ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION

LINE TOWER USING STAAD PRO

A Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of Academic Requirement
For The Award of the Degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
In
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Submitted By
RUGADA CHANDRA SEKHAR RAO
Regd.No:15AH1D8702
Under The Esteemed Guidance Of
M.NAGESWARA RAO, M.Tech
Associate.Proff

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

AMARA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E-New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTU Kakinada)
Satuluru (V), Narasaraopet, Guntur District.
 AMARA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E-New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTU Kakinada)
Satuluru (V), Narasaraopet, Guntur District.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to Certify that the dissertation entitled “ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
TRANSMISSION LINE TOWER USING STAAD PRO” that is being submitted by
RUGADA CHANDRA SEKHAR RAO bearing Regd.No.15AH1D8702 in Partial
Fulfillment for the award of the degree of “MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY in
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING” is a record of bonafied work carried out by him
under my guidance and supervision during the academic year 2015-2017 and it found
worthy of acceptance according to requirements of the university.

PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

PROJECT EXTERNAL
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks to our beloved Chairman Sri AMARA

VENKATESWARA RAO for providing support and stimulating environment for
developing the project.
We express deep sense of reverence and profound graduate DR.M.ROJA
RANI, Principal, AMARA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, for
providing us the grate support for us in completing our resource for carting out the
project.
Our sincere thanks to Mr. U. BABU., HOD of CSE Department for his
cooperation and guidance in helping us to make our project successful and completing
in all aspects we are grateful to his precious guidance and suggestions. His moral
support and guidance throughout the project helped to us a great extent.

We extend our sincere thanks to our guide M.NAGESWARA RAO, M.Tech

Associate.Prof whose valuable guidance and unstinting encouragement enabled us to
accomplish our project successfully in time.

We also place our floral gratitude to all other teaching staff and lab technicians
for their constant support and advice throughout the project. Last but not least, we
thank our friends who directly or indirectly helped us in successful completion of our
project.

RUGADA CHANDRA SEKHAR RAO

15AH1D8702
CONTENTS PAGE NO

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 TYPES OF TOWERS 2

1.3 TOWER ACCESSORIES 5

2. BRACING SYSTEMS 9

2.1 SINGLE WEB SYSTEM 9

2.2 DOUBLE WEB SYSTEM 9

2.3 PRATT SYSTEM 9

2.4 PORTAL SYSTEM 10

3. TOWER DESIGN 11

3.1 RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS 11

3.2 WIND EFFECTS 12

3.3 GUST RESPONSE FACTOR 14

3.4 WIND LOAD ON INSULATOR STRINGS 15

3.5 WIND LOADS 16

3.6 LOADS ON TOWERS 21

3.7 COMPUTATION OF LOADS 21

3.8 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES 26

3.9 STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS 31

4. STAAD PRO 32

4.0 OBJECTIVE 32

4.1 TYPES OF LOADS 35

 4.2 EARTHQUAKE LOAD 37

4.3 PURPOSE OF EARTHQUAKE LOAD 38

4.4 GUIDELINES FOE EARTHQUAKE DESIGN 39

4.5 SESIMIC ZONES 40

5. STAAD PRO RESULTS 43

6. CONCLUSIONS 59

7. REFERENCES 60
ABSTRACT:

Formulation of transmission towers is tendered in a perspective of confronting high

voltage transmitting conductors and insulators to stand in need of altitude from the ground level.

For the same purpose a transmission tower is replicated with similar context of height 49m and

fetching a 220KV double circuit conductor, maneuvered with STAAD PRO. The contemplations

from both structural and electrical fields are viewed in designing transmission line towers, for

safe and economic aspects. According to IS 800-2007, the wind forces are much prominent on

the tower, conductors and insulators, besides the self-weight. This work is focused in optimizing

the transmission tower with employing the 'X' and 'K' bracings, and by varying the sections,

examined using Static analysis. The upshots of using 'X' bracing to 'K' bracing are the

appraisable reduction in the weight of the structure by 6% and having the displacement values

supplemented.
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Transmission lines are constructed to evacuate Electric Power

generated in power stations over long distances across the country to substations
for further transmission and distribution to various load centres.

Power transmission lines are broadly divided into two categories, viz.
Alternating current (A.C.) and Direct current (D.C.) supplied in Low tension
(L.T.) i.e in the range of 0.4KV to 33KV and in Extra High tension (E.H.T.) in
the range of 132KV to 400KV and beyond up to 800KV. Extra High Voltage
(E.H.V) is necessary to reduce power losses for transmission over long
distances.

The power is carried in three phase supply through three separate

conductors for each of the circuit. Hence the towers are required to be
designed for single circuit, double circuit and or multi circuit as per the
required technical specifications of Customers. The tower configuration and
geometry depends upon the requirement of the technical specifications.

Power is transmitted through flexible metallic conductors strung at

safe heights over towers. Towers are usually self-supported four legged
cantilever steel structures holding the power conductors with the use of
insulators at required positions on cross arms.

The power conductors are clamped to the erected towers and

carried forward aerially with the use of stringing equipment avoiding dragging
of conductor on the ground.

1
1.2. TYPES OF TOWERS

The selection of the most suitable types of tower for transmission

lines depends on the actual terrain through which the line traverses. Experience
has, however, shown that any combinations of the following types of towers are
generally suitable for most of the lines.

Suspension towers

Tangent towers (0) with suspension - to be used on straight

runs only

Intermediate towers (0 to 2) with suspension string - to be used on straight runs

and up to 2 line deviation.

Light angle towers (0 to 5) with suspension string. - To be used on straight

runs and up to 5 line deviation.

Tension towers

Small angle towers (0 to 15) with tension string - to be used for line
deviation from 0 to 15.

Medium angle towers (0 to 30) with tension string - to be used for line
deviation from 30 to 60.

