Module 1
Module 1
Module 1
Course Plan
Semester
Module Contents Hours Examination
Marks
Introduction to metal cutting: Tool nomenclature – Attributes
of each tool nomenclature – Attributes of feed and tool 1 15%
nomenclature on surface roughness obtainable
Orthogonal and oblique cutting - Mechanism of metal
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removal – Primary and secondary deformation shear zones
Mechanism of chip formation – Types of chips, need and
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types of chip breakers – Merchant’s theory
Analysis of cutting forces in orthogonal cutting– Work done,
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power required (simple problems)
Friction forces in metal cutting – development of cutting tool
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materials
Thermal aspects of machining -Tool wear and wear
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mechanisms
Factors affecting tool life– Economics of machining (simple
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problems)
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Cutting fluids.
Introduction to metal cutting
Machining or Metal Cutting
Process of removing unwanted material to get desired shape using sharp wedged tool.
Advantages of metal Cutting features compared to casting/forging (other shaping process):
Closer dimensional accuracy
Better Surface texture/finish
Economical
Complex shape and size
Disadvantages
Wasteful of material: Chips generated in machining are wasted material
Time consuming or low material removal rate: A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
Elements of Metal Cutting:
Cutting speed refers to the speed at which the tool point of the cutter moves with respect to the
work measured in meter per minute.
In turning, it is given by the surface speed of the work piece,
V = π DoN in m/min
where Do is the diameter of the work piece in meter
N is the RPM of work or spindle speed
Feed – advancement of tool through the work piece in one rotation of spindle, (f mm/rev)
Depth of cut – distance by which tool penetrates in the work-piece (d, mm)
(Do-Df)/2
Df= dia of finished work piece
Cutting rate or MRR = volume / time
Volume of material removes = length * width * depth of the chip
In orthogonal cutting
Thickness of cut= feed
Width of cut= depth of cut
MRR = v f d mm3/min
Where v = cutting speed;
f = feed and d = depth of cut
Processes parameters (Independent variables)
Work material
Tool material
Tool geometry
Cutting parameters
o Cutting velocity
o Feed
o Depth of cut
o Cutting fluid etc.
Performance parameters (Dependent variable)
Material removal rate
Surface finish
Tool wear rate/tool life
Dimensional accuracy
Power requirement
Cutting temperature etc.
Types of cutting tools Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of major cutting
edges (points) involved as follows:
1. Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and boring tools.
2. Double (two) point: e.g., drills.
3. Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping
cutters etc.
Geometry of single point cutting (turning) tools Both material and geometry of the cutting tools
play very important roles on their performances in achieving effectiveness, efficiency and overall
economy of machining
Geometry /nomenclature/signature of Single Point Tool (Basic tool angles)
Tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the salient faces and edges
of the tools at their cutting point. The geometry defines the seven basic angles of tool.
1. Back rake: It is defined as the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the
base
2. Side rake angle: It is the angle by which the face of the tool is inclined sideways.
3. Front clearance angle / End relief angles: The angle between front surface of the tool & line
normal to base of the tool is known as a front clearance angle. It avoids rubbing of work piece
against tool.
4. Side clearance /side relief angle: Angle formed by the side surface of the tool with a plane
normal to the base of the tool. It avoids rubbing between flank and work piece when tool is fed
longitudinally. It also provides easy entering and leaving off from the work.
5. End cutting edge angle: This is the angle between end cutting edge and line normal to tool
shank. Large cutting angle weakens the tool. Large angle weakens the tool also. It prevents
rubbing or drag between machined surface & the trailing part of cutting edge.
6. Side cutting edge angle (lead angle): It is the angle between side cutting edge & side of tool
flank. With lager side cutting edge angle the chips produced will be thinner & wider which
will distribute the cutting forces & heat produced more over cutting edge.
7. Nose radius: It is curvature of the tool tip expressed in “mm” or angle
Machine reference system also called co-ordinate system
This system is also called ASA system (American Standards Association). In this System, the
three planes of reference and the coordinates are chosen based on the configuration and axes of
the machine tool concerned. Angle is specified in a particular order
Effect of tool geometry angle on cutting performance characteristics
Tool geometry of the cutting tools play very important roles on their performances in achieving
performance, efficiency and overall economy of machining. Angles means inclination of some
faces with respect to some reference planes. Rake and clearance angles are most important.
Geometry or angles of a cutting tool is determined by factors:
Properties of the tool material
Properties of the work piece
Processes parameters like feed, cutting speed and depth of cut, temperature etc.
