3.

4: Connective Tissue
 By the end of the section, you will be able to:
Explain how connective tissues are classified.
Identify and distinguish between the individual types of connective tissue within each category: proper,
supportive, and fluid
Identify the cellular and extracellular matrix features of each connective tissue type
Explain the functions of each type of connective tissue

As may be obvious from its name, one of the major functions of connective tissue is to connect tissues and organs.
Unlike epithelial tissue, which is composed of cells closely packed with little or no extracellular space in between,
connective tissue cells are dispersed in a matrix. The matrix usually includes a large amount of extracellular
material produced by the connective tissue cells that are embedded within it. The extracellular matrix plays a
major role in the functioning of this tissue. The two components of the matrix are a ground substance and
protein fibers. This ground substance is usually a liquid of varying viscosity, but it can also be mineralized and
solid, as in bones. Connective tissues come in a vast variety of forms, yet they typically have in common three
characteristic components: scattered cells, large amounts of amorphous ground substance, and protein fibers. The
amount and structure of each component correlates with the function of the tissue, from the rigid ground
substance in bones supporting the body to the inclusion of specialized cells; for example, phagocytic cells that
engulf pathogens and also rid tissue of cellular debris are common in many connective tissues.

Functions of Connective Tissues

Connective tissues perform many functions in the body, but most importantly, they support and connect other
tissues; from the connective tissue sheath that surrounds muscle cells, to the tendons that attach muscles to bones,
and to the skeleton that supports the positions of the body. Protection is another major function of connective
tissue, in the form of fibrous capsules and bones that protect delicate organs and, of course, the skeletal system.
Specialized cells in connective tissue defend the body from microorganisms that enter the body. Transport of fluid,
nutrients, waste, and chemical messengers is ensured by specialized fluid connective tissues, such as blood and
lymph. Adipose cells store surplus energy in the form of fat and contribute to the thermal insulation of the body.

Embryonic Connective Tissue

All connective tissues derive from the mesodermal layer of the embryo. The first connective tissue to develop in
the embryo is mesenchyme, the stem cell line from which all connective tissues are later derived. Clusters of
mesenchymal cells are scattered throughout adult tissue and supply the cells needed for replacement and repair
after a connective tissue injury. A second type of embryonic connective tissue forms in the umbilical cord, called
mucous connective tissue or Wharton’s jelly. This tissue is no longer present after birth, leaving only scattered
mesenchymal cells throughout the body.

Connective Tissue Fibers and Ground Substance

Three main types of fibers are secreted by fibroblasts: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers (see Figure
3.4.1 and Figure 3.4.2 ).

Collagen fibers are made from fibrous protein subunits linked together to form a long and straight fiber.
Collagen fibers, while flexible, have great tensile strength, resist stretching, and give ligaments and tendons
their characteristic resilience and strength. These fibers hold connective tissues together, even during the
movement of the body.
Elastic fibers contain the protein elastin along with lesser amounts of other proteins and glycoproteins. The
main property of elastin is that after being stretched or compressed, it will return to its original shape. Elastic
fibers are prominent in elastic tissues found in skin and the elastic ligaments of the vertebral column.
Reticular fibers are also formed from the same protein subunits as collagen fibers; however, these fibers
remain narrow and are arrayed in a branching network. They are found throughout the body, but are most
 abundant in the reticular tissue of soft organs, such as liver and spleen, where they anchor and provide
structural support to the parenchyma (the functional cells, blood vessels, and nerves of the organ).

 Visualizing Protein Fibers in Connective Tissue

In order to see the protein fibers on a slide they needed to be stained. Which fibers you can see depends on
which staining technique is used, but you will not see all three types with any one stain.

(Figure 3.4.1): The most common stain seen in introductory anatomy courses is hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)
that shows both collagen and elastin, but the elastin is hard to distinguish (both left-hand images). Both elastin
and collagen can be visualized using the Verhoeff method in which collagen appears pink/red and elastin is
dark purple/black. (Image credit: "Collagen and Elastin Staining" by Jennifer Lange is licensed under CC-BY-NC-SA
4.0. Micrographs provided by Virginia Commonwealth University.)

