Code of Practice: Prevention and Management of Blast Generated Nox Gases in Surface Blasting Edition 2 August 2011
Code of Practice: Prevention and Management of Blast Generated Nox Gases in Surface Blasting Edition 2 August 2011
Code of Practice: Prevention and Management of Blast Generated Nox Gases in Surface Blasting Edition 2 August 2011
Code of Practice
PREVENTION AND
MANAGEMENT OF
BLAST GENERATED NOx
GASES IN SURFACE BLASTING
Edition 2
August 2011
Australian Explosives Industry And Safety Group Inc.
CODE OF PRACTICE
The goal of the AEISG Inc. is to continuously improve the level of safety throughout
our industry in the manufacture, transport, storage, handling and use of precursors
and explosives in commercial blasting throughout Australia.
ISBN 978-1-921308-09-3
Copyright
© AEISG Inc. 2011
This document is subject to copyright. No parts of it should be reproduced without
the written consent of the copyright owner.
Disclaimer
AEISG Inc has taken reasonable care in the preparation of the information contained
in this Code and believes it to be accurate. However, AEISG Inc does not guarantee
or warrant the accuracy, completeness or currency of the information contained
in this Code. As AEISG Inc cannot anticipate or control the conditions under
which this information may be used, each user should review the information
in the specific context of the intended application. Under no circumstances will
AEISG Inc or any of its members be responsible for, or accept liability for, any loss,
expense, cost or damage of any nature resulting from the use of or reliance upon the
information contained in this Code. To the fullest extent permitted by law, AEISG
Inc disclaims all warranties, whether expressed, implied, statutory or otherwise, in
relation to the information contained in this Code.
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PREAMBLE
These guidelines have been developed to assist the safe use of explosives in
situations where a specific additional hazard may arise due to the generation of
nitrogen oxides (NOx) within the post-blast gases. These oxides are generally
regarded as products arising from imperfect decomposition of ammonium nitrate
explosives during detonation.
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CONTENTS
1. SCOPE................................................................................................................... 4
2. DEFINITIONS......................................................................................................... 4
3. BACKGROUND....................................................................................................... 5
4. CAUSES OF NOx GASES IN BLASTING..................................................................... 6
5. NOX GASES CAUSES AND MITIGATION MEASURES................................................. 8
6. FAULT TREE ANALYSIS OF BLAST GENERATED NOx GASES INCIDENTS..................... 18
MANAGEMENT...................................................................................................... 19
7.1 Explosives/Precursor Manufacturer/Supplier.............................................. 19
7.2 Risk Assessment.......................................................................................... 20
7.2.1 Initial..................................................................................................................20
7.2.2 Post Loading/Pre Firing Reassessment...............................................................20
7.3 Risk Management........................................................................................ 21
7.3.1 Training...............................................................................................................21
7.3.2 Post-blast Gases Identification, Reporting and Recording..................................21
7.3.3 Blast Management Plan.....................................................................................22
7.3.4 Investigation of Post-blast NOx Events...............................................................22
7.3.5 Weather Conditions...........................................................................................22
7.3.6 Exclusion Zones..................................................................................................23
7.3.7 Management Zones...........................................................................................23
7.3.8 Communication..................................................................................................24
7.3.9 Emergency Response.........................................................................................24
APPENDIX 1 - FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR INCLUSION IN REPORT OF
POST- BLAST NOx GAS EVENT....................................................................... 25
APPENDIX 2 - VISUAL NOx GASES RATING SCALE................................................................ 26
APPENDIX 3 - FIELD COLOUR CHART................................................................................... 27
APPENDIX 4 - INFORMATION FOR TREATING MEDICAL STAFF.............................................. 28
APPENDIX 5 - TOXICOLOGY OF NOx.................................................................................... 29
APPENDIX 6 - EXPOSURE STANDARDS................................................................................. 31
APPENDIX 7 - REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS....................................................................... 34
APPENDIX 8 - RISK ASSESSMENT PROFORMA .....................................................................36
APPENDIX 9 - REFERENCES.................................................................................................. 39
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1. SCOPE
Those involved in blasting operations need to be aware of the causes, risks and
consequences of the oxide of nitrogen (NOx) gases that may emanate from their
blasting activities. The aim of this Code of Practice is to provide information and
recommended guidelines to assist in the prevention and management of blast
generated NOx gases from surface blasting operations. The Code is specific to NOx
gases and covers the following areas:
• the likely causes of NOx gases from blasting
• possible control measures to prevent or minimise blast generated NOx gases
• management of NOx gases from blasting should they occur
2. DEFINITIONS
ANFO: A mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil with or without a dye
colouring agent (Definition from AS2187.0).
