Siyavula Textbooks Grade 11 Maths 3.1 PDF
Siyavula Textbooks Grade 11 Maths 3.1 PDF
Siyavula Textbooks Grade 11 Maths 3.1 PDF
Collection Editor:
Free High School Science Texts Project
Siyavula textbooks: Grade 11 Maths
Collection Editor:
Free High School Science Texts Project
Authors:
Free High School Science Texts Project
Rory Adams
Sarah Blyth
Heather Williams
Online:
< http://cnx.org/content/col11243/1.3/ >
CONNEXIONS
5 Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6 Quadratic Functions and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7 Hyperbolic Functions and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8 Exponential Functions and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9 Gradient at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10 Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11 Geometry
11.1 Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11.2 Triangle geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11.3 Co-ordinate geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
11.4 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
12 Trigonometry
12.1 Graphs of trig functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.2 Trig identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
12.3 Reduction formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
12.4 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
12.5 Cosine and sine identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
13 Statistics
13.1 Standard deviation and variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
13.2 Graphical representation of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
13.3 Distribution of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
13.4 Misuse of statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
iv
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Introduction
In Grade 10 we studied exponential numbers and learnt that there were six laws that made working with
exponential numbers easier. There is one law that we did not study in Grade 10. This will be described
here.
Laws of Exponents
In Grade 10, we worked only with indices that were integers. What happens when the index is not an integer,
but is a rational number? This leads us to the nal law of exponents,
m √
n
an = am (1)
√
Exponential Law 7: m
an = n
am
√
We say that x is an nth root of b if xn = b and we write x = n b. nth roots written with the radical symbol,
√ 4
, are referred to as surds. For example, (−1) = 1, so −1 is a 4th root of 1. Using law 6, we notice that
m n m
an = a n ×n = am (2)
m
therefore a n must be an nth root of am . We can therefore say
m √
n
an = am (3)
For example,
2 √
3
23 = 22 (4)
A number may not always have a real nth root. For example, if n = 2 and a = −1, then there is no real
number such that x2 = −1 because x2 ≥ 0 for all real numbers x.
aside: There are numbers which can solve problems like x2 = −1, but they are beyond the scope
of this book. They are called complex numbers.
2
It is also possible for more than one nth root of a number to exist. For example, (−2) = 4 and 22 = 4, so
both −2 and 2 are 2nd (square) roots of 4. Usually, if there is more than one root, we choose the positive
real solution and move on.
1
2
12
5
(5)
4 − 9−1
−1
34
16x4 (6)
Figure 1
Figure 2
Applying laws
Use all the laws to:
1. Simplify:
−0,5 2
a. x0 + 5x0 − (0, 25) + 83
1 1
b. s2 ÷ s3
7
12m 9
c. 11
8m− 9
23
d. 64m6
2. Re-write the following expression as a power of x:
s r
√
q
x x x x x (7)
6. Simplify:
√
x3 x (11)
7. Simplify: √
3
x 4 b5 (12)
Surd Calculations
There are several laws that make working with surds (or roots) easier. We will list them all and then explain
where each rule comes from in detail.
√ √ √
n
anb = n
ab
√
n a
n a
p
= √
n (1)
b b
√
n m
am = a n
√ √ √
Surd Law 1: n
a n b = n ab
It is often useful to look at a surd in exponential notation as it allows us to use the exponential laws we
√ 1 √
n 1
learnt in Grade 10. In exponential notation,
n
a = an and b = bn . Then,
√ √ 1 1
n
anb = an bn
1
= (ab) n (2)
√
n
= ab
Some examples using this law:
√
3
√3
√
3
1.
√ 16 ×√ 4 = √ 64 = 4
2. √2 × 32√= 64 = √8
3. a2 b3 × b5 c4 = a2 b8 c4 = ab4 c2
√
Surd Law 2:
na
n a
p
b
= √
n
b
n a
p
If we look at
b in exponential notation and apply the exponential laws then,
1
n a a n
p
b = b
1
an
= 1 (3)
b√n
n a
= √
n
b
Some examples using this law:
√ √ √
1.
√ 12 ÷ √3 = √4 = 2
3 3 3
2. √ 24 ÷ 3√= 8 √ =2
3. a2 b13 ÷ b5 = a2 b8 = ab4
2 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m30837/1.4/>.
5
6
√
Surd Law 3: n
am = a n
m
√
n
If we look at am in exponential notation and apply the exponential laws then,
√ 1
n
am = (am ) n
m
(4)
= an
For example,
√
6 3
23 = 26
1
= 22 (5)
√
= 2
√
n
√
bn
am = abm (6)
to rewrite the unlike surds so that bn is the same for all the surds.
√ √
50 = 25 × 2
√ √
= 25 × 2 (7)
√
= 5 2
√ √
5 2 is the simplest surd form of 50.
Exercise√6: Simplest surd form
Rewrite 18 in the simplest surd form:
Exercise 7:
√ Simplest
√ surd form
Simplify: 147 + 108
This video gives some examples of simplifying surds.
Figure 1
Rationalising Denominators
It is useful to work with fractions, which have rational denominators instead of surd denominators. It is
possible to rewrite any fraction, which has a surd in the denominator as a fraction which has a rational
denominator. We will now see how this can be achieved.
√ √
Any expression of the form
√ √ a+ b√(where
√ a and b are rational) can be changed into a rational number
√ √
by multiplying by a− b (similarly a − b can be rationalised by multiplying by a+ b). This is
because
√ √ √ √
a+ b a− b =a−b (8)
√ √
c√ a−√b c√
√
a+ b
= √
a− b
× √a+ b
√ √ (9)
c a−c b
= a−b
or similarly
√ √
c√ a+ b c√
√ = √ √ × √
a− b a+ b √ a− b (10)
√
c a+c b
= a−b
Figure 2
r r r r
8 5 1 13 2
+5 − = (19)
3 3 6 2 3
√
5+2
√ (22)
5
14. Simplify: √ √
98x6 + 128x6 (23)
√ 12 √ 21
7 7
15. Evaluate without using a calculator: 2− 2 . 2+ 2
16. The use of a calculator is not permissible in this question. Simplify completely by showing all your
√ q √
− 21
steps: 3 12 + 3 3 3
√
17. Fill in the blank surd-form number which will make the following equation a true statement:
√ √ −3 6 ×
−2 24 = − 18 × ______
= 8, 65
In the example we see that Method 1 gives 8,66 as an answer while Method 2 gives 8,65 as an answer. The
answer of Method 1 is more accurate because the expression was simplied as much as possible before the
answer was rounded-o.
In general, it is best to simplify any expression as much as possible, before using your calculator to work
out the answer in decimal notation.
tip: It is best to simplify all expressions as much as possible before rounding-o answers. This
maintains the accuracy of your answer.
Exercise 11:
√ Simplication
√ and Accuracy
3 3
Calculate 54 + 16. Write the answer to three decimal places.
Exercise 12:
√ Simplication
p and Accuracy 2
1
Calculate x+1+ 3 (2x + 2) − (x + 1) if x = 3, 6. Write the answer to two decimal places.
11
12
4 http://www.fhsst.org/lbI
5 http://www.fhsst.org/lb5
Introduction
In Grade 10, you learned about arithmetic sequences, where the dierence between consecutive terms was
constant. In this chapter we learn about quadratic sequences.
For example,
a2 − a1 =2−1 =1
a3 − a2 =4−2 =2
(2)
a4 − a3 =7−4 =3
a5 − a4 = 11 − 7 =4
We then work out the second dierences, which is simply obtained by taking the dierence between the
consecutive dierences {1; 2; 3; 4; ...} obtained above:
2−1 = 1
3−2 = 1
(3)
4−3 = 1
...
We then see that the second dierences are equal to 1. Thus, (1) is a quadratic sequence.
Note that the dierences between consecutive terms (that is, the rst dierences) of a quadratic sequence
form a sequence where there is a constant dierence between consecutive terms. In the above example, the
sequence of {1; 2; 3; 4; ...}, which is formed by taking the dierences between consecutive terms of (1), has
a linear formula of the kind ax + b.
6 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m32633/1.3/>.
13
14
Quadratic Sequences
The following are also examples of quadratic sequences:
General Case
If the sequence is quadratic, the nth term should be Tn = an2 + bn + c
TERMS a+b+c 4a + 2b + c 9a + 3b + c
1st dierence 3a + b 5a + b 7a + b
nd
2 dierence 2a 2a
Table 1
In each case, the second dierence is 2a. This fact can be used to nd a, then b then c.