(Figure 3.4.2): Reticular fibers need a different stain to show on the slide - either silver or Periodic Acid Schiff
(PAS). Both techniques show the branching nature of the fibers. (Image credit: "Reticulin Staining" by Jennifer
Lange is licensed under CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0. Micrograph provided by Virginia Commonwealth University.)

All of these fiber types are embedded in ground substance. Secreted by fibroblasts, ground substance is made of
polysaccharides, specifically hyaluronic acid, and proteins. These combine to form a proteoglycan with a protein
core and polysaccharide branches. The proteoglycan attracts and traps available moisture forming the clear,
viscous, colorless matrix you now know as ground substance.

Classification of Connective Tissues

The three broad categories of connective tissue are classified according to the characteristics of their ground
substance and the types of fibers found within the matrix (Figure 3.4.3 ). Connective tissue proper includes loose
connective tissue and dense connective tissue. Both tissues have a variety of cell types and protein fibers
suspended in a viscous ground substance. Dense connective tissue is reinforced by bundles of fibers that provide
tensile strength, elasticity, and protection. In loose connective tissue, the fibers are loosely organized, leaving large
spaces in between. Supportive connective tissue—bone and cartilage—provide structure and strength to the
body and protect soft tissues. A few distinct cell types and densely packed fibers in a matrix characterize these
tissues. In bone, the matrix is rigid and described as calcified because of the deposited calcium salts. In fluid
connective tissue, in other words, lymph and blood, various specialized cells circulate in a watery fluid
containing salts, nutrients, and dissolved proteins.

Figure 3.4.3: Classification of Connective Tissues. Connective tissues are divided into groups based on the viscosity
(thickness) of their ground substance and then into sub-groups based on their fibers and arrangement. (Image
Credit: "Classification of Connective Tissues" by Jennifer Lange, licensed under CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Connective Tissue Proper

Connective tissue proper include the types of connective tissues that have a mixture of the possible cell types,
varying amounts and types of protein fibers, and a ground substance that has a gel-like consistency. Because of
their variety in structure, they can perform a variety of functions.
Cell Types

Fibroblasts/fibrocytes, adipocytes, and mesenchymal cells are fixed cells, which means they remain within the
connective tissue. Other cells move in and out of the connective tissue in response to chemical signals.
Macrophages, mast cells, lymphocytes, and plasma cells are found in connective tissue proper but are actually part
of the immune system protecting the body. The most abundant cell in connective tissue proper is the
fibroblast (Figure 3.4.4 ). Polysaccharides and proteins secreted by fibroblasts combine with extra-cellular fluids to
produce a viscous ground substance that, with embedded fibrous proteins, forms the extra-cellular matrix. As you
might expect, a fibrocyte, a less active form of fibroblast, is the second most common cell type in connective tissue
proper.

Figure 3.4.4: Cells of Connective Tissue Proper: Fibroblasts. Fibroblasts produce materials in the extracellular
matrix of proper connective tissues. Connective tissue proper includes the fixed cells fibroblasts, adipocytes, and
mesenchymal cells. SEM × 1000. (Image credit: "SEM of fibroblasts" by Judyta Dulnik is licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0)
Adipocytes are cells that store lipids as droplets that fill most of the cytoplasm. There are two basic types of
adipocytes: white and brown. The brown adipocytes store lipids as many droplets, and have high metabolic
activity. In contrast, white fat adipocytes store lipids as a single large drop and are metabolically less active. Their
effectiveness at storing large amounts of fat is witnessed in obese individuals. The number and type of adipocytes
depends on the tissue and location, and vary among individuals in the population.
The mesenchymal cell is a multipotent adult stem cell. These cells can differentiate into any type of connective
tissue cells needed for repair and healing of damaged tissue.
The macrophage cell is a large cell derived from a monocyte, a type of blood cell, which enters the connective
tissue matrix from the blood vessels. The macrophage cells are an essential component of the immune system,
which is the body’s defense against potential pathogens and degraded host cells. When stimulated, macrophages
release cytokines, small proteins that act as chemical messengers. Cytokines recruit other cells of the immune
system to infected sites and stimulate their activities. Roaming, or free, macrophages move rapidly by amoeboid
movement, engulfing infectious agents and cellular debris. In contrast, fixed macrophages are permanent
residents of their tissues.
The mast cell, found in connective tissue proper, has many cytoplasmic granules. These granules contain the
chemical signals histamine and heparin. When irritated or damaged, mast cells release histamine, an
inflammatory mediator, which causes vasodilation and increased blood flow at a site of injury or infection, along
with itching, swelling, and redness you recognize as an allergic response. Heparin, also released as part of the
inflammatory response, acts as an anticoagulant that prevents the formation of blood clots. Like blood cells, mast
cells are derived from hematopoietic stem cells and are part of the immune system.
Loose Connective Tissues