Customer: The person with direct management responsibility for the surface
blasting practices, including the selection of explosive products.
Dewatered hole: A blast hole which has had water removed using an in-hole pump or
other mechanical means
Dry hole: A blast hole which contains no detectable water.
Dust: Airborne particulate matter ranging in diameter from 10 to 50
microns.
Dynamic water: Water that is in motion (i.e. flowing water)
Gas bag: An inflatable bladder used to block off a blast hole and support
explosives or stemming.
Hole liner: A flexible plastic tube which is placed into a blast hole before
product is loaded into the tube, providing protection from water or
broken ground
Hole saver: A plastic funnel which is placed in the collar of a hole, allowing
product to be loaded, but preventing fallback of dirt or water ingress.
NOx: A multiple combinations of oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, N2O4,
N2O3, N2O5) with nitrogen dioxide (NO2) being the principal
hazardous nitrous gas.
Post-blast gases: Gases generated by the detonation of explosives during blasting.
Precursor: A material resulting from a chemical or physical change when two
or more substances consisting of fuels and oxidisers are mixed
and where the material is intended to be used exclusively in the
production of an explosive. (Definition from AEMSC Code of Good
Practice Precursors for Explosives.)
Recharge: A term used to describe the re-entry of water back into a blast hole
after it has been dewatered
Sleep time: The time between explosives being loaded into a blast hole and their
initiation (Definition from AS2187.0).
Wet hole: A blast hole that contains any amount of detectable water.
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3.0 BACKGROUND
The group of gases known as Oxides of Nitrogen or NOx, of which the most common
are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are often found as by-products
in the post-blast gases of ammonium nitrate-based explosives. Together, these
gases are loosely referred to as “NOx”. Nitric oxide is invisible, but nitrogen dioxide
ranges from yellow to dark red depending on the concentration and size of the gas
cloud. These gases are toxic.
NOx from blasting constitutes only a small proportion of the total NOx emissions
from human activities (primarily power generation and motor vehicles) and
natural sources. However blasting produces a sudden localised release of gases
with potentially high concentrations of NOx. Such gas emissions pose a health risk
if people are exposed to them before the plumes can dissipate.
Despite a long history of blast-related NOx emissions, very few quantitative studies
have been done under realistic field conditions. The underlying causes of high NOx
are fuel-deficiency in the explosive or detonation reactions that do not continue
to completion. There are many ways in which these conditions may arise.
In the absence of a single general cause or general solution, these guidelines
should be viewed as an aid to identifying the local cause of NOx and as a prompt
for possible ways to address those causes. It should be understood that, given the
complexity of the problem and the inherent variability in the blasting environment,
NOx events may still occur even after prevention and mitigating actions have been
put in place. The guidelines therefore include advice on managing blasts that could
produce NOx gases and recommendations for treatment of people who may have
been exposed to NOx.
As recommended in Section 7 of this code, and as outlined in Australian Standard
AS2187 Part 2 - 2006, Use of Explosives (refer Appendix 7), blast sites should
develop their own site specific systems and procedures for the prevention and
management of blast generated gases. Such site specific systems and procedures
would have more relevance and detail, focus on issues of particular importance
and provide increased clarity and direction to staff in regards to expected actions
and responsibilities. This code should assist in the development of such systems
and procedures.
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None of the explosive product gases are coloured, so apart from steam and dust,
there will be no visible gases.