Large angle towers (30 to 60) with tension string - to be used as dead-
end tower or anchor tower.

2
Dead end to towers with tension string - to be used as dead end
tower or anchor tower.

Large angle and dead end towers with tension string - to be used for line
division from 30 to 60 or for dead ends.

3
Table:1 Photos of tower lines

4
1.3. TOWER ACCESSORIES

Structural steel:

The tower members including cross arms shall be of structural steel

conforming to any of the grade, as appropriate, of IS 2062: 1992. Steel
conforming to any of the appropriate grade of IS 8500: 12 may also be used.

Medium and high strength structural steels with known properties

conforming to other national and international standards may also be used
subject to approval for utilizing the proper material.

Conductor:

Power conductors can be all aluminium conductors (A.A.C.), aluminium core

steel reinforced (A.C.S.R.), All aluminium alloy conductors (A.A.A.C.).

Recently zinc is also being used in alloy form with aluminium for better
conductivity.

Conductor tension

The conductor tension at everyday temperature and without

external load should not exceed the following percentage of the ultimate
strength of the conductor as shown in table 2:

Initial unloaded tension 35 percent

Final unloaded tension 25 percent

5
Provided that the ultimate tension under everyday temperature and full wind or
minimum temperature and two-thirds wind pressure does not exceed 70 percent
of the ultimate tensile strength of the cable.

Earth Wire:

This specification provides for design, manufacture, testing,

inspection, packing and dispatch, to destination of Steel Cored Earth wire, of
sizes 7/3.66 (7 strands of 3.66mm wires each) & 7/3.15. The Earth wire shall be
hot dip galvanized. The Earth wire is to be used as Earth wire on single circuit
and / or double-circuit transmission lines of various ratings and / or sub-stations
of the purchaser for protection of steel structures, equipment, etc. or the sub-
stations from lightning strokes, various types of faults, etc.

Galvanized steel wire shall be drawn from high carbon steel rods
produced by either acidic or basic open Earth process, electric furnace process
or basic oxygen process. All the properties of the steel strands and wires shall
confirm to the relevant standards.

The Zinc used for galvanizing shall be electrolytic high grade Zinc
not less than 99.95 percent purity. It shall satisfy all the requirements of relevant
ISS, BSS or other Standards to be specified with the due justification.
Galvanizing has to be done by hot dip galvanizing process. Neutral grease may
be applied between the layers of wires, however the weight of the same shall be
specified and added to the total weight of the conductor.

Insulator Disc:

Insulator discs are manufactured bought out items procured from

experienced manufacturers. The insulator material is usually porcelain and for
anti-fog insulators, the material is of glass. The surface is very smooth and has a
typical disc type curvature with rings to provide necessary creep age length.

6
 i) Under ultimate design wind loading conditions, the load on insulator
string shall not exceed 70% of its selected rating.

ii) Under everyday temperature and no wind conditions, the load on

insulator string shall not exceed 25% of its selected rating.

iii) The insulators shall consist of Anti Fog Disc Insulators or long Rod
Insulators having Electro-Mechanical strength of 120 KN for Suspension
Strings & 160 KN for Tension Springs and minimum creep-age of 31mm/kV.

Bolts:

Bolts for tower connections shall conform to IS 12427 : 1988 or of

property class 4.6 conforming to IS 6639 : 1972, High strength bolts, if used
shall conform to IS 5624 : 1970. Step bolts shall conform to IS 10238: 1982.

Nuts:

Nuts shall confirm to IS 1363 (part 3): 1992. The mechanical

properties shall conform to property class 4 or 5 as the case may be as specified
in IS 1367 (part 6) : 1980 except that the proof stress for nuts of property class 5
shall be as given in IS 6623 : 1985.

Washers:

Washers shall conform to IS 2016: 1967. Heavy washers shall

conform to IS 6610: 1972. Spring washers shall conform to type B of IS 3063:
1972. Washers to be used with high strength bolts and nuts shall conform to IS
6649: 1985.

Galvanization:

Structural members of the towers, plain and heavy washers shall be

Galvanized in accordance with the provisions of IS 4759: 1984. Threaded
fasteners shall be galvanized to conform to the requirements of IS 1367 (part

7
13): 1983. Spring washers shall be hot dip galvanized as per service grade 4 of
IS 4759:1984 or electro galvanized as per service grade 3 of IS 1573: 1986 as
specified.

8
2.0 BRACING SYSTEMS

Once the width of the tower at the top and also the level at which
the batter should start are determined, the next step is to select the system of
bracings. The following bracing systems are usually adopted for transmission
line towers.

2.1 Single web system:

It comprises either diagonals and struts or all diagonals. This
system is particularly used for narrow-based towers, in cross-arm girders and
for portal type of towers. Except for 66 kV single circuit towers, this system has
little application for wide-based towers at higher voltages.

2.2 Double web or Warren system:

This system is made up of diagonal cross bracings. Shear is equally
distributed between the two diagonals, one in compression and the other in
tension. Both the diagonals are designed for compression and tension in order
to permit reversal of externally applied shear. The diagonal braces are
connected at their cross points. Since the shear preface is carried by two
members and critical length is approximately half that of a corresponding
single web system. This System is used for both large and small towers and can
be economically adopted throughout the shaft except in the lower one or two
panels, where diamond or portal system of bracings is more suitable.

2.3 Pratt system:

This system also contains diagonal cross bracings and, in addition,
it has horizontal struts. These struts are subjected to compression and the shear
is taken entirely by one diagonal in tension, the other diagonal acting like a
redundant member.

It is often economical to use the Pratt bracings for the bottom two or
three panels and Warren bracings for the rest of the tower.

