to
make sure that the water content is equal to “optimum moisture content”.
3. Fix the extension collar to the top of the mould. Also fix the base plate to the
bottom. Insert the spacer disc over the base plate with central hole of the disc
at the lower face. Place coarse filter paper disc on the top of the displacer
disc.
4. Take the soil sample in the mould compact it using either the light
compaction rammer, as desired for light compaction. The soil is to be
compacted in 3 equal layers each layer is given 25 blows by 2.5kgs rammer
34
 with drop of 310mm for heavy compaction. The soil is compacted in 5 equal
layers each layer is given 56 blows by 4.89kgs rammer with drop of 450mm.
5. Remove the extension collar. Trim even the excess compacted soil carefully
with a straight edge with the top of the mould any hole that may from on the
surface of the compacted soil by the removal of the coarse particles should
be patched with small size particles and will be leveled.
6. Loosen the base plate. Remove the base plate and the spacer disc.
7. Weight the mould with compacted soil.
8. Place a filter paper disc on the base plate. Insert the mould with the
compacted. Place a perforated disc fitted with extension stem on the
specimen top after placing a filter disc.
9. Place annular mines to produce surcharge equal to the mass of the base
materials and wearing coat of the pavement expected. Each 2.5kgs annular
mass is minimum a two annular masses should be placed.
10. Immerse the mould assembly in a tank full of water. Allow free access of
water to the top and bottom of specimen.
11. Mount the tripod of the expansion measuring device on the edge of the
mould and take the initial reading of the dial gauge.
12. Keep the mould in the tank undisturbed for 96 hours take the reading of the
dial gauge for every 24 hours and note the time of reading. Maintain water
level contact in the tank. Take the fine reading at end of 96 hours.
13. Remove the tripod. Take out the mould from the tank allow the specimen to
drain off for 15 minutes remove all the free water on the mould, without
disturbing the surface of specimen.
14. Weight the mould with the soaked specimen.

35
15. Place the mould containing the specimen with base plate in position but the
face exposed on the lower plate of the loading machine. Place the required
surcharge masses on the top of the top of the soaked specimen.
16. To prevent upheaval of soil into the hole of the surcharge mass on 2.5kgs
annular mass shall be placed on soil surface prior to seating the penetration
plunger after that the remaining masses are placed.
17. Set the penetration plunger at the centre of the specimen to establish full
contact between the plunger and specimen. The seating load should be about
4kg.
18. Set the load dial gauge and the displacement dial gauge to zero. The initial
load already applied to the plunger should be considered as zero.
19. Apply the load on the plunger. Keep the rate of penetration to 1.25mm/min.
record the load corresponding to penetrations of
0,0.5,1.0,1.5,2.0,2.5,3.0,4.0,5.0,7.5,10.0,12.5 mm. However, record the
maximum load and the corresponding penetrations. If it occurs at a
penetration of less than 12.5mm.
20. At the end of the test, raise the plunger and remove the mould from the
loading machine.
21. Take about 20 to 50kg of soil specimen from the top 30mm layer for the
water content determination. If the water content of the whole specimen is
required total soil specimen’s from the entire depth.

36
Diagram:

Fig: 9- California bearing ratio test

3.3.1 California bearing ratio test on mix designation 25S + 75LS

Table: 7- Determination of CBR value for a sample:

S.no Dial gauge Penetration Proving ring Load(kg)

reading (1Div=0.01mm) reading p=x×6.046

1. 0 0 0 0.00
2. 50 0.5 0.4 2.42
3. 100 1.0 0.8 4.83
4. 150 1.5 2.2 13.30
5. 200 2.0 6.6 39.91
6. 250 2.5 15.4 93.11
7. 300 3.0 17.2 103.99
8. 350 3.5 17.8 107.62

37
9. 400 4.0 19.4 117.29

10. 450 4.5 20.8 125.54

11. 500 5.0 21.6 130.59

12. 550 5.5 24.8 149.94

13. 600 6.0 28.8 174.12

14. 650 6.5 30.2 182.58

15. 700 7.0 36.6 221.28

16. 750 7.5 40.2 243.04

17. 800 8.0 41.2 249.09

18. 850 8.5 41.8 252.72

19. 900 9.0 44.4 268.44

20. 950 9.5 45.2 273.27

21. 1000 10.0 46.4 280.53

22. 1050 10.5 50.2 303.51

23. 1100 11.0 51.4 310.76

24. 1150 11.5 55.6 336.16

25. 1200 12.0 60.4 365.18

38
Graph: 3- Graphical representation of CBR:

CBR CURVE
400

350

300

250
Load (kg)

200

150 Y-Values

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Penetration (mm)

