8/7/2019

Organization
and
Regulation of
Body
Systems

Points to Ponder
• What is a tissue? Organ? Organ system?
• What are the 4 main types of tissue?
• What do these tissues look like, how do
they function and where are they found?
• What is the integumentary system?
• How can you prevent skin cancer?
• What is homeostasis and how is it
maintained?

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Levels of Organization
Tissue - Group of similar cells performing a
similar function
Organ - Group of tissues performing a
specialized function
Organ System - Collection of several
organs functioning together
Organism - A collection of organ systems

Types of Epithelial Tissues

in the Vertebrates

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4.1 Types of tissues

What is a tissue?
• A collection of cells of the same type that
perform a common function
• There are 4 major tissue types in the
body:
1. Connective
2. Muscular
3. Nervous
4. Epithelial

4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

1. Connective tissue
• Binds and supports parts of the body
• All have specialized cells, ground substance
and protein fibers
• Ground substance is noncellular and ranges
from solid to fluid
• The ground substance and proteins fibers
together make up the matrix of the tissue
• There are three main types of connective
tissue: A. fibrous , B. supportive and C. fluid

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4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

3 main types of connective tissue

A. Fibrous
B. Supportive
C. Fluid
Copy right © The Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Types of Connectiv e Tissue

Fibrous connectiv e tissue Supportiv e connective tissue Fluid connectiv e tissue

Loose Dense Cartilage Bone Blood Lymph

Fibers create Fibers are Solid yet flexible Solid and rigid Contained in Contained in
loose, open densely packed matrix matrix blood v essels lymphatic v essels
framework

Connective Tissue
Examples

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4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

A. Fibrous connective tissue

• There are two types: dense or loose, but
both contain fibroblast cells with a matrix
of collagen and elastic fibers

• Loose fibrous tissue is found supporting

epithelium and many internal organs

• Adipose tissue is a special loose fibrous

tissue where fat is stored

Diagram of Fibrous Connective Tissue

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4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

What does loose fibrous connective
tissue look like? Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies , Inc . Permis s ion required for reproduc tion or dis play .

elastic fiber

collagen
fiber
fibroblast

Loose fibrous tissue

Copy right © The Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

adipose cell r eticular fiber

stor es fat br anched, thin, for m s networ k

m ast cell white blood cell

r eleases chem icals after pr oduces antibodies
an injur y or infection

gr ound substance elastic fiber

fills spaces between cells br anched and str etchable
and fiber s
© Ed Reschke

stem cell white blood cell

divides to pr oduce other engulfs pathogens
types of cells

fibr oblast collagen fiber

pr oduces fiber s and unbr anched, str ong but flexible
gr ound substance

Connective Tissue
Adipose Tissue

 Insulates the body and provides padding

Cartilage

 Classified according to type of collagen and

elastic fibers found in the matrix

 Cartilage cells (chondrocytes), lie in small

chambers (lacunae) in the matrix

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4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

B. Supportive connective tissue:

Cartilage
• Cells are in chambers called lacunae
• Matrix is solid but flexible
• 3 types are distinguished by types of fibers
1. Hyaline cartilage – fine collagen fibers
Location: Nose, ends of long bones and fetal skeleton
2. Elastic cartilage – more elastic fibers than cartilage
fibers
Location: Outer ear
3. Fibrocartilage – strong collagen fibers
Location: Disks between vertebrae

4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

B. Supportive connective tissue:

Bone
• Cells are in chambers called lacunae
• Matrix is solid and rigid that is made of
collagen and calcium salts
• 2 types are distinguished by types of fibers
1. Compact – made of repeating circular units called
osteons which contain the hard matrix and living
cells and blood vessels
Location: Shafts of long bone
2. Spongy – an open, latticework with irregular spaces
Location: Ends of long bones

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4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

What do bone and cartilage look like?

Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

© Ed Reschke

matrix

cell within
a lacuna

Hyaline cartilage
© Ed Reschke

4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

C. Fluid connective tissue:

Blood
• Made of a fluid matrix
called plasma and
cellular components
that are called formed
elements
• 3 formed elements:
1. Red blood cells – cells
that carry oxygen
2. White blood cells – cells
that fight infection
3. Platelets – pieces of
cells that clot blood

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4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

C. Fluid connective tissue: Lymph

• Matrix is a fluid called lymph

• White blood cells congregate in this

tissue

4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body

2. Muscle tissue
• Allows for movement in the body

• Made of muscle fibers/cells and protein fibers called

actin and myosin

• There are 3 types of muscle tissue in humans:

A. Skeletal
B. Smooth
C. Cardiac

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Muscular Tissue
Contractile cells containing actin and myosin
filaments
Cells are called muscle fibers
 Skeletal Muscle
• Voluntary - Long, striated fibers
 Smooth Muscle
• Involuntary - No striations
 Cardiac Muscle
• Striated, but mostly involuntary
• Bound by intercalated disks

Muscular Tissue

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4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body

A. Muscle tissue - Skeletal Copy right © The Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Appearance: long,
cylindrical cells,
multiple nuclei,
striated fibers
• Location: attached
to bone for
movement
• Nature: voluntary
movement

a.
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body

B. Muscle tissue - Smooth Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies , Inc . Permis s ion required for reproduc tion or dis play .