Loose connective tissue is found between many organs where it acts both to absorb shock and bind tissues
together. It allows water, salts, and various nutrients to diffuse through to adjacent or embedded cells and tissues.
Adipose tissue consists mostly of fat storage cells, with little extracellular matrix (Figure 3.4.5 ). A large number of
capillaries allow rapid storage and mobilization of lipid molecules. White adipose tissue is most abundant. It can
appear yellow and owes its color to carotene and related pigments from plant food. White fat contributes mostly
to lipid storage and can serve as insulation from cold temperatures and mechanical injuries. White adipose tissue
can be found protecting the kidneys and cushioning the back of the eye. Brown adipose tissue is more common in
infants, hence the term “baby fat.” In adults, there is a reduced amount of brown fat and it is found mainly in the
neck and clavicular regions of the body. The many mitochondria in the cytoplasm of brown adipose tissue help
explain its efficiency at metabolizing stored fat. Brown adipose tissue is thermogenic, meaning that as it breaks
down fats, it releases metabolic heat, rather than producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a key molecule used in
metabolism.

Figure 3.4.5: Adipose Tissue. This is a loose connective tissue that consists of adipocytes and limited extracellular
matrix. Adipocytes store fat for energy and provides insulation. The number of adipocytes stays constant after
adolescence, the cells just change in size. (Image credit: "Adipose Tissue" by Jennifer Lange, illustration by Claire
McGuire is licensed under CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0. Micrograph provided by Berkshire Community College Bioscience Image
Library is in the Public Domain.)
Areolar tissue shows little specialization, yet is it found almost everywhere in the body. It is like an all purpose
glue. It contains all the cell types and fibers previously described and is distributed in a random, web-like fashion.
(Figure 3.4.6 ) It fills the spaces between muscle fibers, surrounds blood and lymph vessels, and supports organs in
the abdominal cavity. Areolar tissue underlies most epithelia and represents the connective tissue component of
epithelial membranes, which are described further in a later section.
 Figure 3.4.6: Areolar Connective Tissue. This is a loose connective tissue containing all components found in
connective tissue proper, though not all are visible at the same time on a slide. Elastin fibers are visualized using a
different staining technique than in this image. (Image credit: “Areolar Connective Tissue" by Jennifer Lange,
illustration by Claire McGuire, is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Micrograph provided by Berkshire Community
College Bioscience Image Library is in the Public Domain.)
Reticular tissue is a mesh-like, supportive framework for soft organs such as lymphatic tissue, the spleen, and the
liver (Figure 3.4.7 ). Reticular cells produce the reticular fibers that form the network onto which other cells attach.
It derives its name from the Latin reticulus, which means “little net.”