Observations:-

1. Diameter of the mould =150mm

2. Height of specimen in mould =127.3mm
3. Volume of specimen =2250cc
4. Diameter of plunger =55cm
5. Weight of rammer =4.89kg
6. Height of rammer =450mm
7. Weight of each surcharge plate=2.5kg for murrum or 5kg for clayey

39
Calculation:-

1. CBR at 2.5mm penetration =

Load carried by specimen of 2.5mm penetration × 100

Load carried by standard aggregate

= (93.11×100) / 1370
= 6.79%
2. CBR at 5mm penetration =
Load carried by specimen of 5mm penetration × 100

Load carried by standard aggregate

= (130.59×100) / 2055
= 6.35%

Result:-

1. CBR value at 2.5 penetration = 6.79%

2. CBR value at 5.0 penetration = 6.35%

Conclusion:

Normally the CBR value at 2.5mm penetration which is higher than 5.0mm
penetration is reported as the CBR value of the material. However, if the CBR
value obtained from the test at 5.0mm penetration is higher than 2.5mm, then the
test is repeated for checking. If the check tests again give the similar results, the
higher value obtained at 5.0mm penetration is reported as CBR value.

 Therefore the CBR value of a sample is 6.79%

40
3.3.2 California bearing ratio test on mix designation 50S + 50LS:

Table: 8- Determination of CBR value for a sample:

Dial gauge Penetration Proving ring Load(kg)

S.no reading (1Div=0.01mm) reading p=x×6.046
1. 0 0 0 0.00
2. 50 0.5 0.8 4.84
3. 100 1.0 2.0 12.09
4. 150 1.5 4.8 29.02
5. 200 2.0 12.6 79.17
6. 250 2.5 20.6 124.55
7. 300 3.0 21.4 129.38
8. 350 3.5 23.8 143.89
9. 400 4.0 24.6 148.73
10. 450 4.5 24.8 149.95
11. 500 5.0 30.2 182.0
12. 550 5.5 34.4 207.98
13. 600 6.0 36.0 217.65
14. 650 6.5 36.8 222.49
15. 700 7.0 40.6 245.46
16. 750 7.5 42.8 258.76
17. 800 8.0 43.4 262.39
18. 850 8.5 46.8 282.95
19. 900 9.0 50.2 303.50
20. 950 9.5 52.4 316.81

41
 21. 1000 10.0 53.6 324.06
22. 1050 10.5 54.8 331.32
23. 1100 11.0 55.6 336.15
24. 1150 11.5 56.2 339.78
25. 1200 12.0 58.4 353.08

Graph: 4- Graphical representation of CBR:

CBR CURVE
400

350

300

250
Load (kg)

200
Y-Values
150

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Penetration (mm)

Calculation:-

1. CBR at 2.5mm penetration =

Load carried by specimen of 2.5mm penetration × 100

Load carried by standard aggregate

42
 = (124.55×100) / 1370
= 9.09%
2. CBR at 5mm penetration =
Load carried by specimen of 5mm penetration × 100

Load carried by standard aggregate

= (182.00×100) / 2055
= 8.85%

Result:-

1. CBR value at 2.5 penetration = 9.09%

2. CBR value at 5.0 penetration = 8.85%

Conclusion:

From 3.3.1 & 3.3.2, it is clear that the CBR value increases with increase in
slag percentage. As the CBR value increases the strength of subgrade will also
increases, it indicates that there is a decrease in the value of thickness of pavement.
It becomes very economical to construct the pavement by using steel slag.