Exercise 14: Quadratic Sequence
The following sequence is quadratic: 8, 22, 42, 68, ... Find the rule.
an = A · n2 + B · n + C (5)
an = A · n2 + B · n + C
2
a1 = A(1) + B (1) + C = A + B + C
(6)
2
a2 = A(2) + B (2) + C = 4A + 2B + C
2
a3 = A(3) + B (3) + C = 9A + 3B + C
Letd ≡ a2 − a1
(7)
∴d = 3A + B
⇒ B = d − 3A (8)
D = (a3 − a2 ) − (a2 − a1 )
= (5A + B) − (3A + B) (9)
= 2A
D
⇒A= (10)
2
Therefore, from (8),
3
B =d− ·D (11)
2
From (6),
D 3
C = a1 − (A + B) = a1 − −d+ ·D (12)
2 2
∴ C = a1 + D − d (13)
th
Finally, the general equation for the n -term of a quadratic sequence is given by
D 2 3
an = · n + d − D · n + (a1 − d + D) (14)
2 2
If we plot each of the terms vs. the corresponding index, we obtain a graph of a parabola.
Figure 1
an = n2 + 2n + 1 (16)
2. Determine which of the following sequences is a quadratic sequence by calculating the common second
dierence:
Finance
1.1 Simple depreciation 1
1.1.1 Introduction
In Grade 10, the ideas of simple and compound interest were introduced. In this chapter we will be extending
those ideas, so it is a good idea to go back to the Finance chapter and revise what you learnt in Grade 10.
If you master the techniques in this chapter, you will understand about depreciation and will learn how to
determine which bank is oering the better interest rate.
1.1.2 Depreciation
It is said that when you drive a new car out of the dealership, it loses 20% of its value, because it is now
second-hand. And from there on the value keeps falling, or depreciating. Second hand cars are cheaper
than new cars, and the older the car, usually the cheaper it is. If you buy a second hand (or should we say
pre-owned !) car from a dealership, they will base the price on something called book value.
The book value of the car is the value of the car taking into account the loss in value due to wear, age
and use. We call this loss in value depreciation, and in this section we will look at two ways of how this is
calculated. Just like interest rates, the two methods of calculating depreciation are simple and compound
methods.
The terminology used for simple depreciation is straight-line depreciation and for compound depreci-
ation is reducing-balance depreciation. In the straight-line method the value of the asset is reduced by
the same constant amount each year. In the compound depreciation method the value of the asset is reduced
by the same percentage each year. This means that the value of an asset does not decrease by a constant
amount each year, but the decrease is most in the rst year, then by a smaller amount in the second year
and by an even smaller amount in the third year, and so on.
1.1.2.1 Depreciation
You may be wondering why we need to calculate depreciation. Determining the value of assets (as in the
example of the second hand cars) is one reason, but there is also a more nancial reason for calculating
depreciation - tax! Companies can take depreciation into account as an expense, and thereby reduce their
taxable income. A lower taxable income means that the company will pay less income tax to the Revenue
Service.
1 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m38825/1.1/>.
17
18 CHAPTER 1. FINANCE
R60 000
= R12 000 per year. (1.1)
5 years
The value of the car is then:
Table 1.1
where i is the annual percentage interest rate and P is the principal amount.
If we replace the word interest with the word depreciation and the word principal with the words initial
value we can use the same formula:
At the beginning of the second year, the car is now worth R48 000, so after two years, the car is worth:
1
End of rst year R60 000 (1 − 1 × 20%)=R60 000(1 − 1 × 20%) = R48 000,00
2
End of second year R48 000 (1 − 1 × 20%)=R60 000(1 − 1 × 20%) = R38 400,00
3
End of third year R38 400(1 − 1 × 20%)=R60 000(1 − 1 × 20%) = R30 720,00
4
End of fourth year R30 720(1 − 1 × 20%)=R60 000(1 − 1 × 20%) = R24 576,00
5
End of fth year R24 576(1 − 1 × 20%)=R60 000(1 − 1 × 20%) = R19 608,80
Table 1.2
We can now write a general formula for the book value of an asset if the depreciation is compounded.
n
Initial value − Total depreciation after n years = P (1 − i) (1.9)
For example, the book value of the car after two years can be simply calculated as follows:
n
Book value after 2 years = P (1 − i)
2
= R60 000(1 − 20%)
2
= R60 000(1 − 0, 2) (1.10)
2
= R60 000(0, 8)
= R38 400
as expected.
Note that the dierence between the compound interest calculations and the compound depreciation
calculations is that while the interest adds value to the principal amount, the depreciation amount reduces
value!
n
A = P · (1 + i) (1.11)
Using simple algebra, we can solve for P instead of A, and come up with:
−n
P = A · (1 + i) (1.12)
This can also be written as follows, but the rst approach is usually preferred.
A
P = n (1.13)
(1 + i)
Now think about what is happening here. In Equation (1.11), we start o with a sum of money and we let
it grow for n years. In Equation (1.12) we have a sum of money which we know in n years time, and we
unwind" the interest - in other words we take o interest for n years, until we see what it is worth right
now.
We can test this as follows. If I have R1 000 now and I invest it at 10% for 5 years, I will have:
n
A = P · (1 + i)
5
= R1 000(1 + 10%) (1.14)
= R1 610, 51
3 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m38828/1.1/>.
at the end. BUT, if I know I have to have R1 610,51 in 5 years time, I need to invest:
−n
P = A · (1 + i)
−5
= R1 610, 51(1 + 10%) (1.15)
= R1 000
We end up with R1 000 which - if you think about it for a moment - is what we started o with. Do you
see that?
Of course we could apply the same techniques to calculate a present value amount under simple interest
rate assumptions - we just need to solve for the opening balance using the equations for simple interest.
A = P (1 + i × n) (1.16)
P = A/ (1 + i × n) (1.17)
Let us say you need to accumulate an amount of R1 210 in 3 years time, and a bank account pays Simple
Interest of 7%. How much would you need to invest in this bank account today?
A
P = 1+n·i
R1 210 (1.18)
= 1+3×7%
= R1 000
Does this look familiar? Look back to the simple interest worked example in Grade 10. There we started
with an amount of R1 000 and looked at what it would grow to in 3 years' time using simple interest rates.
Now we have worked backwards to see what amount we need as an opening balance in order to achieve the
closing balance of R1 210.
In practice, however, present values are usually always calculated assuming compound interest. So unless
you are explicitly asked to calculate a present value (or opening balance) using simple interest rates, make
sure you use the compound interest rate formula!
1.4.1 Finding i
By this stage in your studies of the mathematics of nance, you have always known what interest rate to
use in the calculations, and how long the investment or loan will last. You have then either taken a known
starting point and calculated a future value, or taken a known future value and calculated a present value.
But here are other questions you might ask:
1. I want to borrow R2 500 from my neighbour, who said I could pay back R3 000 in 8 months time.
What interest is she charging me?
2. I will need R450 for some university textbooks in 1,5 years time. I currently have R400. What interest
rate do I need to earn to meet this goal?
Each time that you see something dierent from what you have seen before, start o with the basic equation
that you should recognise very well:
n
A = P · (1 + i) (1.19)
If this were an algebra problem, and you were told to solve for i", you should be able to show that:
A n
P = (1 + i)
A 1/n
(1 + i) = (1.20)
P
A 1/n
i = P −1
You do not need to memorise this equation, it is easy to derive any time you need it!
So let us look at the two examples mentioned above.
1. Check that you agree that P =R2 500, A=R3 000, n=8/12=0,666667. This means that:
R3 000 1/0,666667
i = R2 500 −1
(1.21)
= 31, 45%
R450 1/1,5
i = R400 −1
(1.22)
= 8, 17%
This means that as long as you can nd a bank which pays more than 8,17% interest, you should have
the money you need!
8
Note that in both examples, we expressed n as a number of years ( 12 years, not 8 because that is the number
of months) which means i is the annual interest rate. Always keep this in mind - keep years with years to
avoid making silly mistakes.
1.4.1.1 Finding i
1. A machine costs R45 000 and has a scrap value of R9 000 after 10 years. Determine the annual rate
of depreciation if it is calculated on the reducing balance method.
2. After 5 years an investment doubled in value. At what annual rate was interest compounded ?
n
A = P · (1 + i) (1.23)
We have solved for A (in Grade 10), P (in "Present Values or Future Values of an Investment or Loan")
and i (in "Finding i" (Section 1.4.1: Finding i)). This time we are going to solve for n. In other words, if
we know what the starting sum of money is and what it grows to, and if we know what interest rate applies
- then we can work out how long the money needs to be invested for all those other numbers to tie up.
This section will calculate n by trial and error and by using a calculator. The proper algebraic solution
will be learnt in Grade 12.
Solving for n, we can write:
n
A = P (1 + i)
(1.24)
A n
P = (1 + i)
Now we have to examine the numbers involved to try to determine what a possible value of n is. Refer to
your Grade 10 notes for some ideas as to how to go about nding n.
Exercise 1.4.1: Term of Investment - Trial and Error (Solution on p. 30.)
We invest R3 500 into a savings account which pays 7,5% compound interest for an unknown
period of time, at the end of which our account is worth R4 044,69. How long did we invest the
money?
tip: Remember, the trick to using the formulae is to dene the time period, and use the interest
rate relevant to the time period.
So we can calculate the amount that would be accumulated by the end of 1-year as follows:
n
Closing balance after 12 months = P × (1 + i)
12
= R1 000 × (1 + 1%) (1.25)
= R1 126, 83
Note that because we are using a monthly time period, we have used n = 12 months to calculate the balance
at the end of one year.