If conditions do not allow such a complete decomposition to take place, a fraction
of the nitrate may only partially react to produce NOx instead of a full reaction to
nitrogen. For example, nitric oxide can be generated by under-fuelled (“oxygen-
positive”) explosives according to reactions similar to (2);
5 NH4NO3 + CH2 → 4 N2 + 2 NO + CO2 + 11 H2O …….(2)
The nitric oxide formed initially converts rapidly to orange/red plumes of nitrogen
dioxide on contact with atmospheric oxygen (3).
2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2 ……….(3)
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Fume Event
Product
ANFL/Non
Water
Water Waterproof
Resistant
Resistant Explosive
Heavy ANFO
Heavy ANFO
Hole
Hard Soft Hard Soft Conditions
Dry Wet Ground
Ground Ground Ground
Contamination
of Explosives Contamination Geological Contamination of
On Bench of Explosives Conditions Explosives
Practices Geological Blast Design On Bench
Geological Conditions Practice
Explosive
Conditions Blast Design Product Selection Explosive Quality
Explosive
Quality Suggested
sections
to start
investigation
Geological
Conditions
On Bench Explosive Quality
Explosive Practices
Product Selective Blast Design
On Bench
Blast Design Practices
Explosive Product
Selection
*Reference to short sleep or significant sleep in this Fault Tree does not refer to the explosives manufacturer’s recommneded sleep time, but
rather is a subjective term aimed at differentiating between a load and shoot blast and one which is designed to sleep for a period of time. It
recognises that there is a correlation between increased sleep time and the generation of NOx gases from blasting. As a guide for this Fault Tree
Analysis only, a time of less than 3 days is considered a short sleep time, however conditions vary from site to site and consideration should be
given to the adverse impacts longer sleep times can have on loaded blast holes.
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7. MANAGEMENT
7.1 Explosives/Precursor Manufacturer/Supplier
The manufacturer and/or supplier of the precursors or bulk explosives must
ensure products are formulated appropriately to prevent/minimise the generation
of NOx gases during blasting. The products should be authorised, with quality
control systems in place to ensure that the manufactured/supplied products meet
specifications
The explosives manufacturer/supplier must have documented change management
procedures for modification and alterations to explosive and/or precursor
formulations. The procedures must provide for:
1. assessing and managing risk associated with the modification/alteration of
the formulation through the use of documented hazard review assessments;
2. recording any modification/alteration and updating relevant authorisations,
Technical Data Sheets, Material Safety Data Sheets, work procedures, and
training programs as and where relevant;
3. ensuring changes continue to meet the requirements of this Code;
4. ensuring that any modification or alteration does not affect the validity of an
authorisation issued by the relevant authority; and
5. notifying the user sites of changes to authorisations, Technical Data Sheets,
Material Safety Data Sheets or recommendations in relation to proper use of
the explosives or precursor products.
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The potential causal factors and relevant control measures outlined in Section 5
should be used in conducting the risk assessment to ensure all factors have been
considered and adequately addressed where considered necessary.
One possible proforma for conducting such a risk assessment is provided in
Appendix 8. A working tool, using such format, may be found on the AEISG website
(www.aeisg.org.au).
While the risk assessment will lead to the development of an effective exclusion
zone as a response to any proposed blast, it must also consider the implications
of any potential post-blast gases and the risks posed to areas/directions where
such gas plumes might drift, even outside the determined exclusion zone for the
blast. The risk assessment will consider what steps need to be taken, if any, in these
management zones to minimise risk to any persons, on-site or off-site.
7.2.2 Post Loading/Pre Firing Reassessment
Following the loading of any shot, and immediately prior to firing, a reassessment
of the risks posed by the blast should be undertaken with due consideration given
to the relevant factors applying at the time eg rain events, wind direction and
speed, inversions, operational factors on site.
Following the reassessment it may be necessary to apply additional risk control
measures, or defer the blast, to ensure appropriate safety levels are achieved.
One possible proforma for conducting such a reassessment is provided in Appendix
8. A working tool, using such format, may be found on the AEISG website (www.
aeisg.org.au).