43
 Chapter 4
PAVEMENT DESIGN
4.1 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:

The flexible pavements has been modeled as a three layer structure and
stresses and strains at critical locations have been computed using the linear elastic
model. To give proper consideration to the aspects of performance, the following
three types of pavement distress resulting from repeated (cyclic) application of
traffic loads are considered:
1. Vertical compressive strain at the top of the sub-grade which can cause sub-
grade deformation resulting in permanent deformation at the pavement
surface.
2. Horizontal tensile strain or stress at the bottom of the bituminous layer which
can cause fracture of the bituminous layer.
3. Pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.
While the permanent deformation within the bituminous layer can be
controlled by meeting the mix design requirements, thickness of granular and
bituminous layers are selected using the analytical design approach so that strains
at the critical points are within the allowable limits. For calculating tensile strains
at the bottom of the bituminous layer, the stiffness of dense bituminous macadam
(DBM) layer with 60/70 bitumen has been used in the analysis.

The below fig. show that the critical locations in different layers of
flexible pavement.

44
 Binder course

Tensile strain

Granular course / base course

Compressive strain

Sub-grade soil

Fig: 10- critical locations in pavement

4.2 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT METHODS:

The various approaches of flexible pavement may be classified in to

three broad groups.

 Empirical methods
 Semi-empirical methods or semi theoretical methods
 Theoretical methods

Empirical methods are either based on physical properties or strength

parameters of soil sub-grade. When the design is based on stress-strain function

45
and modified based on experience, it may be called semi-empirical methods or
semi theoretical. There are design methods based on theoretical analysis and
mathematical computations. Each one of the approaches has its own advantages
and limitations.

Out of the various flexible pavement design methods available, the

following are discussed here.

 Group index method

 California bearing ratio method
 California R value or stabilometer method
 Triaxial test method
 McLeod method
 Burmister method

Of the design methods, the group index method, CBR, stabilometer and
McLeod methods are empirical methods. The Triaxial test method is a theoretical
method using empirical modifications as suggested by Kansas state highway
department and therefore may be considered as semi-empirical method. Burmister
method is a theoretical approach using elastic two layer theory.

4.2.1 Group index method:

The group index method of pavement is essentially an empirical

method based on the physical properties of the sub-grade soil. The GI values of
soils vary in the range of 0 to 20. The higher the GI value, weaker is the soil
sub-grade and for a constant value of traffic volume, the greater would be the
thickness requirement of the pavement.

46
 To design the pavement thickness by this method, first GI value of the soil
is found. The anticipated traffic is estimated and is designated as light, medium
and heavy and the total thickness of pavement (surface, base and sub base
course) is found from the group index design chart corresponding to the GI
values of the soil.

4.2.2 California bearing ratio method:

In order to design a pavement by CBR method, first soaked CBR

value of the soil sub-grade is evaluated. Then the appropriate design curve is
chosen by taking the anticipated traffic into consideration, thus the total
thickness of flexible pavement needed to cover the subgrade of the known CBR
value is obtained. In case there is a material superior than the soil subgrade,
such that it may be used as sub base course then the thickness of construction
over this material could be obtained from the design chart knowing the CBR
value of the sub base. Thickness of the sub base course is the total thickness
minus the thickness over the sub base.

Thus CBR method of flexible pavement design is based on strength

parameter of subgrade soil and subsequent pavement material.

IRC recommendations:

Some of the important points recommended by the IRC for the CBR
method of design (IRC: 37-1970) are given below:

 The CBR test should be performed on remoulded soils in the laboratory. In-
situ tests are not recommended for design purposes. The specimen should
be prepared by static compaction where ever possible otherwise dynamic
compaction. The standard test procedure should be strictly adhered to.

47
 For the design of new roads, the subgrade soil sample should be compacted
at OMC to proctor density whenever suitable compaction equipment is
available to achieve this density in the field; otherwise the soil sample may
be compacted to dry density expected to be achieved in the field. In the case
of existing roads, the sample should be compacted to field density of
subgrade soil.
 In new constructions the CBR test samples may be soaked in water for four
days period of before testing. However in areas with arid climate or when
the annual rainfall is less than 50cm and the water table is too deep to affect
the subgrade adversely and when thick and impermeable bituminous
surfacing is provided, it is not necessary to soak the soil specimen before
carrying out CBR test. Wherever possible the most adverse moisture
condition of the subgrade should be determined from the field study.
 At least three samples should be tested on each type of soil at the same
density and moisture content. If the maximum variation in CBR values of
the three specimens exceeds the specified limits, the design CBR should be
the average of at least six samples. (The specified limits of maximum
variation in CBR are 3% for CBR values up to 10% 5 for values 10 to 30
and 10% for values 30 to 60%)
 The top 50 cm of subgrade should be compacted at least up to 95 to 100
percent of proctor density
 An estimate of the traffic to be carried by the road pavement at the end of
expected life should be made keeping in view the existing traffic and
probable growth rate of traffic. Pavements of major roads should be
designed at least for 10 years life period and the following formula may be
used in such cases for estimating the design traffic.