9
2.4 Portal system:
The diagonals are necessarily designed for both tension and
compression and, therefore, this arrangement provides more stiffness than the
Pratt system. The advantage of this system is that the horizontal struts are
supported at mid length by the diagonals.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Like the Pratt system, this

arrangement is also used for the
bottom two or three panels in
conjunction with the Warren
system for the other panels. It is
especially useful for heavy river-
crossing towers.

Where

p = longitudinal spacing
(stagger), that is, the distance
between two

Successive holes in the line of

holes under consideration,

g = transverse spacing (gauge), that is, the distance between the same two
consecutive holes as for p, and table 2.1 bracing
systems

d = diameter of holes.

For holes in opposite legs of angles, the value of 'g' should be the sum of the
gauges from the back of the angle less the thickness of the angle.

10
3.0 TOWER DESIGN

3.1 Reliability considerations:

Transmission lines shall be designed for the reliability levels given

in table below. These levels are expressed in terms of return period in years of
climatic (wind) loads. The minimum, yearly reliability ps, corresponding to the
return period t is expressed as

ps = (1-1/2T)

Table 3.Reliability levels of transmission lines

Description Reliability levels

SL.NO
1 2 3

1. Return period of design loads, 50 150 500

in years, T

2. Yearly reliability, Ps 1-10-2 1-10-8.5 1-10-8

Reliability level 1 shall be adopted for EHV transmission lines up to 400KV

class.

Reliability level 2 shall be adopted for EHV transmission lines above 400KV
class.

Triple and quadruple circuit tower up to 400 KV lines shall be designed

corresponding to the reliability level 2.

Reliability level 3 shall be adopted for Tall River crossing towers and special
towers, although these towers are not covered in this standard.
11
In this particular project reliability level 1 is considered as the transmission line
adopted is 400KV class.

3.2 Wind effects

Basic wind speed, Vb:

The basic wind speed map of India as applicable at 10 m height

above mean ground level for the six wind zones of the country. Basic wind
speed vb is based on peak gust velocity averaged over a short time interval of
about 3 seconds, corresponds to mean heights above ground level in an open
terrain and have been worked out for a 50 years return period.

Basic wind speeds for the six wind zones are as shown table: 4

Meteorological reference wind speed, Vr:

It is extreme value of wind speed over an averaging period of 10

minutes duration and is to be calculated from basic wind speed V b by the
following relationship:

VR=Vb/Ko

Where,

12
 Ko is a factor to convert 3 seconds peak gust speed into average
speed of wind during 10 minutes period at a level of 10 meters above ground.
Ko may be taken as 1.375.

Design wind speed, Vd:

Reference wind speed obtained above shall be modified to include

the following effect to get the design wind speed:

Risk coefficient, K1; and

Terrain roughness coefficient, K2.

It may be expressed as follows:

Vd =VR ×K1×K2.

Risk coefficient, K1

Table below shows Risk coefficient K1 for different reliability

levels and wind zones as shown in table 5

Reliability level Coefficient k1 for wind zones

1 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

2 1.08 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14

3 1.17 1.22 1.25 1.27 1.28 1.30

Terrain roughness coefficient, K2

13
 Table below shows the values of coefficient K2 for the three
categories of terrain roughness corresponding to 10 minutes averaged wind
speed as shown in table 6

Terrain category 1 2 3

Coefficient,K2 1.08 1.00 0.85

Design wind pressure, Pd:

The design wind pressure on towers, conductors and insulators

shall be obtained by the following relationship.

Pd = 0.6 Vd2

Where,

Pd= design wind pressure N/m2; Vd = design wind speed m/s

3.3 Gust Response Factor

Values of Gust Response Factor Gc for Conductor and Ground wire as shown
in table 7

Terrain Height values of Gc Ruling Span In m

category Above for of,
800
ground,
(1) Up to 300 400 500 600 and
700
m (2)
200 Above
(4) (5) (6) (7)
(8)
(3) (9)

1 10 1.7 1.65 1.60 1.56 1.53 1.50 1.47

Up to 20 1.9 1.87 1.83 1.79 1.75 1.70 1.66

40 2.10 2.04 2.00 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80

14
 60 2.24 2.18 2.12 2.07 2.02 1.96 1.90

80 2.35 2.25 2.18 2.13 2.10 2.06 2.03

2 10 1.83 1.78 1.73 1.69 1.65 1.60 1.55

Up to 20 2.12 2.04 1.95 1.88 1.84 1.80 1.80

40 2.34 2.27 2.20 2.13 2.08 2.05 2.02

60 2.55 2.46 2.37 2.28 2.23 2.20 2.17

80 2.69 2.56 2.48 2.41 2.36 2.32 2.28

3 10 2.05 1.98 1.93 1.88 1.83 1.77 1.73

20 2.44 2.35 2.25 2.15 2.10 2.06 2.03

40 2.76 2.67 2.58 2.49 2.42 2.38 2.34

60 2.97 2.87 2.77 2.67 2.60 2.56 2.52

80 3.19 3.04 2.93 2.85 2.78 2.73 2.69

3.4 Wind Load on Insulator Strings

Temperature effects

The temperature range varies for different localities under different

diurnal and seasonal conditions. The absolute maximum and minimum
temperature which may be expected in different localities in the country are
indicated on the map of India in fig 1 and fig 2 respectively. The temperature
indicated in these maps is the air temperatures in shade. These may be used for
assessing the temperature effects.

15
Temperature variations

The absolute maximum temperature may be assumed as the higher

adjacent isopleths temperature. The absolute minimum temperature may be
assumed as the lower adjacent isopleths temperature. The average everyday
temperature shall be 32ºc anywhere in the country, except in regions
experiencing minimum temperature of -5ºc or lower, where everyday
temperature may be taken as 15ºc or as specified by the power utilities.

The maximum conductor temperature may be obtained after

allowing increase in temperature due to radiation and heating effect due to
current act over the absolute maximum temperature given in 3. The tower may
be designed to suit the conductor temperature of 75ºc for ACSR and 85ºc for
aluminium alloy conductor. The maximum temperature of ground wire exposed
to sum may be taken as 53ºc.