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The extent and direction of any post-blast NOx gas plumes should be closely
monitored to minimize any adverse impacts and to facilitate appropriate emergency
response. It may be useful to increase the size and/or the duration of the exclusion
zones in some cases to provide maximum opportunity for any NOx formed to
dissipate to normal background levels eg downwind of blasting operations.
Where potential for significant post-blast NOx gases exists, consideration needs to
be given to personnel monitors, or gas masks, as an additional safety measure for
persons conducting higher risk activities eg post-blast inspections.
7.3.7 Management Zones
While steps should be taken to eliminate or minimise the generation of blast
generated NOx gases, there will be occasions where potential risk remains.
Both the initial risk assessment and the post-loading/pre-firing risk assessment
must include consideration of areas of risk outside the developed exclusion zone.
Such areas will normally be downwind of blasting operations where post-blast
gases may drift in concentrations yet to be effectively dissipated.
Following such assessments, additional risk control measures may be considered
necessary to ensure risk minimisation eg temporary evacuation of such management
zones, deferral of blasting until climate conditions are more favourable.
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7.3.8 Communication
While persons off site are unlikely to be significantly affected by blast generated
NOx gases, communication with neighbours and other potentially impacted
parties should be managed to alert them to possible post-blast gas events and
to the steps being taken to prevent/minimise any risks presented. Some safety
recommendations and guidance to such parties should also be considered.
7.3.9 Emergency Response
While it is unlikely that exposure to post-blast NOx gases will result in a fatality
due to the concentration of the gases in an outdoor, well ventilated surface blasting
site, NOx gases must be recognized as a potential health threat and managed
accordingly. Generally, NOx plumes generated during blasting will dissipate to
background levels in a relatively short time. Dissipation is highly dependent on
local atmospheric conditions. However, in cases where a NOx plume does not
dissipate and has the potential to result in the exposure to people the following
steps must be undertaken:
Persons in the path of a NOx gas plume should
• not enter the plume
• move away from the path of the plume
• if indoors, close all windows and doors and stay inside
• if in a car, stay inside and use recirculated air conditioning if possible
If a person has been exposed to NOx gases medical attention must be sought as
soon as it is safe to do so. The possibility of delayed and life-threatening pulmonary
oedema dictates that:
• any person exposed to a visible plume of NOx, and/or any person experiencing
sudden acute effects of coughing, shortness of breath or irritation of the
mucous membranes of the eyes, nose or throat following post-blast NOx
events must be examined by a medical practitioner without delay, even if no
NOx smell was noticed or symptoms are mild
• the treating medical practitioner must be informed of the potential NOx
exposure. The material included in Appendix 4 should be provided to assist
in the conveying of such NOx exposure information to the treating medical
practitioners.
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Assessing the amount of NOx gases produced from a blast will depend on the
distance the observer is from the blast and the prevailing weather conditions. The
intensity of the NOx gases produced in a blast should be measured on a simple
scale from 0 to 5 based on the table above. The extent of the NOx gases also needs
to be assessed and this should be done on a simple scale from A to C where:-
A = Localised (ie NOx Gases localised across only a few blast holes)
B = Medium (ie NOx Gases from up to 50% of blast holes in the shot)
C = Extensive (ie Extensive generation of NOx Gases across the whole blast)
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High level exposure particularly associated with methhaemoglobinaemia can cause chest pain,
cyanosis, and shortness of breath, tachapnea, and tachycardia. Deaths have been reported after
exposure and are usually delayed. Even non irritant concentrations of NOx may cause pulmonary
oedema. Symptoms of pulmonary oedema often don’t become manifest until a few hours after
exposure and are aggravated by physical effort. Prior to transfer to you the patient should have
been advised to rest and if any respiratory symptoms were present should have been administered
oxygen. The patient will need to be treated symptomatically but as a base line it is suggested that the
following investigations are required:
• Spirometry
• Chest x-ray
• Methheamoglobin estimation
Because of the risk of delayed onset pulmonary edema it is recommended that as a precaution the
patient be observed for up to 12 hours. As no specific antidote for NOx exists, symptoms will have to
be treated on their merits.