48
 A= p [1+ r] (n+10)
Where A = Number of heavy vehicles per day for design
(Laden weight more than 3 tonnes)
P = Number of heavy vehicles per day at least count
r = annual rate of increase of heavy vehicles
n= number of years between the last count and the year of
Completion of construction.

The value of P in the formula should be the seven day average of heavy
vehicles found from 24 hour counts. If reliable values of growth factor r are
not available, a value of 7.5 % may be assumed for roads in rural areas.

 The traffic for the design is considered in units of heavy vehicles (of laden
weight exceeding 3 tonnes) per day in both directions and is divided into
seven categories A to G. The suitable design curve should be chosen from
the table given in the design chart, after estimating the design traffic. The
design thickness is considered applicable for single axle loads up to 8200kg
and tandem axle loads up to 14,500kg. For higher axle loads, the thickness
values should be further increased.
 When sub base course materials contain substantial proportional of
aggregates of size above 20mm the CBR value of these materials would not
be valid for design of subsequent layers above them. Thin layers of wearing
course such as surface dressing or open graded premixed carpet up to 2.5
cm thickness should not be counted towards the total thickness as they do
not increase the structural capacity as the pavement.

4.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE:

49
 Based on the performance of existing designs and using analytical
approach, simple design charts and a catalogue of pavement designs are added in
the code. The pavement designs are given for subgrade CBR values ranging from
2% to 10% and design traffic ranging from 1 msa to 150 msa for an average annual
pavement temperature of 35ºC. The later thicknesses obtained from the analysis
have been slightly modified to adapt the designs to stage construction. Using the
following simple input parameters, appropriate designs could be chosen for the
given traffic and soil strength:
 Design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles; and
 CBR value of subgrade.
4.3.1 Design traffic:
The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles
(8160 kg) to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the
following information:
1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD
2. Traffic growth rate during the design life
3. Design life in number of years
4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way

Initial traffic:

50
 Initial traffic is determined in terms of commercial vehicles per day
(CVPD). For the structural design of the pavement only commercial vehicles are
considered assuming laden weight of three tonnes or more and their axle loading
will be considered. Estimate of the initial daily average traffic flow for any road
should normally be based on 7-day 24-hour classified traffic counts (ADT). In case
of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the basis of potential land use and
traffic on existing routes in the area.
Traffic growth rate:
Traffic growth rates can be estimated (i) by studying the past trends of
traffic growth, and (ii) by establishing econometric models. If adequate data is not
available, it is recommended that an average annual growth rate of 7.5 percent may
be adopted.
Design life:
For the purpose of the pavement design, the design life is defined in terms
of the cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before
strengthening of the pavement is necessary. It is recommended that pavements for
arterial roads like NH, SH should be designed for a life of 15 years, EH and urban
roads for 20 years and other categories of roads for 10 to 15 years.
Vehicle damage factor:
The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number
of commercial vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the
number of standard axle-load repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of
standard axles per commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with the axle
configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of road, and from region to region. The
axle load equivalency factors are used to convert different axle load repetitions into
equivalent standard axle load repetitions. For these equivalency factors refer IRC:
37-2001. The exact VDF values are arrived after extensive field surveys.
51
Table no: 9 – VDF values based on traffic volume:
Initial traffic volume in terms of no. of Terrain
commercial vehicles per day Rolling / plain hilly
0-150 1.5 0.5
150-1500 3.5 1.5
More than 1500 4.5 2.5

Vehicle distribution factor:

A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction
and by lane is necessary as it directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load
application used in the design. Until reliable data is available, the following
distribution may be assumed.
 Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than
two lane roads and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions,
the design should be based on total number of commercial vehicles in both
directions.
 Two-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 75 %
of the commercial vehicles in both directions.
 Four-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 40 %
of the total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
 Dual carriageway roads: For the design of dual two-lane carriageway
roads should be based on 75 % of the number of commercial vehicles in
each direction. For dual three-lane carriageway and dual four-lane
carriageway the distribution factor will be 60 % and 45 % respectively.
4.3.2 Pavement thickness design charts:

52
 For the design of pavements to carry traffic in the range of 1 to 10 msa,
use chart 1 and for traffic in the range 10 to 150 msa, use chart 2 of IRC:37 2001.
The design curves relate pavement thickness to the cumulative number of standard
axles to be carried over the design life for different sub-grade CBR values ranging
from 2 % to 10%. The design charts will give the total thickness of the pavement
for the above inputs. The total thickness consists of granular sub-base, granular
base and bituminous surfacing. The individual layers are designed based on the
recommendations given below and the subsequent tables.

Flexible pavement design chart (IRC) design traffic is between 1-10msa:

Fig: 11- Pavement thickness design chart

Flexible pavement design chart (IRC) design traffic is between 10-150msa:

53
 Fig: 12- Pavement thickness design chart

4.4 PAVEMENT DESIGN:

 Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with the following
data:
1. Two lane carriage way
2. Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 500 CVPD (sum of
both directions)
3. Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %
4. Design life =20 years
5. Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 3.5 standard axle per
commercial vehicle
6. Design CBR of subgrade soil = 6.79% nearly equal to 7%

7. Distribution factor = 0.75

54
Solution:-

i. Design traffic:
The design traffic is considered in terms of cumulative no. of standard
axles to be carried during design life of the road.
N = {365× [(1+r) n -1] ×A×D×F} / r
= {365× [(1+0.075) 20 -1] ×500×0.75×3.5} / 0.075
= 20.74msa
ii. CBR value:
CBR value for a sample which is a mix of 25% of slag and 75% of
soil is equal to 6.79%
iii. Thickness of pavement:
From IRC: 37-2001, for CBR value 6.79% and design traffic
20.74msa the thickness of pavement is equal to 620mm.
iv. Pavement composition:
Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from
Pavement Design Catalogue (IRC: 37-2001).

(a) Bituminous surfacing = 40mm BC + 100 mm DBM

(b) Road-base = 250 mm
(c) Sub-base = 230mm

 Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with the following
data:
1. Two lane carriage way
2. Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 500 CVPD (sum of
both directions)
3. Traffic growth rate = 7.5 %

55
4. Design life =20 years
5. Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 3.5 standard axle per
commercial vehicle
6. Design CBR of subgrade soil = 9.09% take it as 9%

7. Distribution factor = 0.75

Solution:-

i. Design traffic:
The design traffic is considered in terms of cumulative no. of standard
axles to be carried during design life of the road.
N = {365× [(1+r) n -1] ×A×D×F} / r
= {365× [(1+0.075) 20 -1] ×500×0.75×3.5} / 0.075
= 20.74msa
ii. CBR value:
CBR value for a sample which is a mix of 25% of slag and 75% of
soil is equal to 9%
iii. Thickness of pavement:
From IRC: 37-2001, for CBR value 9% and design traffic 20.74msa
the thickness of pavement is equal to 575mm.
iv. Pavement composition:
Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from
Pavement Design Catalogue (IRC: 37-2001).

(a) Bituminous surfacing = 40mm BC + 85 mm DBM

(b) Road-base = 250 mm
(c) Sub-base = 200mm

56
 Chapter 5
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
5.1 INTRODUCTION:

Better highway system provides varied benefits to the society.

Improvements in highway results in several benefits to the road users such as:

1. Reduction in vehicle operational cost per unit length of road.

2. Saving in travel time and resultant benefits in terms of time cost of vehicles
and the passengers.
3. Reduction in accident rates.
4. Improved level of service and ease of driving.
5. Increased comfort to passengers.

Therefore the level of service of a road system may be assessed from the benefits
to the road users.

The cost of improvement in the highway of land, materials, construction

work and for the other facilities should be worked out. From the point of view of
economic justification for the improvements, the cost reductions to the highway
users and other beneficiaries of the improvements during the estimated period
should be higher than the investments made for the improvement.

In the planning and design of highways there is increasing need for

analysis to indicate the justification of the expenditure required and the
comparative worth of proposed improvements, particularly when various
alternatives are being compared.