Sag tension:

Sag tension calculation for conductor and ground wire shall be

made in accordance with the relevant provision of IS 5613:1985 for the
following combinations:

100 percent design wind pressure after accounting for drag coefficient and gust
response factor at everyday temperature, and

36 percent design wind pressure after accounting for drag coefficient and gust
response factor at minimum temperature.

3.5 WIND LOADS

Wind load on tower:

In order to determine the wind load on tower, the tower is divided

into different panels having a height ‘h’. These panels should normally be taken
between the intersections of the legs and bracings. For a lattice tower of square

16
cross-section, the resultant wind load Fwt in Newton, for wind normal to the
longitudinal face of tower, on a panel height ‘h’ applied at the centre of gravity
of this panel is:

Fwt = Pd × Cdt × Ae × Gt

Where,

Pd = design wind pressure, in N/m2

Cdt = drag coefficient for panel under consideration against which the
wind is blowing. Values of
Cdt for different solidity ratios are given in table below.

Solidity ratio is equal to the effective area of a frame normal to the wind
direction divided by the area enclosed by the boundry of the frame normal to the
wind direction.

Ae = total net surface area of the legs, bracings, cross arms and
secondary members of the panel projected normal to the face in m2.

GT = gust response factor, peculiar to the ground roughness and

depends on the height above ground. Values of GT for the three terrain
categories are given in table 8

Solidity Drag Coefficient,

Ratio Cdt

(1) (2)

Up to 0.05 3.6

0.1 3.4

17
 0.2 2.9

0.3 2.5

0.4 2.2

0.5and above 2.0

Drag coefficient, Cdt for Tower

In case of horizontal configuration towers, outer and inner faces

countering towers, outer and inner faces countering the wind between the waist
and beam level should be considered separately for the purpose s of calculating
wind load on the tower

Gust Response Factor for Towers (GT) and for Insulators (Gi) as shown in 9

18
Wind load on conductor and Ground wire:

The load due to wind on each conductor and ground wire, Fwt in
Newton’s applied at supporting point normal to the line shall be determined by
the following expression:

FWC = Pd × Cdc × L × d × Gc

Where,

Pd = design wind pressure, in N/m2

Cdc = drag coefficient, taken as 1.0 for conductor nd 1.2 for

Ground wire

L = wind span, in meters

Ge = gust response factor, takes into account the turbulence

of the wind and the dynamic response of the conductor.

Values of Gust Response Factor Gc for Conductor and Ground wire as shown
in 10

Terrain Height Above Values of Gc for Ruling Span,

category ground, m
In (m) 800 and
Above
Up to
200 300 400 500 600
700
(2) (3) (9)
(4) (5) (6)
(1) (7)
(8)

1 10 1.7 1.65 1.60 1.56 1.53 1.50 1.47

Up to 20 1.9 1.87 1.83 1.79 1.75 1.70 1.66

19
 40 2.10 2.04 2.00 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80

60 2.24 2.18 2.12 2.07 2.02 1.96 1.90

80 2.35 2.25 2.18 2.13 2.10 2.06 2.03

2 10 1.83 1.78 1.73 1.69 1.65 1.60 1.55

Up to 20 2.12 2.04 1.95 1.88 1.84 1.80 1.80

40 2.34 2.27 2.20 2.13 2.08 2.05 2.02

60 2.55 2.46 2.37 2.28 2.23 2.20 2.17

80 2.69 2.56 2.48 2.41 2.36 2.32 2.28

3 10 2.05 1.98 1.93 1.88 1.83 1.77 1.73

20 2.44 2.35 2.25 2.15 2.10 2.06 2.03

40 2.76 2.67 2.58 2.49 2.42 2.38 2.34

60 2.97 2.87 2.77 2.67 2.60 2.56 2.52

80 3.19 3.04 2.93 2.85 2.78 2.73 2.69

Wind Load on Insulator Strings

Wind load on insulator strings ‘Fw1’ shall be determined from the

attachment point to the centre line of the conductor in case of suspension tower
and up to the end of clamp in case of tension tower, in the direction of the wind
as follows:

Fwi = Cdi ×Pd × Ai × Gi

Where,

Cdi = drag coefficient, to be taken as 1.2

20
 Pd = design wind pressure in N/m2

Ai = 50% of the area of insulator string projected on a plane which is

parallel to the longitudinal axis of the string

Gi = gust response factor, peculiar to the ground roughness and depends

on the height of insulator attachment point above ground.

3.6 loads on towers

Classification of loads transmission lines are subjected to various

loads during their lifetime. These loads are classified into three distinct
categories, namely,

a) Climatic loads related to the reliability requirements.

b) Failure containment loads- related to security requirements.

c) Construction and maintenance loads-related to safety requirements.

3.7 Computation of loads

Transverse loads:

Transverse loads transverse loads shall be computed for reliability,

security and safety requirements.

Reliability requirements:

These loads shall be calculated as follows:

Wind action on tower structure, conductors, ground wires and insulator strings
computed according to wind load on conductor, ground wire, insulator string
and climatic conditions.

Computation of mechanical tension Fwd on conductor and ground wire.

Thus, total transverse load = Fwt + Fwc + Fwi + Fwd

21
Where, Fwd, Fwc, Fwi are to be applied on all conductor/ground wire points and F wt
to be applied on tower at ground wire peak and cross arm levels and at any one
convenient level between bottom cross arm and ground level for normal tower.