Performance like finish, MRR and accuracy and economy required
Rake angle:
The side rake angle and the back-rake angle combine to form the effective rake angle. This is also
called true rake angle. Rake angle can be defined as the inclination tool surface with the plane
perpendicular to cutting velocity vector. It makes the cutting easier.
Oblique Cutting
1. The cutting edge of tool is inclined at an acute angle to the direction of feed/ velocity vector
2. The direction of the chip flow is not normal to the cutting edge.
3. Here three components of forces are acting: cutting force, radial force and thrust force. So
metal cutting may be considered as three dimensional cutting.
4. The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force acts on a larger area and tool life is
increased. In actual machining, majority of the cutting operations (turning, milling, etc.)
are oblique cutting.
Mechanism of chip formation/cutting
During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work material just ahead of the cutting
tool is subjected to compression.
Due to such compression, shear stress develops,
If shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material in the deformation
region, yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in that region
The formation of chip takes place in zone extending from the tool cutting edge to the junction
between the surfaces of the chip and work piece: This zone is known as primary deformation zone.
To deform the material in this manner the forces must be transmitted to chip across the interface
between the chip and tool are sufficient to deform the lower layers of chip as it slides along the
tool face (secondary deformation zone)
Piispanen modeled the shear process of chip formation mechanism as a deck of cards where one
card at a time slides forward with cutting tool progresses as shown in figure shows.
At high velocity it is found that shear plane is a narrow (thin) plane and at low velocity metal
shear plane is thick
t=cut thickness -
tc =chip thickness after the cut
Derive expression for velocities in metal cutting
(Velocity relationship in orthogonal cutting)
Types of chips produced during the metal cutting
There are three different types of chips
1. Continuous chips,
2. Discontinuous chips
3. Continuous chips with built up edge
Types of chip formation depends on work material, tool materials, tool geometry and cutting
condition (velocity, feed rate, depth, cutting fluid etc.).
Continuous chip: when machining ductile materials at high speeds with low feeds and positive
rake angle long continuous chips are formed. Example mild steel
Favorable factors for continuous chip formation
work material – ductile
Cutting velocity – high
Feed – low
Rake angle – positive and large
Cutting fluid – both cooling and lubricating
Discontinuous chips:
Discontinuous chip: when machining relatively brittle materials at low cutting speeds, the chips
often form into separated segments. Discontinuous chip formation may cause vibration, surface
roughness and reduced tool life. Machining brittle material with medium or large feed and negative
rake angles favours discontinuous chips
work material- brittle
feed – large
tool rake – negative
cutting fluid – absent or inadequate
is left in the surface being machined. Thus, contributing to the roughness of surface. Built
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up edge protects the cutting edge of tool, thus changing the geometry of the cutting tool.
The circle(s) drawn taking R or R1 as diameter is called merchant circle which contains all the
force components concerned as intercepts. The two circles with their forces are combined into one
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circle having all the forces contained in that as shown by the diagram called Merchant’s Circle
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Diagram.
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R Fn Fs 2 F 2 N 2 Fc 2 Ft
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Equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot be measured to the forces that can be
measured. Based on these forces, shear stress, coefficient of friction, and certain other relationships
can be defined. Following relation between the forces is obtained from merchant circle
Ft
tan( )
Fc
F
tan
N
co efficient of friction
frictional angle
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Finding the maximum of the shear stress where the shearing taking place
As area of shear plane
A b * t (cross sec tion area of chip before cutting )
b width of cut
t thickness of cut
shear force Fs
shear stress
shear area As
From the merchant diagram
Fs Fc cos Ft sin
A
As
sin
( Fc cos Ft sin ) sin
A
Ft
From merchant diagram, we have, tan ( )
Fc
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Apply Ft in terms of Fc
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It shows that co-efficient of friction is not constant, it varies with tool angle and cutting forces. It
has been observed that co-efficient of friction increases with the increase in rake angle.
From merchant equation, it shows the relation the relation with shear plane angle and friction
angle. Increase of friction angle, reduces the shear angle which increases the shear force.
45 mechant equation
2 2
If friction increases between the tool chip face, then cutting force required for metal cutting
increases. Friction conditions at the tool chip interface strongly influence the tool chip contact
length. Also it affects the tool wear, dimensional accuracy, vibration, build up edge formation,
surface roughness and temperature rise etc.
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7. It should have low or zero chemical affinity for the work material.
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1.5% in the alloy, its strength and hardness increases but causes appreciable reduction in
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From this figure is obvious, that any reduction of the cutting temperature will require
substantial reduction in either the cutting speed or cutting feed, or both (the effect of depth
of cut can be neglected). But cutting time and therefore production rate will decrease. To
avoid the problem, application of cutting fluid (coolants) is the solution.