57
 5.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM:

Using aggregate in the field of construction increase rapidly and

looking for alternative source of aggregate assumed to be more important. The
objective of this research at first is to study the effect of using steel slag
aggregates in the properties of asphalt concrete mixtures. Secondly make
comparative study of using steel slag aggregate and conventional aggregate in
asphalt concrete mixtures. Slag from industrial waste for the production of iron,
which causes serious environment as well as reduces the energy needed to
search for natural aggregates and prepared for use in mixtures. In this research
have been the adoption percentages of steel slag in concrete mixtures and
conduct compressive strength of SSA concrete mixtures and conduct the tests of
impact value, Los Angeles abrasion test, specific gravity for conventional
aggregate and steel slag aggregate individually, compare the results which are
obtained. From the result it can be seen that using steel slag aggregate is useful
for resist rutting and suitable for pavement in hot climate area.
5.2.1 AGGREGATE TESTS:
Traditional tests of aggregates were done to determine specific gravity, bulk
density, impact value and Los Angles Abrasion. A physical and mechanical
property of Crushed Limestone and steel slag aggregate was presented in the table
below.
Table: 10- different test results for SSA & natural aggregate
Property Conventional aggregate Steel slag aggregate
Specific gravity 2.63 4.125
Bulk density 2.65g/cc 3.18g/cc
Aggregate impact value 34.50% 28.20%
Los Angles abrasion value 23.82% 19.70%

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5.2.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE:

Aim:

To determine the characteristic compressive strength of a concrete cubes.

Apparatus:

 Cube moulds of size 150×150×150mm

 Tamping rod
 Trowels
 Tray for mixing concrete
 Compressive testing machine

Materials:

 Cement
 Fine aggregate
 Steel slag aggregate

Procedure:

a) Preparation of concrete cubes:

1. Assemble the required number of moulds and apply a thin coat of oil to all
inner faces.
2. Proportionate the quantities of cement, fine aggregate, steel slag and water
for each batch by weight to an accuracy of 0.1 percent of the total weight of
the batch.
3. Mix the concrete either by hand or with concrete mixer.

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 4. Arrange a non absorbent and water tight platform for mixing the ingredients.
Mix materials first in dry condition until the mix is thoroughly blended and
is uniform in color.
5. Add the required quantity of water and mix all the ingredients until the mix
appears to be homogeneous and posses required workability.
6. Now fill the concrete in moulds in three layers compact each layer with
standard tamping rod striking 25 times equally distributed over entire area.
7. Ensure that while striking, the rod shall go to the top of under laying layer.
8. Remove the excess concrete and level the cube flush with the surface with a
trowel finish.
9. Write identification marks of the cube on the top surface.
10.Demould the cubes after 24 hours and immerse them on curing tank. Change
the water in the curing tank once in every 7 days.
b) Testing of cubes:
1. Take out the concrete cubes from curing tank; allow it to drain out fully.
2. Measure the dimensions of the specimen accurately.
3. Place the specimen in between the thrust plates centrally and co-axially.
4. Tighten the upper plate, close the release valve and open the inlet valve and
apply the load uniformly by regulating the inlet valve.
5. Note the maximum load reached when the cube is fully crushed. Remove the
crushed specimen from the machine and clean the thrust plates before
inserting another specimen.

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 Diagram:

Fig: 13- Compressive strength of cube

Table no: 11- determination of compressive strength of concrete cubes

S.no Percentage Percentage of Age of Load at Area of Compressive

of steel slag steel slag cubes which cubes strength
added to the added to the (days) crushing (mm2) (N/mm2)
concrete concrete occurs
(%) (%) (N)
1. 20 80 7 278650 22500 12.38
2. 40 60 7 288000 22500 12.80
3. 60 40 7 354320 22500 15.21
4. 80 20 7 268900 22500 11.95
5. 100 0 7 253765 22500 11.27
6. 0 100 7 298600 22500 13.21

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Graph no: 5- graphical representation of compressive strength values

Compressive strength
16

14

12
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

10

8
steel slag
6 natural aggregate

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Percentage of aggregates (%)

Conclusion:

By observing the results, the compressive strength of concrete using only

conventional aggregate is 13.21N/mm2 and using only steel slag is 11.27 N/mm2. It
is clear that strength of SSA is less than the strength of natural aggregate at 100%
replacement.