Security requirements:

1) Suspension towers
a) Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structures, conductors,
ground wires and insulators shall be taken as nil.
b) Transverse loads due to line deviation shall be based on component of
mechanical tension of conductors and ground wires corresponding to everyday
temperature and nil wind condition. For broken wire spans the component shall
be corresponding to 50% mechanical tension of conductor and 100%
mechanical tension of ground wire at everyday temperature and nil wind.
2) Tension and dead end towers
a) Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structures, conductors,
ground wires and insulators shall be computed.60% wind span shall be
considered for broken wire condition and 100% wind span for intact span
condition.
b) Transverse loads due to line deviation shall be based on component of
100% mechanical tension of conductor and ground wire.

Safety requirements:

Transverse loads on account of wind on tower structures,

conductors, ground wires, and insulators shall be taken as nil for normal and
broken wire conditions. Transverse loads due mechanical tension of conditions
and ground wire at everyday temperature and nil wind condition on account of
line deviation shall be taken for both normal and broken wire conditions.

22
Vertical loads

Vertical loads shall be computed for reliability, security and safety

requirements.

Reliability Requirements:

These loads comprise of:

1) Loads due to weight of conductors/ground wire based on design weight

span, weight of insulator strings and accessories, and
2) Self-weight of tower structure up to point/level under consideration.
The effective weight of the conductor/ground wire should be
corresponding to the weight span on the tower. The weight span is the
horizontal distance between the lowest points of the conductor/ ground wire on
the 2 spans adjacent to the tower consideration. The lowest point is defined as
the point at which the tangent to the sag curve or to the sag curve produced is
horizontal.

Security requirements:

These shall be taken as:

1) Loads due to weight of conductors/ground wire based on design weight

span, weight of insulator strings and accessories except for broken wire
condition where the load due to weight of conductor/ground wire shall be
considered as 60% of weight span, and
2) Self-weight of tower structure up to point/level under consideration.

Safety requirements:

These loads comprise of:

1) Loads of 1500N considered acting at each cross arm, as a provision of

weight of lineman with tools.

23
2) Loads of 3500N acting at the tip of cross arms up to 220 kV and 5000N for
400Kv and higher voltage for design of cross arms, and

Following erection loads at lifting points, for 400kV and higher voltage,
assumed as acting at locations specified below table 11

Longitudinal loads

Longitudinal loads shall be computed for reliability, security and

safety requirements. The angles of line deviation specified in before are for the
design span. The span may, however, be increased up to an optimum limit with
reducing angle of line deviation, if adequate ground and phase clearances are
available.

Reliability Requirements

These loads shall be taken as under:

1) Longitudinal load for dead-end towers to be considered corresponding to

mechanical tension of conductors and ground wire as defined.
2) Longitudinal loads which might be caused on tension towers by adjacent
spans of unequal lengths can be neglected in most cases, as the strength of the
supports for longitudinal loads is checked for security requirements and for
construction and maintenance requirements.
3) No longitudinal load for suspension and tension towers.

24
Security requirements

These loads shall be taken as under:

1) For suspension towers, the longitudinal load corresponding to 50% of the

mechanical tension of conductor and 100% of mechanical tension of ground
wire shall be considered under everyday temperature and no wind pressure.
2) Horizontal loads in longitudinal direction due to mechanical tension of
conductors and ground wire shall be taken as specified for broken wires and nil
for intact wires for design of tension towers.
3) For dead end towers, horizontal loads in longitudinal direction due to
mechanical tension of Conductor and ground wire shall be taken as nil.

Safety Requirements

These loads shall be taken as under:

1) For normal conditions – These loads for dead end towers shall be
considered as corresponding to mechanical tension of conductor/ground wire at
everyday temperature and no wind.
Longitudinal loads due to unequal spans may be neglected.
2) For broken wire conditions

(a) Suspension towers – Longitudinal load per sub - conductor and ground
wire shall be considered as 10000N and 5000N respectively.

(b) Tension towers – Longitudinal load equal to twice the sagging tension
(sagging tension shall be taken as 50 percent of tension at everyday temperature
and no wind) for wires under stringing and 1.5 times the sagging tension for all
intact wires (stringing completed).

25
3.8 Permissible stresses

Axial stresses in tension:

The estimated tensile stresses on the net effective sectional areas in various
members shall not exceed minimum guaranteed yield stress of the material.
However in case the angle section is commented by one leg only, the estimated
tensile stress on the net effective sectional area shall not exceed Fy, where Fy is
the minimum guaranteed yield stress of the material.
Axial stresses in compression:

The estimated compressive stresses in various members shall not exceed the
values.

The allowable unit stress Fa, in MPa on the gross cross sectional area of the
axially

a) Fa =[ 1-1/2 (KL/r/Cc)2] × Fy
Where KL/r Cc
2
b) Fb = E/ (KL/r)2
Where KL /r

Where,

Ce π

Fy = minimum guaranteed yield stress of the material, MPa

E= modulus, of elasticity of steel that is 2 10 MPa,

KL/r= largest effective slenderness ratio of any unbraced segment

of the member in cm, and

r= appropriate radius of gyration in cm.

26
The formulae are applicable provided the largest width thickness ratio b/t is not
more than the limiting value given by:

(b/t) lim =210/(fy)1/2

Where,

b= distance from edge of fillet to the extreme fiber in mm, and

t =thickness of flange in m

Slenderness ratios

The slenderness ratios of compression and redundant members shall be

determined as follows as shown in 12

Type of Members Value of KL/r

a) Compression Members

i) Leg sections or joint L/r

Members bolted in both

Faces at connections for

0 < L/r < 120

ii) Members with L/r

concentric loading at

both ends of the unsupported panel for

0 < L/r < 120

iii) Member with 30 + 0.75 L/r

27
concentric loading at

one end and normal

framing eccentricity at

the other end of the

unsupported panel for

0 < L/r < 120

iv) Member with normal 60 + 0.50

framing eccentricities

at both ends of the

unsupported panel for

0 < L/r < 120

v) Member unrestrained L/r

against rotation at both

ends of the unsupported

panel for

120 < L/r < 200

28
Bolting

Minimum Diameter of Bolts

The diameter of bolts shall not be less than 12 mm

Preferred Sizes of Bolts

Bolts used for erection of transmission line towers shall be of diameter 12, 16
and 20 mm.