Smooth muscle
• has spindle-shaped cells, each with
a single nucleus.
• Appearance: spindle- • cells hav e no striations.

shaped cell with one • functions in mov ement of substances

in lumens of body.
nucleus, lack striations • is inv oluntary.
• is found in blood v essel walls and walls
of the digestiv e tract.

• Location: walls of hollow

organs and vessels

• Nature: involuntary
movement 400
smooth muscle cell nucleus

b. © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

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4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body

C. Muscle tissue – Cardiac Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies , Inc . Permis s ion required for reproduc tion or dis play .

Cardiac muscle
• Appearance: branched • has branching, striated cells, each with
a single nucleus.
cells with a single • occurs in the wall of the heart.
nucleus, striations with • functions in the pumping of blood.
• is involuntary.
darker striations called
intercalated disks
between cells
Place “New” Figure 4.5c here
• Location: heart The inset was removed.

• Nature: involuntary 250

intercalated disk nucleus
movement

c. © Ed Res c hk e

4.4 Nervous tissue communicates

3. Nervous tissue
• Allows for communication between cells
through sensory input, integration of data and
motor output

• Made of 2 major cell types:

A. Neurons
B. Neuroglia

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Nervous Tissue
Nervous system has three functions
 Sensory input
• Sensory receptors detect changes
• Transmit info to the spinal cord
 Data integration
• Spinal cord and brain integrate
• Decision is made regarding appropriate response
 Motor output
• Response is transmitted to effector (gland or muscle)
• Effector initiates actual response

4.4 Nervous tissue communicates

A. Nervous tissue - neurons Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies , Inc . Permis s ion required for reproduc tion or dis play .

dendrite

• Made of dendrites, a
cell body and an axon Neuron nucleus

cell body

•
Microglia

Dendrites carry Astrocyte

information toward the Oligodendrocyte

cell body
myelin sheath
axon

• Axons carry information Capillary

towards a cell body

dendrite

nucleus

cell body

Micrograph of neuron
© Ed Reschke

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4.4 Nervous tissue communicates

A. Nervous tissue - neuroglia Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

dendrite

• A collection of cells that

support and nourish Neuron nucleus

neurons cell body

Microglia
Astrocyte

• Outnumber neurons 9:1

Oligodendrocyte

• Examples are myelin sheath

axon

oligodendrocytes,
astrocytes and Capillary

microglia dendrite

nucleus

cell body

Micrograph of neuron © Ed Reschke

4.5 Epithelial tissue protects

4. Epithelial tissue
• A groups of cells that form a tight, continuous
network
• Lines body cavities, covers body surfaces and
found in glands
• Cells are anchored by a basement membrane
on one side and free on the other side
• Named after the appearance of cell layers and
the shape of the cells
• There is transitional epithelium that changes in
appearance in response to tension

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4.5 Epithelial tissue protects

How do we name epithelial tissue?

• Number of cell layers:
• Simple: one layer of cells
• Stratified: more than one layer of cells
• Pseudostratified: appears to have layers but only
has one layer

• Shape of cell:
• Cuboidal: cube-shaped
• Columnar: column-shaped
• Squamous: flattened

4.6 Cell junction types

How are cells connected within a

tissue?
• Tight junctions – proteins join and form an
impermeable barrier between plasma
membranes in a zipper-like fashion

• Adhesion junctions – cytoskeletal fibers join

between cells and have flexibility

• Gap junctions – a fusion of adjacent plasma

membranes with small channels between
them that allow small molecules to diffuse

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4.6 Cell junction types

Cell junctions
Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

microv illi

plasma membrane
membranes
channels

tight junction plasma

proteins membranes

a. Tight junction c. Gap j unction

basement
membrane

plasma
membranes

cytoplasmic
plaque

intercellular
filaments

cytoskeletal
fibers

b. Adhesion junction

4.7 Integumentary system

The integumentary system:

• Includes the skin and accessory organs such
as hair, nails and glands

• The skin has two main regions called the

epidermis and the dermis

• Under the skin there is a subcutaneous layer

between the dermis and internal structures
where fat is stored

• Is important for maintaining homeostasis

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4.7 Integumentary system

What are the functions of the

integumentary system
1. Protects the body from physical trauma,
invasion by pathogens and water loss

2. Helps regulate body temperature

3. Allows us to be aware of our surroundings

through sensory receptors

4. Synthesizes chemicals such as melanin and

vitamin D

Regions of Skin
Dermis - Deeper and thicker than epidermis
 Fibrous connective tissue containing elastic
and collagen fibers Contains:
• Hair follicles
• Sebaceous glands
• Receptors
• Nerve fibers
• Blood vessels

Subcutaneous Layer - Loose, connective

tissue located below dermis

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4.7 Integumentary system

There are two regions of the skin

• Epidermis
• Dermis Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

hair shaft

sweat pore Epidermis

stem cells

sensory receptor

capillaries
oil gland
Dermis
arrector pili muscle
free nerv e endings
hair follicle
hair root
sweat gland
artery Subcutaneous layer
v ein
nerv e

adipose tissue

The Epidermis

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4.7 Integumentary system

The epidermis:
• The thin, outermost layer of the skin
• Made of epithelial tissue
• Cells in the uppermost cells are dead and
become filled with keratin thus acting as a
waterproof barrier
• Langerhans cells are a type of white blood cell
that help fight pathogens
• Melanocytes produce melanin that lend to skin
color and protection for UV light
• Some cells convert cholesterol to vitamin D

4.7 Integumentary system

What you need to know about skin

cancer?
• 2 of the 3 types that arise in the epidermis:
• Basal cell carcinoma is the most common yet least deadly
form of skin cancer
• Melanoma is the most deadly form of skin cancer but is the
least common

• What can you do to help prevent this?

• Stay out of the sun between 10am-3pm
• Wear protective clothing (tight weave, treated sunglasses,
wide-brimmed hat)
• Use sunscreen with an SPF of at least 15 and protects from
UV-A and UV-B rays
• Don’t use tanning beds

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4.7 Integumentary system

What might skin cancer look like?

Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

flattened and
dead cells

Epidermis
cells undergoing b. Basal cell
keratinization carcinoma

stem cells
and melanoytes

Dermis
dermal
proj ection

a. Light micrograph of skin c. Melanoma

a: © John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; b: © Ken Greer/Visuals Unlimited; c: © James
Stevenson/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

4.7 Integumentary system

The dermis:
• The thick, inner layer of the skin

• Made of dense fibrous connective tissue

• Contains elastic and collagen fibers

• Contains blood vessels, many sensory

receptors and glands

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4.7 Integumentary system

What are the accessory organs of the

skin and why are they important?
• Includes nails, hair and glands

• Nails are derived from the epidermis that offer a

protective covering

• Hair follicles are derived from the dermis but hair

grows from epidermal cells

• Oil glands are associated with hair and produce sebum

that lubricates hair and skin as well as retards bacterial
growth

• Sweat glands are derived from the dermis and helps to

regulate body temperature

4.8 Organ systems

Moving from tissue to organs and

organ systems
• An organ is 2 or more tissue types working
towards a particular function

• An organ system is a combination of organs

that work together to carry out a particular
function

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4.8 Organ systems

What are the organ systems of the

human body?
Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Integumentary Cardiov ascular Lymphatic and Digestiv e system Respiratory system Urinary system
system system immune systems
• ingests food. • maintains breathing. • excretes metabolic
• protects body. • transports blood, • helps control fluid • digests food. • exchanges gases at wastes.
• receiv es sensory nutrients, gases, balance. • absorbs nutrients. lungs and tissues. • helps control fluid
input. and wastes. • absorbs fats. • eliminates waste. • helps control pH balance.
• helps control • defends against • defends against balance. • helps control pH
temperature. disease. infectious disease. balance.
• synthesizes v itamin D. • helps control
temperature, fluid,
and pH balance.

4.8 Organ systems

What are the organ systems of the

human body? Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Skeletal system Muscular system Nerv ous system Endocrine system Reproductiv e system
• supports the body. • maintains posture. • receiv es sensory input. • produces hormones. • produces gametes.
• protects body parts. • mov es body and • integrates and stores • helps coordinate organ • transports gametes.
• helps mov e the body. internal organs. input. systems. • produces sex hormones.
• stores minerals. • produces heat. • initiates motor output. • responds to stress. • nurtures and giv es birth
• produces blood • helps coordinate • helps regulate fluid and to offspring in females.
cells. organ systems. pH balance.
• helps regulate
metabolism.

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4.8 Organ systems

What are the body cavities?