Figure 3.4.6: Reticular Tissue. This is a loose connective tissue made up of a network of reticular fibers that
provides a supportive framework for soft organs. LM × 200x. (Image credit: "Reticular Tissue" by Jennifer Lange is
licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Micrograph provided by Berkshire Community College Bioscience Image Library is in
the Public Domain.)
Dense Connective Tissue
Dense connective tissue contains more collagen fibers than does loose connective tissue. As a consequence, it
displays greater resistance to stretching. There are three major categories of dense connective tissue: elastic,
regular and irregular.
Dense regular connective tissue fibers are parallel to each other, enhancing tensile strength and resistance to
stretching in the direction of the fiber orientations. Ligaments and tendons are made of dense regular
connective tissue, but in ligaments not all fibers are parallel. Dense regular elastic tissue contains some elastic
fibers in addition to the collagen fibers. (Figure 3.4.7 )
 Figure 3.4.7: Dense Regular Connective Tissue. Dense connective tissues have small amounts of ground substance;
dense regular has almost none that is visible on a slide using a light microscope. The collagen fibers are arranged
in thick, parallel bundles and the fibroblasts are often oval as they are compressed between the fibers. (Image
credit: "Dense Regular Connective Tissue" by Jennifer Lange, illustration by Claire McGuire is licensed under CC BY-
NC-SA 4.0. Micrograph by J Jana, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.)
In dense irregular connective tissue, the direction of fibers is random. This arrangement gives the tissue
greater strength in all directions and less strength in one particular direction. In some tissues, fibers crisscross
and form a mesh. In other tissues, stretching in several directions is achieved by alternating layers where fibers
run in the same orientation in each layer, and it is the layers themselves that are stacked at an angle. The
dermis of the skin is an example of dense irregular connective tissue rich in collagen fibers. (Figure 3.4.8A)
Some applications require a ligament to balance tensile strength and elasticity, and thus contain elastic
connective tissue with abundant elastin fibers in addition to collagen fibers that allow the ligament to return
to its original length after stretching. The ligaments in the vocal folds and between the vertebrae in the cervical
vertebral column are composed of elastic connective tissue. This type of tissue also gives the walls of large
arteries and respiratory passages strength and the ability to regain original shape after stretching. (Figure
3.4.8B )

Figure 3.4.8: Dense Connective Tissues: Dense Irregular and Elastic. (A) Dense irregular connective tissue consists
of collagenous fibers interwoven into a mesh-like network. Of the dense connective tissues, this one has the most
ground substance. (B) Elastin fibers are visualized using a different dye, appearing as wavy, parallel dark lines.
(Image credit: "Dense Connective Tissues: Irregular and Elastic" by Jennifer Lange is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.
Micrographs provided by the Regents of the University of Michigan Medical School © 2022.)

 DISORDERS OF THE.....
Connective Tissue: Tendinitis
Your opponent stands ready as you prepare to hit the serve, but you are confident that you will smash the
ball past your opponent. As you toss the ball high in the air, a burning pain shoots across your arm and
you drop the tennis racket. That dull ache in the elbow that you ignored through the summer is now an
unbearable pain. The game is over for now.

After examining your painful elbow, the doctor in the emergency room announces that you have
developed extensor tendinitis, commonly called tennis elbow. She recommends icing the tender area,
taking non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication to ease the pain and to reduce swelling, and
completely rest for a few weeks. She interrupts your protests that you cannot stop playing. She issues a
 stern warning about the risk of aggravating the condition and the possibility of surgery. She consoles you
by mentioning that well known tennis players such as Venus and Serena Williams and Rafael Nadal have
also suffered from tendinitis related injuries.
What is tendinitis and how did it happen? Tendinitis is the inflammation of a tendon, the thick band of
dense regular connective tissue that attaches a muscle to a bone. The condition causes pain and
tenderness in the area around a joint. On rare occasions, a sudden serious injury will cause tendinitis.
Most often, the condition results from repetitive motions over time that strain the tendons needed to
perform the tasks.
Persons whose jobs and hobbies involve performing the same movements over and over again are often
at the greatest risk of tendinitis. You hear of tennis and golfer’s elbow, jumper's knee, and swimmer’s
shoulder. In all cases, overuse of the joint causes a microtrauma that initiates the inflammatory response.
Tendinitis is routinely diagnosed through a clinical examination. In case of severe pain, X-rays can be
examined to rule out the possibility of a bone injury. Severe cases of tendinitis can even tear loose a
tendon. Surgical repair of a tendon is painful. Connective tissue in the tendon does not have abundant
blood supply and heals slowly.
While older adults are at risk for tendinitis because the elasticity of tendon tissue decreases with age,
active people of all ages can develop tendinitis. Young athletes, dancers, and computer operators; anyone
who performs the same movements constantly is at risk for tendinitis. Although repetitive motions are
unavoidable in many activities and may lead to tendinitis, precautions can be taken that can lessen the
probability of developing tendinitis. For active individuals, dynamic stretches before exercising and cross
training or changing exercises are recommended. For the passionate athlete, it may be time to take some
lessons to improve technique. All of the preventive measures aim to increase the strength of the tendon
and decrease the stress put on it. With proper rest and managed care, you will be back on the court to hit
that slice-spin serve over the net.