Tool failure or tool life
Cutting tools generally fail by:
1. Gradual wear of the cutting tool at its flanks and rake surface.
2. Mechanical breakage and chipping due to excessive forces and shocks.
3. Plastic deformation of cutting edge due to intensive stresses and temperature.
The last two modes of tool failure are very harmful and need to be prevented by using
suitable tool materials and geometry depending upon the work material and cutting
condition. But failure by gradual wear, which is inevitable, cannot be prevented but can be
slowed down only to enhance the service life of the tool.
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Adhesive wear: the tool and the chip weld together at contacts, and wear occurs by the
fracture of these welded junctions.
Welding is due to Friction, high temperature and pressure
Fatigue wear: Due to friction while cutting, compressive force will be produced in one
side and tensile force on other side. This causes the crack formation on the surface of tool
and fails.
Chipping of tool: It refers the breaking away of small chips from the cutting edge of tool
Diffusion wear: When a metal is in sliding contact with another metal the temperature at
the interface is high. The high temperature allows the atoms of hard material to diffuse into
softer material matrix. At high temperature, there is an intimate contact between the chip
and the tool rake face. Atoms of the softer metal may also diffuse into harder medium, thus
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temperature
SSET Mechanical Department 2017
Oxidation wear: Oxidation wear is the result of reaction between tool face material and
oxygen present in the vicinity.
Corrosion wear: may be included in wear phenomenon
Gradual or progressive tool wear / (types of wear)
a) Flank wear
b) Crater wear
c) Nose wear
d) Plastic deformation of tools
The main wears in cutting tool are
1) Crater wear –occurs on top rake face due to diffusion and friction between tool and
chip. Crater wear dominates at high speeds.
2) Flank wear –occurs on flank (side of tool) due to abrasive rubbing between the tool
flank and the newly generated work surface. Flank wear dominates at low speed
3) Nose wear is the rounding of a sharp tool due to mechanical and thermal effects
4. Cutting fluid.
5. Material and condition of work-piece.
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The width of flank wear land deciding the wear allowable before regrinding or disposal of
tool (measured using tool maker’s microscope).
Region AB- rapid wear rate due the initial broken down of cutting edge
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log V1 log V2
n
log T2 log T1
Note: If the higher cutting speed is permitted by a tool for the same life, we can say that
the tool is having better cutting properties and it will be more productive.
Effect of tool life on rake, clearance angle, cutting time and temperature
Tool life increases with increase of rake angle for the given cutting speed. Increase
of rake angle decreases the cutting force and temperature.
As the clearance angle increases, the tool chip contact area increases which reduces
the cutting temperature and wear rate ultimately increases the tool life.
Increases of nose radius also increases the life to a extent
Wear increases with cutting temperature. All types of wear accelerate with increase
of temperature (mechanical, chemical and diffusion wear)
Cutting time- tool wear is a time dependent factor. As cutting proceeds, the amount
of tool wear increases gradually.
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There is optimum value of rake and clearance angle which gives maximum tool life
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Select speed to achieve a balance between high metal removal rate and suitably long tool
life. Mathematical formulas are available to determine optimal speed
Where tm = the machining time per piece (including the time the feed is engaged
whether or not the tool is cutting.
Lm = the labour cost of a production operator per unit time
Om = the overhead charge for the machine, including depreciation, indirect labour,
maintenance, etc.
Where
tg = the time required to grind and change a cutting edge
tac = the actual cutting time per piece
t = the tool life for a cutting edge
Lg = the labour rate for a toolroom operator
Og = the overhead rate for the tool room operation
Where Ce is the cost of a cutting edge, and tac/t is the number of tool changes
required per piece.
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Selection of Cutting Fluids: The guidelines for selection of cutting fluids are:
a) Type of machining process
b) Based on tool and work materials
c) Based on cutting condition like speed, feed etc.
d) Method of application of fluid
e) Temperature involved
Methods of application
a) Flooding – cutting fluid is flooded over the cutting area
b) Jet – cutting fluid under pressure with nozzle
c) Mist – mixed with compressed air
The heavy machining processes (for example broaching or screwing with tap) generally
require middle or heavy cutting oils.
In threading operation, the interface between cutting tool and work piece is small, but the
interface is continuous. For this operation cooling characteristic of cutting fluid is required
There fore the cooling effect of cutting fluid is more important in drilling process.
In turning, milling and grinding machining processes water based cutting fluids are more
suitable due to using new cutting tool materials such as hard metals and high cutting speeds.
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tool and the job constitute the two dissimilar metals and the cutting zone functions as the hot
junction.
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Problems
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