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ppm
10 min 30 min 60 min 4 hr 8 hr
AEGL 1 NR NR NR NR NR
AEGL 2 NR NR NR NR NR
AEGL 3 NR NR NR NR NR
NR = Not recommended due to insufficient data
Short-term exposures to below 80 ppm NO should not constitute a health hazard
* AEGL values for nitrogen dioxide (see table below) should be used for emergency
planning.
ppm
10 min 30 min 60 min 4 hr 8 hr
AEGL 1 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
AEGL 2 20 15 12 8.2 6.7
AEGL 3 34 25 20 14 11
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(1) to ensure that the worker can escape from a given contaminated environment
in the event of failure of the respiratory protection equipment and,
(2) is considered a maximum level above which only a highly reliable breathing
apparatus providing maximum worker protection is permitted [NIOSH 2004].
In establishing the IDLH value, the following conditions must be assured:
NIOSH [2004]. NIOSH respirator selection logic. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH). Publication
No. 2005-100.
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(a) Whether there is a need for more than one person to return to the shot for
the inspection.
(b) Procedures to be adopted if the inspection reveals that the ‘all clear’ into the
exclusion zone cannot be given, including the communications mechanism of
the ‘all clear’ or otherwise.
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(c) Determination that oxygen, post-blast gases and dust are at acceptable levels.
(d) Continuous inspection procedures during the approach to the post-blast site
that might identify unusual or abnormal results indicating possible hazards.
(e) Whether there is a need to wash down/or scale (bar down), especially in
underground workings.
(f) Identifying a misfire or butt and the means of clearly marking misfires or
butts.
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PC 3: Blast Design
Explosive desensitisation
due to the blast hole
depth
Inappropriate priming
and/or placement
Mismatch of explosives
and rock type
Inter-hole explsive
desensitisation
Intro-hole explosive
desensitisation in decked
blast holes
Initiation of significant
explosive quantities in a
single blast event
Other:
PC 4: Explosive product selection
Non water-resistant
explosive products
loaded into wet or
dewatered holes
Excessive energy in weak/
soft strata desensitising
adjacent explosive
product columns
Primer of insufficient
strength to initiate
explosive column
Desensitisation of
explosve column from in-
hole cord initiation
Inappropriate explosive
product for application
Other:
PC 5: On bench practices
Hole condition incorrectly
identified
Blast not drilled as per
plan
Dewatering of holes
diverts water into holes
previously loaded with
dry hole explosive
products
Blast not loaded as per
plast plan
Other:
PC 6: Contamination of explosives in the blast hole
Explosive product mixes
with mud/sediment at
bottom of hole.
Interaction of explosive
product with drilling
muds.
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Penetration of stemming
material into top of
explosive column [fluid/
pumpable explosive
products only
Water entrainment in
explosive product
Moisture in ground
attacking explosive
product
Contamination of
explosives column by drill
cuttings during loading
Rainfall on a sleeping slot.
Other:
Note: A working tool using this format may be found on the AEISG Inc. website [www.aeisg.org.au]
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APPENDIX 9 - REFERENCES
1. CSIRO 2007, NOx Emissions from Blasting Operations in Open Cut Coal
Mining in the Hunter Valley; ACARP Project C14054.
2. Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) Definitions:
http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/aegl/pubs/define.htm
3. US NIOSH IDLHs:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/intridl4.html
4. Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for nitric oxide (CAS Reg. No.
10102-43-9) October 2006.
http://www.epa.gov/oppt/aegl/pubs/tsd309.pdf
5. Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for nitrogen dioxide (CAS Reg. No.
10102-44-0) nitrogen tetroxide (CAS Reg. No. 10544-72-6) December 2008.
http://www.epa.gov/oppt/aegl/pubs/nitrogen_dioxide_interim_nitrogen_
tetroxide_proposed_dec_2008.v1.pdf
6. Safe Work Australia: Occupational Exposure Levels, http://hsis.ascc.gov.au/
7. National Research Council: Protecting the Public and Emergency Workers
from Releases of Chemical Hazards:
http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/best/miscellaneous/
AEGLS%20Marketing%20Brochure%202008.pdf
8. Australian Standard AS2187 Part 2-2006, Use of Explosives
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