Copy right © The Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cranial
cavity:
contains brain

Dorsal
cavity
Vertebral
cavity:
contains
Thoracic spinal cord
cavity:
contains heart,
lungs, and
esophagus diaphragm

Abdominal
cavity:
Ventral contains stomach,
cavity liver, spleen,
pancreas,
gallbladder,
and intestines
Pelvic
cavity:
contains
reproductive
and other
organs
a.

plurae
Thoracic cavity:
contains esophagus,
pericardium heart, and lungs

Abdominal cavity:
peritoneum contains digestive
and other organs

Pelvic cavity:
contains reproductive
and other organs
b.

4.8 Organ systems

What about the body membranes

that line the cavities?
• Mucous membranes – lining of the digestive, respiratory, urinary
and reproductive systems

• Serous membranes – line lungs, heart, abdominal cavity and

covers the internal organs; named after their location
• Pleura: lungs
• Peritoneum: abdominal cavity and organs
• Pericardium: heart

• Synovial membranes – lines the cavities of freely movable joints

• Meninges – cover the brain and spinal cord

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4.9 Homeostasis

What is homeostasis?
• The ability to maintain a relatively
constant internal environment in the body

• The nervous and endocrine systems are

key in maintaining homeostasis

• Changes from the normal tolerance limits

results in illness or even death

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4.9 Homeostasis
All systems are important in
maintaining homeostasis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Endocrine System

All system s of the body contr ibute to Endocr ine glands secr ete hor m ones, which
m aintain hom eostasis. These system s also r egulate and coor dinate the activities of
in par ticular ar e especially notewor thy. other system s. Wor ks m or e slowly than the
ner vous system .

Nervous System
Regulates and coor dinates the activities of all Respiratory System
the other system s. It r esponds quickly to
inter nal and exter nal stim uli. Supplies blood with oxygen for tissue cells
and r ids blood of car bon dioxide. Helps
r egulate the acid-base balance of the blood.

Cardiovascular System Urinary System

Tr anspor ts oxygen and nutr ients to tissue Excretes nitrogenous and other wastes.
cells and tr anspor ts wastes away fr om cells. Regulates water-salt balance of the blood.
Also tr anspor ts hor m ones secr eted by the Helps r egulate the acid-base balance of the
endocr ine glands. blood.

Digestive System Lymphatic System

Supplies blood with nutr ients and water for Helps m aintain blood volum e by collecting
tissue cells. Rids the body of nondigestible excess tissue fluid and r etur ning it via
r em ains. lym phatic vessels to the car diovascular veins.
Defends against disease.

Muscular System Integumentary System

Pr oduces heat that m aintains body Helps m aintain body tem per atur e and pr otects
tem per atur e. Pr otects and suppor ts inter nal inter nal or gans.
or gans.

Homeostasis
The organ systems of the human body contribute to
homeostasis
 The digestive system
• Takes in and digests food
• Provides nutrient molecules that re-place used nutrients
 The respiratory system
• Adds oxygen to the blood
• Removes carbon dioxide
 The liver and the kidneys
• Store excess glucose as glycogen
• Later, glycogen is broken down to replace the glucose used
• The hormone insulin regulates glycogen storage
 The kidneys
• Under hormonal control as they excrete wastes and salts

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4.9 Homeostasis

What are the mechanisms for

maintaining homeostasis?
• Negative feedback
• Positive feedback

Negative Feedback
Homeostatic Control
 Partially controlled by hormones

 Ultimately controlled by the nervous system

Negative Feedback is the primary homeostatic

mechanism that keeps a variable close to a set
value
 Sensor detects change in environment

 Regulatory Center activates an effector

 Effector reverses the changes

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Negative Feedback Mechanisms:

Simple

Negative
Feedback
Mechanisms:
Complex

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Regulation of
Body
Temperature

4.9 Homeostasis
Negative feedback
Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• The primary mechanism

Control center
for maintaining
homeostasis sends data to control center directs response to stimulus

Sensor Effect
• Has two components:
• sensor
• control center negative feedback
and return to normal

stimulus

• The output of the system

dampens the original Homeostasis
stimulus

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4.9 Homeostasis Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

An example
of negative
feedback:
body
temperature

Positive Feedback
During positive feedback, an event
increases the likelihood of another event
 Childbirth Process
 Urge to urinate
Positive Feedback
 Does not result in equilibrium
 Does not occur as often as negative feedback

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4.9 Homeostasis

Positive feedback
• A mechanism for increasing the change of the
internal environment in one direction

• An example is the secretion of oxytocin during

birth to continually increase uterine
contractions

• Can be harmful such as when a fever is too

high and continues to rise

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