The eective annual interest rate is an annual interest rate which represents the equivalent per annum
interest rate assuming compounding.
It is the annual interest rate in our Compound Interest equation that equates to the same accumulated
balance after one year. So we need to solve for the eective annual interest rate so that the accumulated
balance is equal to our calculated amount of R1 126,83.
We use i12 to denote the monthly interest rate. We have introduced this notation here to distinguish
between the annual interest rate, i. Specically, we need to solve for i in the following equation:
1 12
P × (1 + i) = P × (1 + i12 )
12
(1 + i) = (1 + i12 ) divide both sides by P (1.26)
12
i = (1 + i12 ) −1 subtract 1 from both sides
For the example, this means that the eective annual rate for a monthly rate i12 = 1% is:
12
i = (1 + i12 ) −1
12
= (1 + 1%) −1
(1.27)
= 0, 12683
= 12, 683%
If we recalculate the closing balance using this annual rate we get:
n
Closing balance after 1 year = P × (1 + i)
1
= R1 000 × (1 + 12, 683%) (1.28)
= R1 126, 83
which is the same as the answer obtained for 12 months.
Note that this is greater than simply multiplying the monthly rate by 12 (12 × 1% = 12%) due to the
eects of compounding. The dierence is due to interest on interest. We have seen this before, but it is an
important point!
In general, for interest paid at a frequency of T times per annum, the follow equation holds:
T
P (1 + i) = P (1 + iT ) (1.30)
1.5.2.1 Denitions
Table 1.3
1.5.2.2 Equations
Simple increase : A = P (1 + i × n)
n
Compound increase : A = P (1 + i)
Simple decrease : A = P (1 − i × n) (1.33)
n
Compound decrease : A = P (1 − i)
T
Effective annual interest rate (i) : (1 + i) = (1 + iT )
2. Greg enters into a 5-year hire-purchase agreement to buy a computer for R8 900. The interest rate is
quoted as 11% per annum based on simple interest. Calculate the required monthly payment for this
contract.
3. A computer is purchased for R16 000. It depreciates at 15% per annum.
a. Determine the book value of the computer after 3 years if depreciation is calculated according to
the straight-line method.
b. Find the rate, according to the reducing-balance method, that would yield the same book value
as in list, p. 27 after 3 years.
4. Maggie invests R12 500,00 for 5 years at 12% per annum compounded monthly for the rst 2 years
and 14% per annum compounded semi-annually for the next 3 years. How much will Maggie receive
in total after 5 years?
5. Tintin invests R120 000. He is quoted a nominal interest rate of 7,2% per annum compounded monthly.
a. Calculate the eective rate per annum correct to THREE decimal places.
b. Use the eective rate to calculate the value of Tintin's investment if he invested the money for 3
years.
c. Suppose Tintin invests his money for a total period of 4 years, but after 18 months makes a
withdrawal of R20 000, how much will he receive at the end of the 4 years?
6. Paris opens accounts at a number of clothing stores and spends freely. She gets heself into terrible
debt and she cannot pay o her accounts. She owes Hilton Fashion world R5 000 and the shop agrees
to let Paris pay the bill at a nominal interest rate of 24% compounded monthly.
a. How much money will she owe Hilton Fashion World after two years ?
b. What is the eective rate of interest that Hilton Fashion World is charging her ?
P = R240 000
i = 0, 15
(1.34)
n = 5
A is required
Step 2.
Step 3.
= 60 000
Step 4. In 5 years' time the car is worth R60 000
Solution to Exercise 1.1.2 (p. 19)
Step 1. The owner of the business wants the photocopier to depreciate to R0 after 3 years. Thus, the value of
the photocopier will go down by 12 000 ÷ 3 = R4 000 per year.
Step 2. 12 000 − 4 000 = R8 000
Step 3. 8 000 − 4 000 = R4 000
Step 4. 4 000 − 4 000 = 0
After 3 years the photocopier is worth nothing
P = R3 200
i = 0, 12
(1.37)
n = 5
A is required
Step 2.
5
A = 3 200(1 − 0, 12) (1.38)
Step 3.
5
A = 3 200(0, 88)
= 3 200 × 0, 527731916 (1.39)
= 1688, 742134
Step 4. There would be approximately 1 690 amingos in 5 years' time.
Step 1.
P = R250 000
i = 0, 2
(1.40)
n = 5
A is required
Step 2.
5
A = 250 000(1 − 0, 2) (1.41)
Step 3.
5
A = 250 000(0, 8)
= 250 000 × 0, 32768 (1.42)
= 81 920
Step 4. Depreciated value after 5 years is R 81 920
n
A = P (1 + i)
(1.43)
A n
P = (1 + i)
Step 3.
R4 044,69 n
R3 500 = (1 + 7, 5%)
(1.44)
n
1, 156 = (1, 075)
We now use our calculator and try a few values for n.
Possible n 1, 075n
1,0 1,075
1,5 1,115
2,0 1,156
2,5 1,198
Table 1.4
T
P (1 + i) = P (1 + iT ) (1.46)
4
(1 + i) = (1 + i4 )
4
(1 + i) = (1 + 2%)
(1.48)
4
i = (1 + 2%) − 1
= 8, 24%
Step 5. The quarterly interest rate is 2% and the eective annual interest rate is 8,24%, for a nominal interest
rate of 8% paid quarterly.
T
1 + i = (1 + iT ) (1.50)
n
A = P × (1 + i) (1.51)
12
1+i = (1 + i12 )
12
i = (1 + i12 ) −1
12
= (1 + 1, 5%) −1 (1.53)
12
= (1, 015) −1
= 19, 56%
Step 4.
n
A = P × (1 + i)
3
= 100 × (1 + 19, 56%)
(1.54)
= 100 × 1, 7091
= 170, 91
Step 5. The accumulated value is R170, 91. (Remember to round o to the the nearest cent.)
2.1.1 Introduction
In grade 10, the basics of solving linear equations, quadratic equations, exponential equations and linear
inequalities were studied. This chapter extends on that work. We look at dierent methods of solving
quadratic equations.
1. 2y 2 − 61 = 101
2. 2y 2 − 10 = 0
3. y 2 − 4 = 10
4. 2y 2 − 8 = 28
5. 7y 2 = 28
6. y 2 + 28 = 100
7. 7y 2 + 14y = 0
8. 12y 2 + 24y + 12 = 0
9. 16y 2 − 400 = 0
1 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m38837/1.1/>.
33
34 CHAPTER 2. SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
10. y 2 − 5y + 6 = 0
11. y 2 + 5y − 36 = 0
12. y 2 + 2y = 8
13. −y 2 − 11y − 24 = 0
14. 13y − 42 = y 2
15. y 2 + 9y + 14 = 0
16. y 2 − 5ky + 4k 2 = 0
17. y (2y + 1) = 15
5y 3 −6
18.
y−2 + y + 2 = y 2 −2y
y−2 2y+1
19.
y+1 = y−7
a2 x2 − b2 (2.1)
This simple factorisation leads to another technique to solve quadratic equations known as completing the
square.
We demonstrate with a simple example, by trying to solve for x in:
x2 − 2x − 1 = 0. (2.3)
We cannot easily nd factors of this term, but the rst two terms look similar to the rst two terms of the
perfect square:
2
(x − 1) = x2 − 2x + 1. (2.4)
However, we can cheat and create a perfect square by adding 2 to both sides of the equation in (2.3) as:
x2 − 2x − 1 = 0
x2 − 2x − 1 + 2 = 0+2
2
x − 2x + 1 = 2 (2.5)
2
(x − 1) = 2
2
(x − 1) − 2 = 0
Now we know that:
√ 2
2= 2 (2.6)
2
(x − 1) − 2 (2.7)
2
h √ ih √ i
(x − 1) − 2 = (x − 1) − 2 (x − 1) + 2 = 0. (2.8)
√
(x − 1) − 2=0 (2.9)
or
√
(x − 1) + 2 = 0. (2.10)
√ √
This means x = 1+ 2 or x = 1− 2. This example demonstrates the use of completing the square to
solve a quadratic equation.
x2 − 10x − 11 = 0 (2.11)
2x2 − 8x − 16 = 0 (2.12)
Figure 2.1
1. x2 + 10x − 2 = 0
2. x2 + 4x + 3 = 0
3. x2 + 8x − 5 = 0
4. 2x2 + 12x + 4 = 0
5. x2 + 5x + 9 = 0
6. x2 + 16x + 10 = 0
7. 3x2 + 6x − 2 = 0
8. z 2 + 8z − 6 = 0
9. 2z 2 − 11z = 0
10. 5 + 4z − z 2 = 0
2 b c
f (x) = a x + x + . (2.14)
a a
Now we need to do some detective work to gure out how to turn (2.14) into a perfect square plus some
extra terms. We know that for a perfect square:
2
(m + n) = m2 + 2mn + n2 (2.15)
and
2
(m − n) = m2 − 2mn + n2 (2.16)
The key is the middle term on the right hand side, which is 2× the rst term × the second term of the
b
left hand side. In (2.14), we know that the rst term is x so 2× the second term is
a . This means that the
b
second term is
2a . So,
2 2
b 2 b b
x+ =x +2 x+ . (2.17)
2a 2a 2a
3 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m38851/1.1/>.