The length of bolts shall be such that the threaded portion does not lie in the
plane of contact of members. The projected portion of the bolt beyond the nut
shall be between 3 to 8 mm.

Gross Area of Bolt

For the purpose of calculating the shear stress, the gross area of
bolts shall be taken as the nominal area of the bolt. The bolt area for bearing
shall be taken as d × t where d is the nominal diameter of the bolt, and t the
thickness of the thinner of the Parts jointed. The net area of a bolt in tension
shall be taken as the area at the root of the thread.

Holes for Bolting

The diameter of the hole drilled/punched shall not be more than the
nominal diameter of the bolt plus 1.5 mm.

Stresses in bolts

Ultimate stresses in bolts conforming to property class 4.6 of IS

6639: 1972 and to property class 5.6 of IS 12427: 1988 shall not exceed the
value given in Table 1. For bolts conforming to

IS 3757: 1985, permissible stresses and other provisions governing the use of
high strength bolts reference shall be made to

29
IS 4000: 1992. Where the material of bolt and the structural member of different
grades, the bearing strength of the joint shall be considered by the lower of two
as shown in 13

Framing

The angle between any two members common to a joint of a

trussed frame shall preferably be greater than 20° and never less than 15° due to
uncertainty of stress distribution between two closely spaced members.

30
3.9 Statutory requirements:

Statutory requirements as laid down in the Indian electricity rules,

1956 or by any other statutory body applicable to such structures as covered in
this standard shall be satisfied.

Compliance with the code IS: 802 does not relieve any one from the
responsibility of observing local and state byelaws, fire and safety laws and
other civil aviation requirements applicable to such structures.

31
STAAD - PRO
________________________________________________________

4.0 OBJECTIVE:

A five storied symmetrical residential building located in seismic zone III

is analyzed and design for earthquake forces.

ADOPTION OF THE BUILDING:

In the fast developing countries these days the population is also

increasing rapidly. So small towns and cities are changing into metropolitan
cities there is scarcity of land and business is growing and expanding very fast.
Therefore, huge multi-storied or commercial organizations are being
constructed and the number of such complex increasing fast day by day. So
buildings for such commercial purposes have become expensive.

“EARTH QUAKES” are natural hazards under which disaster are mainly
caused or collapse of buildings and other man-made structures. Earth quake
damage depends on parameters including intensity, duration and frequency,
content of ground motivation and soil earthquakes has occurred due to collapse
of building.

A structure is an assembly of a number of members such as slabs,

columns, beams. The members are proportional to resist the loads and forces,
changes in climate such as temperature, frost, chemical attack, etc.

So the structure thus constructed must be able to resist earthquakes.

Experience in past earthquakes has demonstrated that many common

buildings and typical methods of construction lack basic resistance to
earthquake forces. In most cases this resistance can be achieved by following
simple, inexpensive principles of good building construction practice.

32
 Adherence to these simple rules will not prevent all damage in moderate
or large earthquakes, but life threatening collapses should be prevented, and
damage limited to repairable proportions.

These principles fall into several broad categories:

i. Planning and layout of the building involving consideration of the

location of rooms and walls, openings such as doors and windows, the
number of stories, etc. At this stage, site and foundation aspects should
also be considered.
ii. Lay out and general design of the structural framing system with special
attention to furnishing lateral resistance, and
iii. Consideration of highly loaded and critical sections with provision of
reinforcement as required.

It has provided a good overview of structural action, mechanism of

damage and modes of failure of buildings. From these studies, certain general
principles have emerged:

i. Structures should not be brittle or collapse suddenly. Rather, they should

be tough, able to deflect or deform a considerable amount.
ii. Resisting elements, such as bracing or shear walls, must be provided
evenly throughout the building, in both directions side-to-side, as well as
top to bottom.
iii. All elements, such as walls and the roof, should be tied together so as to
act as an integrated unit during earthquake shaking, transferring forces
across connections and preventing separation.
iv. The building must be well connected to a good foundation and the earth.
Wet, soft soils should be avoided, and the foundation must be well tied
together as well as tied to the wall. Where soft soils cannot be avoided,
special strengthening must be provided.

33
 v. Care must be taken that all materials used are of good quality and are
protected from rain, sun, insects and other weakening actions, so that
their strength lasts.
vi. Unreinforced earth and masonry have no reliable strength in tension, and
are brittle in compression. Generally, they must be suitably reinforced by
steel or wood.

CATEGORIES OF BUILDINGS:

For categorizing the buildings with the purpose of achieving seismic

resistance at economical cost, three parameters turn out to be significant:

i. Seismic intensity zone where the building is located,

ii. How important the building is, and
iii. How stiff is the foundation soil.

A combination of these parameters will determine the extent of

appropriate seismic strengthening of the building.

The importance of the building should be a factor in grading it for

strengthening purposes and the following buildings are suggested as specially
important:

IMPORTANT: Hospitals, clinics, communication buildings, fire and

police stations, water supply facilities, cinemas, theatres and meeting halls,
schools, dormitories, cultural treasures such as museums, monuments and
temples, etc.

ORDINARY: Housings, hostels, offices, warehouses, factories, etc.

Earthquake resistant structures are designed and constructed to withstand

various hazardous earthquake exposures at the sites of their particular location.

According to building codes, earthquake resistant structures are meant to

withstand the earthquake of certain probability that is likely to occur at their
34
location. This means of life should be minimized by preventing the collapse of
the building.

The ANALYSIS AND DESIGN work was carried out using “Staad Pro”
V.08 and by using codes of IS 1893:2002, IS 456:2002 and IS 13920:1993.