Supportive Connective Tissues

Two major forms of supportive connective tissue, cartilage and bone, allow the body to maintain its posture and
protect internal organs.
Cartilage
The distinctive appearance of cartilage is due to polysaccharides called chondroitin sulfates, which bind with
ground substance proteins to form proteoglycans. Embedded within the cartilage matrix are chondrocytes, or
cartilage cells, and the space they occupy are called lacunae (singular = lacuna). A layer of dense irregular
connective tissue, the perichondrium, encapsulates the cartilage. Cartilaginous tissue is avascular, thus all
nutrients need to diffuse through the matrix to reach the chondrocytes. This is a factor contributing to the very
slow healing of cartilaginous tissues.
The three main types of cartilage are hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage (Figure 3.4.9 ).
Hyaline cartilage, the most common type of cartilage in the body, consists of short and dispersed collagen
fibers and contains large amounts of proteoglycans. Under the microscope, tissue samples appear clear. The
surface of hyaline cartilage is smooth. Both strong and flexible, it is found in the rib cage and nose and covers
bones where they meet to form moveable joints. It makes up a template of the embryonic skeleton before bone
formation. A plate of hyaline cartilage at the ends of bone allows continued growth until adulthood.
Fibrocartilage is tough because it has thick bundles of collagen fibers dispersed through its matrix, which
allows it to resist compression and absorb shock. The knee and jaw joints and the intervertebral discs are
examples of fibrocartilage.
Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers as well as collagen and proteoglycans. This tissue gives rigid support as
well as elasticity. Tug gently at your ear lobes, and notice that the lobes return to their initial shape. The
external ear contains elastic cartilage.
 Figure 3.4.9: Types of Cartilage @ 600x. Cartilage is a supportive connective tissue with a semi-solid ground
substance. A. Elastic cartilage has elastin fibers oriented in multiple directions that are densest near the cells. B.
Hyaline cartilage does not have visible protein fibers. C. Fibrocartilage has fewer cells and thin, wavy collagen
fibers. (Image credit: "Types of Cartilage" by Jennifer Lange; micrographs provided by the Regents of University of
Michigan Medical School © 2022, under CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0.)
Bone
Bone is the hardest connective tissue. It provides protection to internal organs and supports the body. Bone’s rigid
extracellular matrix contains mostly collagen fibers embedded in a mineralized ground substance containing
hydroxyapatite, a form of calcium phosphate. Both components of the matrix, organic and inorganic, contribute to
the unusual properties of bone. Without collagen, bones would be brittle and shatter easily. Without mineral
crystals, bones would flex and provide little support. Osteocytes, bone cells like chondrocytes, are located within
lacunae. The histology of transverse tissue from long bone (Figure 3.4.10A ) shows a typical arrangement of
osteocytes in concentric circles around a central canal. Bone is a highly vascularized tissue. Unlike cartilage, bone
tissue can recover from injuries in a relatively short time.
Cancellous bone, also known as spongy bone, looks like a sponge under the microscope (Figure 3.4.10B ) and
contains empty spaces between trabeculae, or arches of bone proper. It is lighter than compact bone and found in
the interior of some bones and at the end of long bones. Compact bone is solid and has greater structural strength.

Figure 3.4.10 : Bone Tissue. (A) Compact bone only has spaces for the passage of nerves and blood vessels. (B)
Cancellous bone has large spaces filled with bone marrow. (Image credit: "Bone Tissue Arrangements" by Jennifer
Lange; micrographs provided by Virginia Commonwealth University under CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Fluid Connective Tissue