In general if you add a quantity and subtract the same quantity, nothing has changed. This means if we
b 2
add and subtract from the right hand side of (2.14) we will get:
2a
a x2 + ab x + ac
f (x) =
b 2 b 2
a x2 + ab x + 2a + ac
= − 2a
2 (2.18)
b b 2
+ ac
= a x + 2a − 2a
2
b b2
= a x + 2a + c − 4a
2
b2
b
a x+ = −c (2.19)
2a 4a
Now dividing by a and taking the square root of both sides gives the expression
r
b b2 c
x+ =± − (2.20)
2a 4a2 a
Finally, solving for x implies that
q
b b2 c
x = − 2a ± 4a 2 − a
q (2.21)
b b2 −4ac
= − 2a ± 4a2
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= (2.22)
2a
These are the solutions to the quadratic equation. Notice that there are two solutions in general, but these
may not always exists (depending on the sign of the expression b2 − 4ac under the square root). These
solutions are also called the roots of the quadratic equation.
Figure 2.2
1. 3t2 + t − 4 = 0
2. t2 − 5t + 9 = 0
3. 2t2 + 6t + 5 = 0
4. 4t2 + 2t + 2 = 0
5. −3t2 + 5t − 8 = 0
6. −5t2 + 3t − 3 = 0
7. t2 − 4t + 2 = 0
8. 9t2 − 7t − 9 = 0
9. 2t2 + 3t + 2 = 0
10. t2 + t + 1 = 0
tip:
• In all the examples done so far, the solutions were left in surd form. Answers can also be
given in decimal form, using the calculator. Read the instructions when answering questions
in a test or exam whether to leave answers in surd form, or in decimal form to an appropriate
number of decimal places.
• Completing the square as a method to solve a quadratic equation is only done when specically
asked.
• Always try to factorise rst, then use the formula if the trinomial cannot be factorised.
• Do some of them by completing the square and then compare answers to those done using the other
methods.
Table 2.1
Exercise 2.4.1: Find an equation when roots are given (Solution on p. 46.)
Find an equation with roots 13 and -5
∆ = b2 − 4ac. (2.23)
This is the expression under the square root in the formula for the roots of this function. We have already
seen that whether the roots exist or not depends on whether this factor ∆ is negative or positive.
Figure 2.3
Available for free at Connexions <http://cnx.org/content/col11243/1.3>
41
b
x=− (2.25)
2a
Figure 2.4
∆ = k 2 + 6bk + b2 + 8 (2.26)
IEB, Nov. 2003, HG In the quadratic equation px2 + qx + r = 0, p, q and r are positive real numbers and form a geometric
sequence. Discuss the nature of the roots.
IEB, Nov. 2004, HG Consider the equation:
x2 − 4 5
k= where x 6= (2.27)
2x − 5 2
a. x (x − 9) + 14 = 0
b. x2 − x = 3 (Show your answer correct to ONE decimal place.)
c. x + 2 = x6 (correct to 2 decimal places)
1 2x
d.
x+1 + x−1 = 1
6. Solve for x by completing the square: x2 − px − 4 = 0
2 2
7. The equation ax + bx + c = 0 has roots x =
3 and x = −4. Find one set of possible values for a, b
and c.
8. The two roots of the equation 4x2 + px − 9 = 0 dier by 5. Calculate the value of p.
2
9. An equation of the form x + bx + c = 0 is written on the board. Saskia and Sven copy it down
incorrectly. Saskia has a mistake in the constant term and obtains the solutions -4 and 2. Sven has
a mistake in the coecient of x and obtains the solutions 1 and -15. Determine the correct equation
that was on the board.
10. Bjorn stumbled across the following formula to solve the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 in a
foreign textbook.
2c
x= √ (2.28)
−b ± b2 − 4ac
2x2 + x − 3 = 0 (2.29)
b. Solve the equation again, using factorisation, to see if the formula works for this equation.
c. Trying to derive this formula to prove that it always works, Bjorn got stuck along the way. His
attempt his shown below:
ax2 + bx + c = 0
b c
a+ x + x2 = 0 Divided by x2 where x 6= 0
c b
x2 + x + a = 0 Rearranged
(2.30)
1 b a
x2 + cx + c = 0 Divided by c where c 6= 0
1 b
x2 + cx = − ac Subtracted a
c from both sides
∴ x12 + cx
b
+ ... Got stuck
Complete his derivation.
(2x + s) (x + v) (2.31)
We see that sv = −12 and s + 2v = −5. This is a set of simultaneous equations in s and v, but it is
easy to solve numerically. All the options for s and v are considered below.
s v s + 2v
2 -6 -10
-2 6 10
3 -4 -5
-3 4 5
4 -3 -2
-4 3 2
6 -2 2
-6 2 -2
Table 2.2
Step 5. If two brackets are multiplied together and give 0, then one of the brackets must be 0, therefore
2x + 3 = 0 (2.34)
or
x−4=0 (2.35)
3
Therefore, x = − or x = 4
2
2
Step 6. The solutions to 2x − 5x − 12 =0 are x = − 23 or x = 4.
a2 − 3a − 10 = 0 (2.36)
Step 2.
(a + 2) (a − 5) = 0 (2.37)
Step 3.
a+2=0 (2.38)
or
a−5=0 (2.39)
Solve the two linear equations and check the solutions in the original equation.
Step 4. Therefore, a = −2 or a=5
Solution to Exercise 2.1.3 (p. 33)
Step 1.
3b (b + 1) + (b + 2) (b + 1) 4 (b + 2)
= (2.40)
(b + 2) (b + 1) (b + 2) (b + 1)
Step 2. The denominators are the same, therefore the numerators must be the same.
However, b 6= −2 and b 6= −1
Step 3.
3b2 + 3b + b2 + 3b + 2 = 4b + 8
4b2 + 2b − 6 = 0 (2.41)
2b2 + b − 3 = 0
Step 4.
(2b + 3) (b − 1) = 0
2b + 3 = 0 or b−1=0 (2.42)
−3
b= 2 or b=1
Step 5. Both solutions are valid
−3
Therefore, b= 2 or b=1
Solution to Exercise 2.2.1 (p. 35)
Step 1.
x2 − 10x − 11 = 0 (2.43)
Step 2.
x2 − 10x = 11 (2.44)
2
Step 3. The coecient of the x term is 1.
(−10)
Step 4. The coecient of the x term is -10. Therefore, half of the coecient of the x term will be
2 = −5
2
and the square of it will be (−5) = 25. Therefore:
x2 − 10x + 25 = 11 + 25 (2.45)
Step 5.
2
(x − 5) − 36 = 0 (2.46)
Step 6.
2
(x − 5) − 36 = 0 (2.47)
Step 7.
[x + 1] [x − 11] = 0
(2.49)
∴ x = −1 or x = 11
Step 2.
2x2 − 8x = 16 (2.51)
2
Step 3. The coecient of the x term is 2. Therefore, divide both sides by 2:
x2 − 4x = 8 (2.52)
(−4) 2
Step 4. The coecient of the x term is -4;
2 = −2 and (−2) = 4. Therefore:
x2 − 4x + 4 = 8 + 4 (2.53)
Step 5.
2
(x − 2) − 12 = 0 (2.54)
Step 6.
h √ ih √ i
(x − 2) + 12 (x − 2) − 12 = 0 (2.55)
Step 7.
√ √
x − 2 + 12 x − 2 − 12 = 0
√ √ (2.56)
∴ x = 2 − 12 or x=2+ 12
Step 8. Leave the left hand side written as a perfect square
2
(x − 2) = 12 (2.57)
Step 9. √
x − 2 = ± 12 (2.58)
√ √
Step 10. Therefore x=2− 12 or x=2+ 12
Compare to answer in step 7.
a=2 (2.59)
b=3 (2.60)
c = −7 (2.61)
Step 3. Always write down the formula rst and then substitute the values of a, b and c.
√
−b± b2 −4ac
x =
√ 2a2
−(3)± (3) −4(2)(−7)
= 2(2)
√ (2.62)
−3± 65
= 4
√
−3± 65
= 4
√ √
Step 4. The two roots of f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 7 are x = −3+4 65 and −3−4 65 .
a=1 (2.63)
b = −5 (2.64)
c=8 (2.65)
Step 3.
√
−b± b2 −4ac
x =
√ 2a
−(−5)± (−5)2 −4(1)(8)
= (2.66)
2(1)
√
5± −7
= 2
√
Step 4. Since the expression under the square root is negative these are not real solutions ( −7 is not a real
number). Therefore there are no real solutions to the quadratic equation x2 − 5x + 8 = 0. This means
that the graph of the quadratic function f (x) = x2 − 5x + 8 has no x-intercepts, but that the entire
graph lies above the x-axis.
(x − 13) (x + 5) = 0 (2.67)
Notice that the signs in the brackets are opposite of the given roots.