The work was divided in the following parts:

The entire building was fed into the computer using graphical input generator of
Staad Pro V.08

i. The members were loaded for dead loads and live loads.
ii. The process of analysis was carried out.
iii. The design of beam and columns was done.
iv. The design results were presented in the form of figures and AutoCAD

4.1 TYPES OF LOADS:

The loads are broadly classified as vertical loads, horizontal loads, and
longitudinal loads. The vertical loads consist of dead load, live load, impact
load. The Horizontal loads comprises of wind load and earth quake load.

DEAD LOAD:

Dead loads are permanent or stationary loads which are transferred to the
structure throughout their life span. Dead load is primarily due to self-weight of
structural members, permanent partition walls, fixed permanent equipment and
weighs of different materials.

IMPOSED LOADS OR LIVE LOADS:

Live loads or movable loads without any acceleration or impact. These

are assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy of the building
including weights of movable partition or furniture etc. The imposed loads to be
assumed in buildings.

35
IMPACT LOAD:

Impact load is caused by vibration or impact or acceleration. A person

walking produces a live load but soldiers marching or frames supporting lifts
and hoists produce impact loads. Thus impact load is equal to imposed
incremented by some percentage depending on the intensity of impact.

WIND LOAD:

Wind load is primary horizontal load caused by movement of air relative

to earth. The details of design wind load are given IS : 875 (part - 3)2.2Wind
load is required to be considered in design especially when the height of the
building exceeds two times dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface.
For low rise building say up to 4 to 5 stores the wind load is not critical because
the moment of resistance provided by the continuity of floor system to column
connection and walls provided between column connection and walls provided
between columns are sufficient to accommodate the effect of these forces.
Further in limit state method the factor for design load is reduced to 1.2(DL +
LL + WL) when the wind is considered as against the factor of 1.5 (DL + LL)
when wind is not considered.

CHARACTERISTIC LOAD:

The characteristic load is defined as that value of load which has 95%
probability of not being exceeded during the service span of the structure.
However, this requires large amount of statistical data. Code recommends to
take the working loads or service loads based on past experience and judgment
and are taken as per IS: 875 2.1 and IS: 1893 2.3 codes.

36
5.2 EARTH QUAKE LOAD (OR) SESIMIC LOAD:

Earth quake loads are horizontal loads caused by earth quake and shall be
computed in accordance with IS: 18932.2. For monolithic reinforced concrete
structures located in seismic zone II and III without more than 5 story high, and
importance factor less than 1, the seismic forces are not critical.

Seismology is the study of vibrations of earth mainly caused by

earthquakes. The study of these vibrations by various techniques, understanding
the nature and various physical processes that generate them from the major part
of the seismology.

A seismic design of high rise buildings has assumed considerable

importance in recent times. In traditional methods adopted based on
fundamental mode of the structure and distribution of earth quake forces as
static forces at various stories may be adequate for structures of small height
subjected to earthquake of very low intensity but as the number of stories
increases the seismic design demands more rigorous.

During past earthquakes, reinforced concrete (RC) frame buildings that

have columns of different heights within one story, suffered more damage in the
shorter columns as compared to taller columns in the same story. However, the
short column is stiffer as compared to the tall column, and it attracts larger
earthquake force. Stiffness of a column means resistance to deformation- the
larger is the stiffness, larger is the force required to deform it. If a short
column is not adequately designed for such a large force, it can suffer
significant damage during an earthquake. This behavior is called Short Column
Effect. The damage in these short columns is often in the form of X-shaped
cracking - this type of damage of columns is due to shear failure. Many
situations with short column effect arise in buildings. When a building is rested
on sloped ground, during earthquake shaking all columns move horizontally by

37
the same amount along with the floor slab at a particular level (this is called
rigid floor diaphragm action). If short and tall columns exist within the same
store level, then the short columns attract several times larger earthquake force
and suffer more damage as compared to taller ones. The short column effect
also occurs in columns that support mezzanine floors or loft slabs that are added
in between two regular floors. There is another special situation in buildings
when short-column effect occurs.

The Indian Standard IS: 13920-1993 for ductile detailing of RC structures

requires special confining reinforcement to be provided over the full height of
columns that are likely to sustain short column effect. The special confining
reinforcement (i.e., closely spaced closed ties) must extend beyond the short
column into the columns vertically above and below by a certain distance. In
existing buildings with short columns, different retrofit solutions can be
employed to avoid damage in future earthquakes.

4.3 PURPOSE OF SESIMIC LOAD (OR) EARTH QUAKE LOAD:

The purpose of earthquake engineering is to:

 Avoid the loss of lives resulting from the collapse of infrastructure or a

building in a major earthquake (a design earthquake or ultimate limit state
earthquake).
 Limit personal injury and building damage (including contents) in
moderate earthquakes (serviceability limit state earthquake).
Infrastructure / building should be fully functional after a cleanup.
 Minimize damage and disturbance to residents in moderate and minor
earthquakes.
 Maintain the key function of the infrastructure / building.
 Protect the lives of those outside the building.
 Protect other property & the environment.

38
4.4 GUIDELINES FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN:

As mentioned above, the philosophy of earthquake design is to prevent

non-structural damage infrequent minor ground shaking, is to prevent structural
damage and minimize non-structural damage in occasional moderate ground
shaking and to avoid collapse or serious damage in rare major ground shaking.
In order to meet these requirements the code of practice for earthquake resistant
design of structures generally prescribes guidelines with respect to following
aspects:

 Intensity of shaking is prescribed based on zone factor depending upon

seismic activity in the region of geographical location of the site.
 Characteristics of the structures that affect its dynamic behavior are
accounted by prescribing appropriate natural period depending on
distribution of mass and stiffness properties also, by considering type of
soil beneath its foundation.
 Importance factor is assigned depending on occupancy type, functionality
etc. of the structure.
 Capability of a particular structure to resist lateral forces is incorporated
by identifying its redundancy and ductility features through response
modification factor.