Blood and lymph are fluid connective tissues. Cells circulate in a liquid extracellular matrix. The formed elements
circulating in blood are all derived from hematopoietic stem cells located in bone marrow (Figure 3.4.11).
Erythrocytes, red blood cells, transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide. Leukocytes, white blood cells, are
responsible for defending against potentially harmful microorganisms or molecules. Platelets are cell fragments
involved in blood clotting. Some white blood cells have the ability to cross the endothelial layer that lines blood
vessels and enter adjacent tissues. Nutrients, salts, and wastes are dissolved in the liquid matrix and transported
through the body.
Lymph contains a liquid matrix and white blood cells. Lymphatic capillaries are extremely permeable, allowing
larger molecules and excess fluid from interstitial spaces to enter the lymphatic vessels. Lymph drains into blood
vessels, delivering molecules to the blood that could not otherwise directly enter the bloodstream. In this way,
specialized lymphatic capillaries transport absorbed fats away from the intestine and deliver these molecules to
the blood.

Figure 3.4.11 : Fluid Connective Tissue. Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing various types of blood cells that
circulate in a liquid extracellular matrix. LM × 400. (Image credit: "Fluid Connective Tissue" by Jennifer Lange is
licensed under CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0. Micrograph provided by Berkshire Community College Bioscience Image Library is in
the Public Domain.)

Concept Review
Connective tissue is a heterogeneous tissue class with assorted cell shapes and tissue architecture. Structurally, all
connective tissues contain cells that are embedded in an extracellular matrix stabilized by proteins. The chemical
nature and physical layout of the extracellular matrix and proteins vary enormously among tissues, reflecting the
variety of functions that connective tissue fulfills in the body. Connective tissues separate and cushion organs,
protecting them from shifting or traumatic injury. Connective tissues provide support and assist movement, store
and transport energy molecules, protect against infections, and contribute to temperature homeostasis.
Many different cells contribute to the formation of connective tissues. They originate in the mesodermal germ
layer and differentiate from mesenchyme and hematopoietic tissue in the bone marrow. Fibroblasts are the most
abundant and secrete many protein fibers, adipocytes specialize in fat storage, hematopoietic cells from the bone
marrow give rise to all the blood cells, chondrocytes form cartilage, and osteocytes form bone. The extracellular
matrix contains fluid, proteins, polysaccharide derivatives, and, in the case of bone, mineral crystals. Protein
fibers fall into three major groups: collagen fibers that are thick, strong, flexible, and resist stretch; reticular fibers
that are thin and form a supportive mesh; and elastin fibers that are thin and elastic.
The major types of connective tissue are connective tissue proper, supportive tissue, and fluid tissue. Loose
connective tissue proper includes adipose tissue, areolar tissue, and reticular tissue. These serve to hold organs
and other tissues in place and, in the case of adipose tissue, isolate and store energy reserves. The matrix is the
most abundant feature for loose tissue although adipose tissue does not have much extracellular matrix. Dense
connective tissue proper is richer in fibers and may be regular, with fibers oriented in parallel as in ligaments and
tendons, or irregular, with fibers oriented in several directions. Organ capsules (collagenous type) and walls of
arteries (elastic type) contain dense irregular connective tissue. Cartilage and bone are supportive tissue. Cartilage
contains chondrocytes and is somewhat flexible. Hyaline cartilage is smooth and clear, covers the articulating
surfaces of bones, and is found in the growing portion of bones. Fibrocartilage is tough because of extra collagen
fibers and forms, among other things, the intervertebral discs. Elastic cartilage can stretch and recoil to its original
shape because of its high content of elastic fibers. The matrix contains very few blood vessels. Bones are made of a
rigid, mineralized matrix containing calcium salts, crystals, and osteocytes lodged in lacunae. Bone tissue is highly
vascularized. Cancellous bone is spongy and less solid than compact bone. Fluid tissue, for example blood and
lymph, is characterized by a liquid matrix and no supporting fibers.
Review Questions
Q. Connective tissue is made of which three essential components?
A. cells, ground substance, and carbohydrate fibers
B. cells, ground substance, and protein fibers
C. collagen, ground substance, and protein fibers
D. matrix, ground substance, and fluid

Answer
Answer: B

Q. Under the microscope, a tissue specimen shows cells located in spaces scattered in a transparent background.
This is probably ________.
A. loose connective tissue
B. a tendon
C. bone
D. hyaline cartilage