Step 2.
x2 − 8x − 65 = 0 (2.68)
Of course, there would be other possibilities as well when each term on each side of the equal to sign
is multiplied by a constant.
(2x + 3) (x − 4) = 0 (2.69)
2x2 − 5x − 12 = 0 (2.70)
3.1 Introduction
Now that you know how to solve quadratic equations, you are ready to learn how to solve quadratic inequal-
ities.
ax2 + bx + c > 0
ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0
(3.1)
ax2 + bx + c < 0
ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0
Solving a quadratic inequality corresponds to working out in what region the graph of a quadratic function
lies above or below the x-axis.
Exercise 3.1: Quadratic Inequality (Solution on p. 49.)
Solve the inequality 4x2 − 4x + 1 ≤ 0 and interpret the solution graphically.
Exercise 3.4: Non-linear inequality with the variable in the denominator (Solution on
p. 51.)
2 1
Solve
x+3 ≤ x−3
47
48 CHAPTER 3. SOLVING QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
Figure 3.1
1
Step 3. f (x) = 0 only when
2.x=
1
Step 4. This means that the graph of f (x) = 4x2 − 4x + 1 touches the x-axis at x = 2 , but there are no regions
where the graph is below the x-axis.
Step 5.
Figure 3.2
x2 − 5x + 6 ≥ 0
(3.3)
(x − 3) (x − 2) ≥ 0
Step 3. We need to gure out which values of x satisfy the inequality. From the answers we have ve regions
to consider.
Figure 3.3
Step 4. Let f (x) = x2 − 5x + 6. For each region, choose any point in the region and evaluate the function.
Table 3.1
Figure 3.4
−x2 − 3x + 5 = 0
2
x + 3x − 5 = 0
√
−3± (3)2 −4(1)(−5)
∴x = 2(1)
√ (3.4)
−3± 29
= 2
√
−3− 29
x1 = 2
√
−3+ 29
x2 = 2
Step 2. We need to gure out which values of x satisfy the inequality. From the answers we have ve regions
to consider.
Figure 3.5
Step 3. We can use another method to determine the sign of the function over dierent regions, by drawing
a rough sketch of the graph of the function. We know that the roots of the function correspond to
the x-intercepts of the graph. Let g (x) = −x2 − 3x + 5. We can see that this is a parabola with a
maximum turning point that intersects the x-axis at x1 and x2 .
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Step 3.
Figure 3.8
4.1.1 Introduction
In grade 10, you learnt how to solve sets of simultaneous equations where both equations were linear (i.e.
had the highest power equal to 1). In this chapter, you will learn how to solve sets of simultaneous equations
where one is linear and one is quadratic. As in Grade 10, the solution will be found both algebraically and
graphically.
The only dierence between a system of linear simultaneous equations and a system of simultaneous
equations with one linear and one quadratic equation, is that the second system will have at most two
solutions.
An example of a system of simultaneous equations with one linear equation and one quadratic equation
is:
y − 2x = −4
(4.1)
x2 + y = 4
4.1.2.1 Method: Graphical solution to a system of simultaneous equations with one linear and
one quadratic equation
1. Make y the subject of each equation.
2. Draw the graphs of each equation as dened above.
3. The solution of the set of simultaneous equations is given by the intersection points of the two graphs.
y = 2x − 4
(4.2)
y = 4 − x2
1 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m38854/1.1/>.
53
54 CHAPTER 4. SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Plotting the graph of each equation, gives a straight line for the rst equation and a parabola for the second
equation.
Figure 4.1
The parabola and the straight line intersect at two points: (2,0) and (-4,-12). Therefore, the solutions to
the system of equations in (4.1) is x = 2, y = 0 and x = −4, y = 12
Exercise 4.1.1: Simultaneous Equations (Solution on p. 57.)
Solve graphically:
y − x2 + 9 = 0
(4.3)
y + 3x − 9 = 0
1. b2 − 1 − a = 0, a + b − 5 = 0
2. x + y − 10 = 0, x2 − 2 − y = 0
3. 6 − 4x − y = 0, 12 − 2x2 − y = 0
4. x + 2y − 14 = 0, x2 + 2 − y = 0
5. 2x + 1 − y = 0, 25 − 3x − x2 − y = 0
y − 2x = −4
(4.4)
x2 + y = 4
2 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m38856/1.1/>.
is:
y = 2x − 4 intosecondequation
2
x + (2x − 4) = 4
2
x + 2x − 8 = 0 (4.5)
Factorisetoget : (x + 4) (x − 2) = 0
∴ the2solutionsforxare : x = −4andx = 2
The corresponding solutions for y are obtained by substitution of the x-values into the rst equation
y − x2 + 9 = 0
(4.7)
y + 3x − 9 = 0
1. a+b=5 a − b2 + 3b − 5 = 0
2. a−b+1=0 a − b2 + 5b − 6 = 0
(2b+2)
3. a− 4 =0 a − 2b2 + 3b + 5 = 0
4. a + 2b − 4 = 0 a − 2b2 − 5b + 3 = 0
5. a − 2 + 3b = 0 a − 9 + b2 = 0
6. a−b−5=0 a − b2 = 0
7. a−b−4=0 a + 2b2 − 12 = 0
8. a+b−9=0 a + b2 − 18 = 0
9. a − 3b + 5 = 0 a + b2 − 4b = 0
10. a+b−5=0 a − b2 + 1 = 0
11. a − 2b − 3 = 0 a − 3b2 + 4 = 0
12. a − 2b = 0 a − b2 − 2b + 3 = 0
13.a − 3b = 0 a − b2 + 4 = 0
14. a − 2b − 10 = 0 a − b2 − 5b = 0
15. a − 3b − 1 = 0 a − 2b2 − b + 3 = 0
16. a − 3b + 1 = 0 a − b2 = 0
17. a + 6b − 5 = 0 a − b2 − 8 = 0
18.a − 2b + 1 = 0 a − 2b2 − 12b + 4 = 0
19. 2a + b − 2 = 0 8a + b2 − 8 = 0
20. a + 4b − 19 = 0 8a + 5b2 − 101 = 0
21. a + 4b − 18 = 0 2a + 5b2 − 57 = 0
Table 4.1
y − x2 + 9 = 0
(4.8)
2
y = x −9
and for the second equation:
y + 3x − 9 = 0
(4.9)
y = −3x + 9
Step 2.
Figure 4.2
y + 3x − 9 = 0
(4.10)
y = −3x + 9
Step 2.
(−3x + 9) − x2 + 9 = 0
2
x + 3x − 18 = 0
(4.11)
Factorise to get : (x + 6) (x − 3) = 0
∴ the 2 solutions or x are : x = −6 and x = 3
Step 3.
y = −3 (−6) + 9 = 27 for x = −6
(4.12)
and : y = −3 (3) + 9 = 0 for x = 3
Step 4. The rst solution is x = −6 and y = 27. The second solution is x=3 and y = 0.
Mathematical Models 1
A mathematical model is an equation (or a set of equations for the more dicult problems) that describes
a particular situation. For example, if Anna receives R3 for each time she helps her mother wash the dishes
and R5 for each time she helps her father cut the grass, how much money will Anna earn if she helps her
mother 5 times to wash the dishes and helps her father 2 times to wash the car. The rst step to modelling
is to write the equation, that describes the situation. To calculate how much Anna will earn we see that she
will earn :
59
60 CHAPTER 5. MATHEMATICAL MODELS
1. Jack and Jill both have colds. Jack sneezes twice for each sneeze of Jill's. If Jill sneezes x times, write
an equation describing how many times they both sneezed?
2. It rains half as much in July as it does in December. If it rains y mm in July, write an expression
relating the rainfall in July and December.
3. Zane can paint a room in 4 hours. Billy can paint a room in 2 hours. How long will it take both of
them to paint a room together?
1
4. 25 years ago, Arthur was 5 more than
3 as old as Lee was. Today, Lee is 26 less than twice Arthur's
age. How old is Lee?
5. Kevin has played a few games of ten-pin bowling. In the third game, Kevin scored 80 more than in
the second game. In the rst game Kevin scored 110 less than the third game. His total score for the
rst two games was 208. If he wants an average score of 146, what must he score on the fourth game?
6. Erica has decided to treat her friends to coee at the Corner Coee House. Erica paid R54,00 for four
cups of cappuccino and three cups of lter coee. If a cup of cappuccino costs R3,00 more than a cup
of lter coee, calculate how much each type of coee costs?
7. The product of two integers is 95. Find the integers if their total is 24.
s = 5t2 + v0 t (5.3)
−1
In this equation, v0 is the initial velocity, in m·s . Distance is measured in meters and time is
measured in seconds. Use the equation to nd how far an object will fall in 2 s if it is thrown
−1
downward at an initial velocity of 10 m·s .
s = 5t2 + v0 t (5.4)
−1
In this equation, v0 is the initial velocity, in m·s . Distance is measured in meters and time is
measured in seconds. Use the equation nd how long it takes for the object to reach the ground if
−1
it is dropped from a height of 2000 m. The initial velocity is 0 m·s .