When inertia of the structure offers resistance to ground motions,

structure will experience earthquake forces. The relative movement between the
ground and the structure induces a force dependent on the ground acceleration,
mass and stiffness properties of the structure. The ground acceleration depends
on the magnitude and intensity of the seismic event at a location. Based on
seismic records, experience, and research, some areas of the country are
determined to have a greater probability of earthquakes than others, and some
areas have more severe earthquakes. This is taken into account by dividing the

39
country into different zones that represent estimates of future earthquake
occurrence and strength.

4.5 SESIMIC ZONES:

The Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes. The

major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the
Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year.
Geographical statistics of India show that almost 54% of the land is vulnerable
to earthquakes. A World Bank & United Nations report shows estimates that
around 200 million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and
earthquakes by 2050. The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in
the earthquake resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns
four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors. In other words, the
earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4
and 5) unlike its previous version which consisted of five or six zones for the
country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level
of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity.
The latest seismic zoning map can be accessed from The India Meteorological
Department website.

The MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik) intensity broadly associated

with the various seismic zones is VI (or less), VII, VIII and IX (and above) for
Zones 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively, corresponding to Maximum Considered
Earthquake (MCE). The IS code follows a dual design philosophy: (a) under
low probability or extreme earthquake events (MCE) the structure damage
should not result in total collapse, and (b) under more frequently occurring
earthquake events, the structure should suffer only minor or moderate structural
damage. The specifications given in the design code (IS 1893: 2002) are not
based on detailed assessment of maximum ground acceleration in each zone
using a deterministic or probabilistic approach. Instead, each zone factor

40
represents the effective period peak ground accelerations that may be generated
during the maximum considered earthquake ground motion in that zone.

Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place

based on the observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a
descriptive scale like Modified Mercalli intensity scale or the Medvedev-
Sponheuer-Karnik scale.

Zone 5:

Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers
earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or greater. The IS code assigns zone factor of
0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use this factor for earthquake resistant
design of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 is indicative of effective
(zero periods) peak horizontal ground accelerations of 0.36 g (36% of gravity)
that may be generated during MCE level earthquake in this zone. It is referred
to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The state of Kashmir, the western and
central Himalayas, the North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in
this zone. Generally, the areas having trap or basaltic rock are prone to
earthquakes.

Zone4:

This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to
MSK VIII. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4. The Indo-
Gangetic basin and the capital of the country (Delhi), Jammu and Kashmir fall
in Zone 4. In Maharashtra the Patan area (Koyananager) is also in zone 4.

Zone3:

The Kakinada, parts of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall, under this zone.
This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK
VII. And also 7.8 The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3.

41
Zone2:

This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low

Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum
horizontal acceleration that can be experienced by a structure in this zone is
10% of gravitational acceleration) for Zone 2.

42
STAAD PRO RESULTS

Fig: 19 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported

from Auto Cad

43
Fig: 20 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) after define
material property

Fig: 21 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) after assign

supports.

44
Fig: 22 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) after assign
wind load intensity (220kmph) in one side

45
Fig: 24 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) after assign
wind load intensity (220kmph) in one side

Fig: 25 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) after assign

wind load intensity (220kmph) in one side

46
Fig: 26 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) after assign
wind load intensity (220kmph) in one side

Fig: 27 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) after assign

seismic loading at nodes of the frame

47
Fig: 28 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) checking
displacement

48
Fig: 29 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

49
Fig: 30 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

50
Fig: 31 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

51
Fig: 32 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

52
Fig: 33 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

53
Fig: 34 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

54
Fig: 35 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

55
Fig: 36 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

56
Fig: 37 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

57
Fig: 38 shows a 3D model diagram (Transmission Tower 220KV) imported
from Auto Cad

58
CONCLUSIONS

On the whole, this study has attempted to provide an insight into the soil
properties, design of foundation and staad analysis. The study yielded the
following conclusions based on the laboratory experimentation carried out in
this investigations.

 We observed that the properties of soil after determination of laboratory

tests, the sol is red clay and it is comes under wet clay soil.
 After knowing the type of soil, we selected wet type of foundation.
 We observed during the design process, all the design criteria’s satisfied
as per is code provisions
 After designing the foundation, then we are going to design seismic and
wind analysis by using staad pro.
 After observing HUDHUD cyclone, we are assign 220kmph in wind
analysis.
 We observed in analysis of seismic the transmission tower was stable.

59
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Transmission Towers Using a Diaphragm Bracing System”.

[2] Gencturk, B., Attar, A., Tort, C., “Optimal Design of Lattice Wind Turbine
Towers” 15 WCEE lisboa 2012

[3] Ghomi, S. S., Ebadi, P., “Concept improvement of behavior of XBracing

systems by using Easy-Going Steel”The 14th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering October 12-17, 2008, Beijing, China.

[4] Hlalele, T.S., Du, Shengzhi., “Real Time Monitoring Of High Voltage
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[9] Preeti, C., Jagan Mohan ,K., “Analysis of Transmission Towers with
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[10] Qu, Weilian., Song, Wanjun., Xia, Yong., Xu, Youlin., Qin, Wenke., Jiang,
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[11] Raj, R. P., Kalyanaraman, V., “GA based Optimal Design of Steel Truss
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[12] S, Krystian ., I, Marek., G, Andrzej., “Low frequency identification of

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[13] Salameh, M. S. H. Al., Hassouna M. A. S., “Arranging overhead power

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[14] Satyanarayana, M.V.R., Lakshmi, V., Haq,M.N., “Reliability assessment of

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[15] Selvaraj, M., Kulkarni,S.M., Babu, R.R., “Behavioral Analysis of built up

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61