But here, strength of concrete is increases with a 60% of SSA and 40%
of natural aggregate, so it is clear that the use of SSA instead of natural aggregate
is allowable for 60% and further increase in SSA Percentage it leads to decrease in
strength of concrete.

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 Chapter 6
CONCLUSION
This study presents and discusses the results of using steel slag
aggregate Instead of conventional aggregate, to evaluate the effectiveness of using
steel slag aggregate in highway construction works. The presented results and
discussions reveal the following main conclusions.
 SSA has a specific gravity more than conventional aggregate it leads to
increase in weight of aggregate. The higher weight increases the cost of
hauling the aggregate from the source to the job site. Hence we are concluded
that SSA is a useful material, if the steel manufacturing industry is near the
work site.
 From the experiments we are observed that the moisture absorption capacity of
SSA is more than the natural aggregate, the problems were attributed to an
excess of lime in the steel slag, which caused expansion when exposed to
water. Note that the expansive nature of SSA was not considered in this study,
it became a problem in some of their pavements. Especially it became a major
problem in cement concrete pavements.
 The SSA was high bulk density than natural aggregate it results in more stable
pavement. It is highly stable due to high angle of internal friction also.
 SSA is more angular and porous than conventional aggregate. High porosity of
the aggregate results in a demand for more asphalt binder than mixes using
natural aggregates. The higher weight of the SSA mix means that a given
weight of mix will not cover the same volume of pavement as a conventional
mix with natural aggregate; therefore more tons of mix is required to cover the
same length, width and depth of pavement than conventional HMA. This,
along with the need for more asphalt binder, raises costs.

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 Natural aggregate results in low value as it measured by CBR test but the SSA
gives high value when it is measured by CBR test. Higher CBR value indicates
that high load carrying capacity so it is proved that the pavement construct
with SSA has more strength as compared to the pavement construct with
natural aggregate. The higher CBR value also results that there is decrease in
thickness of pavement hence the cost will be reduced.
 The Los Angeles (LA) abrasion test provides an indication of aggregate
toughness and abrasion characteristics. Lower numbers indicate greater
toughness and abrasion resistance. SSA has abrasion value close to the natural
aggregate. Hence it is safely used as pavement material instead of natural
aggregate.
 From the compressive test experiment it is observed that the Replacement of
conventional coarse aggregate by steel slag aggregate in pavement construction
enhances the compressive strength when the replacement of level is up to 60%,
for further replacement compressive strength is found to be decrease.
 SSA mix was more resistant to rutting and low temperature cracking than the
basalt mix.
In summary we are concluded that SSA is angular and porous, has a
high specific gravity, is more resistant to abrasion and weathering, is highly stable
due to high angles of internal friction, and has high load carrying capacity as
measured by the CBR. So it will be used as pavement material.
If the pavement is constructed in places where the pavement mix is
highly susceptible to moisture damage, in such a places it was required that the raw
aggregate be moist cured under sprayed water conditions in a controlled stockpile
for six months to alleviate the expansion potential.

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 REFERENCES
1. Khanna. K and Justo Highway engineering, Khanna publishers, Roorkee,
1994.
2. Guide lines for design of flexible pavement using IRC: 37-2001 code.
3. IS 2720-16 (1987) methods of test for soil, part 16: determination of CBR
value.
4. IS 2386 (part 4)-1963, “methods of tests for aggregate”.
5. SP 36 (part 1) 1987, “laboratory testing of soils for civil engineering”.
6. AASHTO (1993), “guide for design of pavement structure” American
association of state highway and transportation officials, Washington, D.C.
7. Ahmedzade, P. and B. Sengoz, “Evaluation of Steel Slag Coarse Aggregate
in Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete”, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 165,
2009, pp. 300-305.
8. Ali et.al, “SYSCO Electric Arc Furnace Slag As an Asphalt Concrete
Aggregate”, Proceedings of the 36th Annual of Canadian Technical Asphalt
Association, Polyscience Publications, Morin Heights, Quebec, Canada,
1991, pp. 26-44.
9. International journal of engineering and innovative technology (IJEIT),
volume 5, issue 11 (May 2016).

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