Figure 5.1
1 1
2 3
3 9
4 27
Table 5.1
1. How many trees, in hundreds, are there in the SIXTH year if this pattern is continued?
2. Determine an algebraic expression that describes the number of trees in the nth year in the
forest.
3. Do you think this model, which determines the number of trees in the forest, will continue
indenitely? Give a reason for your answer.
−1
In this equation, v0 is the initial velocity, in m·s . Distance is measured in meters and time is
measured in seconds. Use the equation to nd how long it takes a tennis ball to reach the ground if it
is thrown downward from a hot-air balloon that is 500 m high. The tennis ball is thrown at an initial
−1
velocity of 5 m·s .
2. The table below lists the times that Sheila takes to walk the given distances.
Time (minutes) 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance (km) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Table 5.2
Plot the points. If the relationship between the distances and times is linear, nd the equation of the
straight line, using any two points. Then use the equation to answer the following questions:
If Sheila were to walk half as fast as she is currently walking, what would the graph of her distances
and times look like?
3. The power P (in watts) supplied to a circuit by a 12 volt battery is given by the formula P = 12I −0, 5I 2
where I is the current in amperes.
a. Since both power and current must be greater than 0, nd the limits of the current that can be
drawn by the circuit.
b. Draw a graph of P = 12I − 0, 5I 2 and use your answer to the rst question, to dene the extent
of the graph.
c. What is the maximum current that can be drawn?
d. From your graph, read o how much power is supplied to the circuit when the current is 10
amperes. Use the equation to conrm your answer.
e. At what value of current will the power supplied be a maximum?
4. You are in the lobby of a business building waiting for the lift. You are late for a meeting and wonder
if it will be quicker to take the stairs. There is a fascinating relationship between the number of oors
in the building, the number of people in the lift and how often it will stop: If N people get into a lift
at the lobby and the number of oors in the building is F, then the lift can be expected to stop
N
F −1
F −F (5.6)
F
times.
a. If the building has 16 oors and there are 9 people who get into the lift, how many times is the
lift expected to stop?
b. How many people would you expect in a lift, if it stopped 12 times and there are 17 oors?
5. A wooden block is made as shown in the diagram. The ends are right-angled triangles having sides 3x,
2
4x and 5x. The length of the block is y. The total surface area of the block is 3 600 cm .
Figure 5.2
Show that
300 − x2
y= (5.7)
x
6. A stone is thrown vertically upwards and its height (in metres) above the ground at time t (in seconds)
is given by:
h (t) = 35 − 5t2 + 30t (5.8)
55 x
P (x) = + litresperkilometre (5.9)
2x 200
Assume that the petrol costs R4,00 per litre and the driver earns R18,00 per hour (travelling time).
Now deduce that the total cost, C, in Rands, for a 2 000 km trip is given by:
256000
C (x) = + 40x (5.10)
x
8. During an experiment the temperature T (in degrees Celsius), varies with time t (in hours), according
to the formula:
1
T (t) = 30 + 4t − t2 t ∈ [1; 10] (5.11)
2
a. At what rate (rounded o to TWO decimal places) is the temperature falling when t = 4 minutes?
b. Find the lowest room temperature reached during the 10 minutes for which the cooling system
operates, by drawing a graph.
10. A washing powder box has the shape of a rectangular prism as shown in the diagram below. The box
3
has a volume of 480 cm , a breadth of 4 cm and a length of x cm.
Figure 5.3
2
Show that the total surface area of the box (in cm ) is given by:
5.3.1 Simulations
A simulation is an attempt to model a real-life situation on a computer so that it can be studied to see
how the system works. By changing variables, predictions may be made about the behaviour of the system.
Simulation is used in many contexts, including the modeling of natural systems or human systems in order
to gain insight into their functioning. Other contexts include simulation of technology for performance
optimization, safety engineering, testing, training and education. Simulation can be used to show the eventual
real eects of alternative conditions and courses of action.
Simulation in education Simulations in education are somewhat like training simulations. They focus
on specic tasks. In the past, video has been used for teachers and education students to observe, problem
solve and role play; however, a more recent use of simulations in education is that of animated narrative
vignettes (ANV). ANVs are cartoon-like video narratives of hypothetical and reality-based stories involving
classroom teaching and learning. ANVs have been used to assess knowledge, problem solving skills and
dispositions of children and pre-service and in-service teachers.
s = 5t2 + v0 t
2
= 5(2) + (10) (2)
= 5 (4) + 20 (5.14)
= 20 + 20
= 40
−1
Step 4. The object will fall 40 m in 2 s if it is thrown downward at an initial velocity of 10 m·s .
s = 5t2 + v0 t
2000 = 5t2 + (0) (2)
2000 = 5t2
(5.15)
2000
t2 = 5
= 400
∴ t = 20 s
Step 4. The object will take 20 s to reach the ground if it is dropped from a height of 2000 m.
Step 3.
number of trees = 3n−1 hundreds (5.17)
Step 4. No
The number of trees will increase for some time. Yet, eventually the number of trees will not increase
any more. It will be limited by factors such as the limited amount of water and nutrients available in
the ecosystem.
Table 5.3
Step 2.
5
1 000 + x = (1 500 + x) (5.18)
7
Step 3.
7 000 + 7x = 7 500 + 5x
2x = 500 (5.19)
x = 250
Step 4. Therefore the increase is R250.
6.1 Introduction
In Grade 10, you studied graphs of many dierent forms. In this chapter, you will learn a little more about
the graphs of quadratic functions.
67
68 CHAPTER 6. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
c. h (x) = x2 + 1
2
d. j (x) = (x + 1) + 1
2
e. k (x) = (x + 2) + 1
Use your results to deduce the eect of q.
3. Following the general method of the above activities, choose your own values of p and q to plot 5
2
dierent graphs (on the same set of axes) of y = a(x + p) + q to deduce the eect of a.
From your graphs, you should have found that a aects whether the graph makes a smile or a frown. If
a < 0, the graph makes a frown and if a>0 then the graph makes a smile. This was shown in Grade 10.
You should have also found that the value of q aects whether the turning point of the graph is above
the x-axis (q < 0) or below the x-axis (q > 0).
You should have also found that the value of p aects whether the turning point is to the left of the
y -axis (p > 0) or to the right of the y -axis (p < 0).
These dierent properties are summarised in Table 6.1. The axes of symmetry for each graph is shown
as a dashed line.
p<0
a>0
q≥0
Figure 6.2
q≤0
Figure 6.6
2
Table 6.1: Table summarising general shapes and positions of functions of the form y = a(x + p) + q . The
axes of symmetry are shown as dashed lines.
Figure 6.10
0 (Multiplication by a positive number maintains the nature of the inequality) a(x + p)2 +
q ≥ qf (x) ≥ q
x, f (x) is always greater than or equal to q . Therefore if a > 0, the
This tells us that for all values of
2
range of f (x) = a(x + p) + q is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ [q, ∞)}.
2
Similarly, it can be shown that if a < 0 that the range of f (x) = a(x + p) +q is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ (−∞, q]}.
This is left as an exercise.
2
For example, the domain of g (x) = (x − 1) + 2 is {x : x ∈ R} because there is no value of x∈R for
which g (x) is undened. The range of g (x) can be calculated as follows:
2
(x − p) ≥ 0
2
(x + p) + 2 ≥ 2 (6.2)
g (x) ≥ 2
Therefore the range is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ [2, ∞)}.
6.2.3 Intercepts
2
For functions of the form, y = a(x + p) + q , the details of calculating the intercepts with the x and y axes
is given.
The y -intercept is calculated as follows:
2
y = a(x + p) + q
2
yint = a(0 + p) + q (6.3)
= ap2 + q
If p = 0, then yint = q .
2
For example, the y -intercept of g (x) = (x − 1) + 2 is given by setting x=0 to get:
2
g (x) = (x − 1) + 2
2
yint = (0 − 1) + 2
2
= (−1) + 2 (6.4)
= 1+2
= 3
The x-intercepts are calculated as follows:
2
y = a(x + p) + q
2
0 = a(xint + p) + q
2
a(xint + p) = −q (6.5)
p q
xint + p = ± −a
p q
xint = ± −a − p
However, (6.5) is only valid if − aq > 0 q < 0 or a < 0 but not both. This is
which means that either
consistent with what we expect, since if a > 0 then − aq is negative and in this case the graph
q >0 and
q
lies above the x-axis and therefore does not intersect the x-axis. If however, q > 0 and a < 0, then −
a is
positive and the graph is hat shaped with turning point above the x-axis and should have two x-intercepts.
q
Similarly, if q < 0 and a > 0 then −
a is also positive, and the graph should intersect with the x-axis twice.
2
For example, the x-intercepts of g (x) = (x − 1) + 2 are given by setting y = 0 to get:
2
g (x) = (x − 1) + 2
2
0 = (xint − 1) + 2 (6.6)
2
−2 = (xint − 1)
2
which has no real solutions. Therefore, the graph of g (x) = (x − 1) + 2 does not have any x-intercepts.