Answer
Answer: D

Q. Which connective tissue specializes in storage of fat?

A. tendon
B. adipose tissue
C. reticular tissue
D. dense connective tissue

Answer
Answer: B

Q. Ligaments connect bones together and withstand a lot of stress. What type of connective tissue should you
expect ligaments to contain?
A. areolar tissue
B. adipose tissue
C. dense regular connective tissue
D. dense irregular connective tissue

Answer
Answer: C

Q. In adults, new connective tissue cells originate from the ________.

A. mesoderm
B. mesenchyme
C. ectoderm
D. endoderm

Answer
Answer: B
Q. In bone, the main cells are ________.
A. fibroblasts
B. chondrocytes
C. lymphocytes
D. osteocytes

Answer
Answer: D

Critical Thinking Questions

Q. One of the main functions of connective tissue is to integrate organs and organ systems in the body. Discuss how
blood fulfills this role.

Answer
A. Blood is a fluid connective tissue, a variety of specialized cells that circulate in a watery fluid containing
salts, nutrients, and dissolved proteins in a liquid extracellular matrix. Blood contains formed elements derived
from bone marrow. Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, transport the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are responsible for the defense of the organism against potentially harmful
microorganisms or molecules. Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. Some cells have the ability
to cross the endothelial layer that lines vessels and enter adjacent tissues. Nutrients, salts, and waste are
dissolved in the liquid matrix and transported through the body.

Q. Why does an injury to cartilage, especially hyaline cartilage, heal much more slowly than a bone fracture?

Answer
A. A layer of dense irregular connective tissue covers cartilage. No blood vessels supply cartilage tissue. Injuries
to cartilage heal very slowly because cells and nutrients needed for repair diffuse slowly to the injury site.

Glossary
adipocytes
lipid storage cells

adipose tissue
specialized areolar tissue rich in stored fat

areolar tissue
(also, loose connective tissue) a type of connective tissue proper that shows little specialization with cells
dispersed in the matrix

chondrocytes
cells of the cartilage

collagen fiber
flexible fibrous proteins that give connective tissue tensile strength

connective tissue proper

connective tissue containing a viscous matrix, fibers, and cells.

dense connective tissue

group within connective tissue proper that contains many protein fibers

elastic cartilage
type of cartilage, with elastin as the major protein, characterized by rigid support as well as elasticity

elastic fiber
 fibrous protein within connective tissue that contains a high percentage of the protein elastin that allows the
fibers to stretch and return to original size

fibroblast
most abundant cell type in connective tissue, secretes protein fibers and matrix into the extracellular space

fibrocartilage
tough form of cartilage, made of thick bundles of collagen fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate ground
substance

fibrocyte
less active form of fibroblast

fluid connective tissue

specialized cells that circulate in a watery fluid containing salts, nutrients, and dissolved proteins

ground substance
fluid or semi-fluid portion of the matrix

hyaline cartilage
most common type of cartilage, smooth and made of short collagen fibers embedded in a chondroitin sulfate
ground substance

lacunae
(singular = lacuna) small spaces in bone or cartilage tissue that cells occupy

loose connective tissue

group within connective tissue proper that has large amounts of ground substance

matrix
extracellular material which is produced by the cells embedded in it, containing ground substance and fibers

mesenchymal cell
adult stem cell from which most connective tissue cells are derived

mesenchyme
embryonic tissue from which connective tissue cells derive

mucous connective tissue

specialized loose connective tissue present in the umbilical cord

parenchyma
functional cells of a gland or organ, in contrast with the supportive or connective tissue of a gland or organ

reticular fiber
fine fibrous protein, made of collagen subunits, which cross-link to form supporting “nets” within connective
tissue

reticular connective tissue

type of loose connective tissue that provides a supportive framework to soft organs, such as lymphatic tissue,
spleen, and the liver

supportive connective tissue

type of connective tissue that provides strength to the body and protects soft tissue

Contributors and Attributions

OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-
physiology
This page titled 3.4: Connective Tissue is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Jennifer Lange et al..
3.4: Connective Tissue by Whitney Menefee, Julie Jenks, Chiara Mazzasette, & Kim-Leiloni Nguyen is licensed CC BY 4.0.

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