6.2.3.1 Intercepts
2
1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of the function f (x) = (x − 4) − 1.
2
2. Find the intercepts with both axes of the graph of f (x) = x − 6x + 8.
3. Given: f (x) = −x2 + 4x − 3. Calculate the x- and y-intercepts of the graph of f.
2
q = a(x + p) + q
2
0 = a(x + p)
2
0 = (x + p) (6.7)
0 = x+p
x = −p
∴x = −p at f (x) = q . The co-ordinates of the (minimal) turning point is therefore (−p, q).
Similarly, if a < 0, then the highest value that f (x) can take on is q and the co-ordinates of the (maximal)
turning point is (−p, q).
1. sign of a
2. domain and range
3. turning point
4. y -intercept
5. x-intercept
2
For example, sketch the graph of g (x) = − 21 (x + 1) − 3. Mark the intercepts, turning point and axis of
symmetry.
Firstly, we determine that a < 0. This means that the graph will have a maximal turning point.
The domain of the graph is {x : x ∈ R} because f (x) is dened for all x ∈ R. The range of the graph is
determined as follows:
2
(x + 1) ≥ 0
2
− 12 (x + 1) ≤ 0
(6.8)
2
− 12 (x + 1) − 3 ≤ −3
∴ f (x) ≤ −3
Therefore the range of the graph is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ (−∞, −3]}.
Using the fact that the maximum value that f (x) achieves is -3, then the y -coordinate of the turning
point is -3. The x-coordinate is determined as follows:
2
− 12 (x + 1) − 3 = −3
2
− 21 (x + 1) − 3 + 3 = 0
2
− 12 (x + 1) = 0
(6.9)
1 2
Divide both sides by − 2 : (x + 1) = 0
Take square root of both sides : x + 1 = 0
∴ x = −1
The coordinates of the turning point are: (−1, −3).
The y -intercept is obtained by setting x = 0. This gives:
2
yint = − 21 (0 + 1) − 3
= − 12 (1) − 3
= − 21 − 3 (6.10)
= − 12 −3
= − 72
The x-intercept is obtained by setting y = 0. This gives:
2
0 = − 21 (xint + 1) − 3
2
3 = − 21 (xint + 1)
(6.11)
2
−3 · 2 = (xint + 1)
2
−6 = (xint + 1)
which has no real solutions. Therefore, there are no x-intercepts.
We also know that the axis of symmetry is parallel to the y -axis and passes through the turning point.
Figure 6.12
2
y = (x − 1) − 2 (x − 1) − 3
= x2 − 2x + 1 − 2x + 2 − 3 (6.12)
= x2 − 4x
If the given parabola is shifted 3 units down i.e. y becomes y + 3. The new equation will be:
(Notice the x-axis then moves 3 units upwards)
y+3 = x2 − 2x − 3
(6.13)
y = x2 − 2x − 6
Figure 6.13
5. A parabola with turning point (-1,-4) is shifted vertically by 4 units upwards. What are the coordinates
of the turning point of the shifted parabola?
7.1 Introduction
In Grade 10, you studied graphs of many dierent forms. In this chapter, you will learn a little more about
the graphs of functions.
Figure 7.1: General shape and position of the graph of a function of the form f (x) = a
x+p
+ q . The
asymptotes are shown as dashed lines.
75
76 CHAPTER 7. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
1
c. h (x) = x+0 +1
1
d. j (x) = x+1 + 1
1
e. k (x) = x+2 +1
Use your results to deduce the eect of p.
3. Following the general method of the above activities, choose your own values of a and p to plot 5
a
dierent graphs of y= x+p +q to deduce the eect of q.
You should have found that the sign of a aects whether the graph is located in the rst and third quadrants,
or the second and fourth quadrants of Cartesian plane.
You should have also found that the value of p aects whether the x-intercept is negative (p > 0) or
positive (p < 0).
You should have also found that the value of q aects whether the graph lies above the x-axis (q > 0) or
below the x-axis (q < 0).
These dierent properties are summarised in Table 7.1. The axes of symmetry for each graph is shown
as a dashed line.
p<0
a>0
q>0
Figure 7.2
q<0
Figure 7.6
a
Table 7.1: Table summarising general shapes and positions of functions of the form y= x+p + q. The axes
of symmetry are shown as dashed lines.
a
y = x+p + q
a
y−q = x+p
(7.1)
If x 6= −p then : (y − q) (x + p) = a
a
x+p = y−q
a
This shows that the function is undened at y = q. Therefore the range of f (x) = x+p +q is {f (x) : f (x) ∈
R, f (x) 6= q .
2
For example, the domain of g (x) = x+1 +2 is {x : x ∈ R, x 6= −1} because g (x) is undened at x = −1.
2
y = x+1 + 2
2
(y − 2) = x+1
(7.2)
(y − 2) (x + 1) = 2
2
(x + 1) = y−2
We see that g (x) is undened at y = 2. Therefore the range is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)}.
7.2.3 Intercepts
a
For functions of the form, y=
x+p + q , the intercepts with the x and y axis are calculated by setting x=0
for the y -intercept and by setting y = 0 for the x-intercept.
a
y = x+p + q
a (7.3)
yint = 0+p + q
a
= p +q
2
For example, the y -intercept of g (x) = x+1 +2 is given by setting x=0 to get:
2
y = x+1 + 2
2
yint = 0+1 + 2
2 (7.4)
= 1 +2
= 2+2
= 4
The x-intercepts are calculated by setting y=0 as follows:
a
y= x+p +q
0
=
a
xint +p +q
a
xint +p
=
−q
a
(7.5)
=
−q (xint + p)
xint + p
=
a
−q
xint
=
a
−q −p
2
For example, the x-intercept of g (x) = x+1 +2 is given by setting x=0 to get:
2
y = x+1 + 2
2
0 = xint +1 + 2
2
−2 = xint +1
−2 (xint + 1) = 2 (7.6)
2
xint + 1 = −2
xint = −1 − 1
xint = −2
7.2.3.1 Intercepts
1
1. Given:h (x)
x+4 − 2. Determine the coordinates of the intercepts of h with the x- and y-axes.
=
5
2. Determine the x-intercept of the graph of y =
x + 2. Give the reason why there is no y-intercept for
this function.
7.2.4 Asymptotes
a
There are two asymptotes for functions of the form y = x+p + q. They are determined by examining the
domain and range.
We saw that the function was undened at x = −p and for y = q. Therefore the asymptotes are x = −p
and y = q.
2
For example, the domain of g (x) = x+1 + 2 is {x : x ∈ R, x 6= −1} because g (x) is undened at x = −1.
We also see that g (x) is undened at y = 2. Therefore the range is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)}.
From this we deduce that the asymptotes are at x = −1 and y = 2.
7.2.4.1 Asymptotes
1
1. Given:h (x)
x+4 − 2.Determine the equations of the asymptotes of h.
=
1
2. Write down the equation of the vertical asymptote of the graph y =
x−1 .
7.2.5.1 Graphs
1
1. Draw the graph of y= x + 2. Indicate the horizontal asymptote.
1
2. Given:h (x) = x+4 − 2. Sketch the graph of h showing clearly the asymptotes and ALL intercepts with
the axes.
1 8
3. Draw the graph of
x and y = − x+1 + 3 on the same system of axes.
y=
5
4. Draw the graph of y=
x−2,5 + 2. Explain your method.
8
5. Draw the graph of the function dened by y =
x−8 + 4. Indicate the asymptotes and intercepts with
the axes.
8.1 Introduction
In Grade 10, you studied graphs of many dierent forms. In this chapter, you will learn a little more about
the graphs of exponential functions.
Figure 8.1: General shape and position of the graph of a function of the form f (x) = ab(x+p) + q.
81
82 CHAPTER 8. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
a. f (x) = 1 · 2(x+1) − 2
b. g (x) = 1 · 2(x+1) − 1
c. h (x) = 1 · 2(x+1) + 0
d. j (x) = 1 · 2(x+1) + 1
e. k (x) = 1 · 2(x+1) + 2
Use your results to understand what happens when you change the value of q . You should nd that
when q is increased, the whole graph is translated (moved) upwards. When q is decreased (poosibly
even made negative), the graph is translated downwards.
3. On the same set of axes, with −5 ≤ x ≤ 3 and −35 ≤ y ≤ 35, plot the following graphs:
(x+1)
a. f (x) = −2 · 2 +1
b. g (x) = −1 · 2(x+1) + 1
c. h (x) = 0 · 2(x+1) + 1
d. j (x) = 1 · 2(x+1) + 1
e. k (x) = 2 · 2(x+1) + 1
Use your results to understand what happens when you change the value of a. You should nd that
the value of a aects whether the graph curves upwards (a > 0) or curves downwards (a < 0). You
should also nd that a larger value of a (when a is positive) stretches the graph upwards. However,
when a is negative, a lower value of a (such as -2 instead of -1) stretches the graph downwards. Finally,
note that when a = 0 the graph is simply a horizontal line. This is why we set a 6= 0 in the original
denition of these functions.
4. Following the general method of the above activities, choose your own values of a and q to plot 5 graphs
of y = ab(x+p) + q on the same set of axes (choose your own limits for x and y carefully). Make sure
that you use the same values of a, b and q for each graph, and dierent values of p. Use your results
to understand the eect of changing the value of p.
p<0
a>0
q>0
Figure 8.2
q<0
Figure 8.6
Table 8.1: Table summarising general shapes and positions of functions of the form y = ab(x+p) + q .
b(x+p) > 0
a · b(x+p) > 0
(8.1)
a · b(x+p) + q > q
f (x) > q
Therefore, if a > 0, then the range is {f (x) : f (x) ∈ [q, ∞)}. In other words f (x) can be any real number
greater than q.
If a<0 then:
b(x+p) > 0
(x+p)
a·b < 0
(8.2)
(x+p)
a·b +q < q
f (x) < q
Therefore, if a < 0, then the range is (−∞, q), meaning that f (x) can be any real number less than q.
Equivalently, one could write that the range is {y ∈ R : y < q}.
For example, the domain of g (x) = 3 · 2x+1 + 2 is {x : x ∈ R}. For the range,
2x+1 > 0
3 · 2x+1 > 0 (8.3)
3 · 2x+1 + 2 > 2
Therefore the range is {g (x) : g (x) ∈ [2, ∞)}.
8.2.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = ab(x+p) + q , the intercepts with the x- and y -axis are calculated by setting
x=0 for the y -intercept and by setting y = 0 for the x-intercept.
The y -intercept is calculated as follows:
y = ab(x+p) + q
yint = ab(0+p) + q (8.4)
= abp + q
For example, the y -intercept of g (x) = 3 · 2x+1 + 2 is given by setting x=0 to get:
y = 3 · 2x+1 + 2
yint = 3 · 20+1 + 2
= 3 · 21 + 2 (8.5)
= 3·2+2
= 8
The x-intercepts are calculated by setting y=0 as follows:
y = ab(x+p) + q
0 = ab(xint +p) + q
(8.6)
ab(xint +p) = −q
b(xint +p) = − aq
Since b>0 (this is a requirement in the original denition) and a positive number raised to any power is
always positive, the last equation above only has a real solution if either a<0 or q <0 (but not both).
Additionally, a must not be zero for the division to be valid. If these conditions are not satised, the graph
of the function of the form y = ab(x+p) + q does not have any x-intercepts.
For example, the x-intercept of g (x) = 3 · 2x+1 + 2 is given by setting y = 0 to get:
y = 3 · 2x+1 + 2
0 = 3 · 2xint +1 + 2
(8.7)
−2 = 3 · 2xint +1
−2
2xint +1 = 2
which has no real solution. Therefore, the graph of g (x) = 3 · 2x+1 + 2 does not have a x-intercept. You
will notice that calculating g (x) for any value of x will always give a positive number, meaning that y will
never be zero and so the graph will never intersect the x-axis.
8.2.3.1 Intercepts
1. Give the y-intercept of the graph of y = bx + 2 .
1 x+3
2. Give the x- and y-intercepts of the graph of y = (1, 5)
2 − 0, 75.
8.2.4 Asymptotes
Functions of the form y = ab(x+p) + q always have exactly one horizontal asymptote.
When examining the range of these functions, we saw that we always have either y<q or y>q for all
input values of x. Therefore the line y=q is an asymptote.
For example, we saw earlier that the range of g (x) = 3 · 2x+1 + 2
is (2, ∞) because g (x) is always greater
than 2. However, the value of g (x) can get extremely close to 2, even though it never reaches it. For example,
if you calculate g (−20), the value is approximately 2.000006. Using larger negative values of x will make
g (x) even closer to 2: the value of g (−100) is so close to 2 that the calculator is not precise enough to know
the dierence, and will (incorrectly) show you that it is equal to exactly 2.
From this we deduce that the line y=2 is an asymptote.
8.2.4.1 Asymptotes
1. Give the equation of the asymptote of the graph of y = 3x − 2.
x−1
2. What is the equation of the horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = 3(0, 8) −3 ?
For example, sketch the graph of g (x) = 3 · 2x+1 + 2. Mark the intercepts.
We have determined the domain to be {x : x ∈ R} and the range to be {g (x) : g (x) ∈ (2, ∞)}.
The y -intercept is yint = 8 and there is no x-intercept.
a. y = bx + 2
b. y = bx+2
c. y = 2bx
d. y = 2bx+2 + 2
x A B C
-1 3,5 2,5 1
0 2 1 0,4
Table 8.2
Gradient at a Point 1
9.1 Introduction
In Grade 10, we investigated the idea of average gradient and saw that the gradient of some functions varied
over dierent intervals. In Grade 11, we further look at the idea of average gradient, and are introduced to
the idea of a gradient of a curve at a point.
Figure 9.1: The average gradient between two points on a curve is the gradient of the straight line that
passes through the points.
What happens to the gradient if we x the position of one point and move the second point closer to the
xed point?
87
88 CHAPTER 9. GRADIENT AT A POINT
xA yA average gradient
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
Table 9.1
Figure 9.2
What happens to the average gradient as A moves towards B? What happens to the average gradient as
A moves away from B? What is the average gradient when A overlaps with B?
In Figure 9.3, the gradient of the straight line that passes through points A and C changes as A moves
closer to C. At the point when A and C overlap, the straight line only passes through one point on the curve.
Such a line is known as a tangent to the curve.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 9.3: The gradient of the straight line between A and C changes as the point A moves along the
curve towards C. There comes a point when A and C overlap (as shown in (c)). At this point the line is
a tangent to the curve.
We therefore introduce the idea of a gradient at a single point on a curve. The gradient at a point on a
curve is simply the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the given point.
We now see that we can write the equation to calculate average gradient in a slightly dierent manner. If
we have a curve dened by f (x) then for two points P and Q with P(a; f (a)) and Q(a + h; f (a + h)), then
the average gradient between P and Q on f (x) is:
This result is important for calculating the gradient at a point on a curve and will be explored in greater
detail in Grade 12.
x2 = a + h (9.3)
y1 = g (a) = a2 (9.4)
y2 = g (a + h)
2
= (a + h) (9.5)
= a2 + 2ah + h2
Step 3.
y2 −y1 (a2 +2ah+h2 )−(a2 )
x2 −x1 = (a+h)−(a)
a2 +2ah+h2 −a2
= a+h−a
2ah+h2 (9.6)
= h
h(2a+h)
= h
= 2a + h
The average gradient between P(a; g (a)) + h; g (a + h)) on the curve g (x) = x2 is 2a + h.
and Q(a
Step 4. We can use the result in (9.6), but we have to determine what a and h are. We do this by looking at
the denitions of P and Q. The x-coordinate of P is a and the x-coordinate of Q is a + h therefore if
we assume that a = 2 and a + h = 4, then h = 2.
Then the average gradient is:
Step 5. When point P moves closer to point Q, h gets smaller. This means that the average gradient also gets
smaller. When the point Q overlaps with the point P h=0 and the average gradient is given by 2a.
Linear Programming 1
10.1 Introduction
In everyday life people are interested in knowing the most ecient way of carrying out a task or achieving
a goal. For example, a farmer might want to know how many crops to plant during a season in order to
maximise yield (produce) or a stock broker might want to know how much to invest in stocks in order to
maximise prot. These are examples of optimisation problems, where by optimising we mean nding the
maxima or minima of a function.
You will see optimisation problems of one variable in Grade 12, where there were no restrictions to
the answer. You will be required to nd the highest (maximum) or lowest (minimum) possible value of
some function. In this chapter we look at optimisation problems with two variables and where the possible
solutions are restricted.
10.2 Terminology
There are some basic terms which you need to become familiar with for the linear programming chapters.
93
94 CHAPTER 10. LINEAR PROGRAMMING
10.2.3 Constraints
Constraints, or restrictions, are often placed on the variables being optimised. For the example of the
farmer, he cannot plant a negative number of crops, therefore the constraints would be:
x≥0
(10.1)
y ≥ 0.
Other constraints might be that the farmer cannot plant more of the second crop than the rst crop and
that no more than 20 units of the rst crop can be planted. These constraints can be written as:
x≥y
(10.2)
x ≤ 20
Constraints that have the form
ax + by ≤ c (10.3)
or
ax + by = c (10.4)
x+y ≤0
−2x = 7 (10.5)
√
y≤ 2
x≥0
(10.6)
y ≥ 0.
mean that only values of x and y that are positive are allowed. Similarly, the constraint
x≥y (10.7)
means that only values of x that are greater than or equal to the y values are allowed.
x ≤ 20 (10.8)
means that only x values which are less than or equal to 20 are allowed.
Once we have determined the feasible region the solution of our problem will be the feasible point where the
objective function is a maximum / minimum. Sometimes there will be more than one feasible point where
the objective function is a maximum/minimum in this case we have more than one solution.
x equals a x=a
x is greater than a x>a
x is greater than or equal to a x≥a
x is less than a x<a
x is less than or equal to a x≤a
x must be at least a x≥a
x must be at most a x≤a
1. Michael is registering for courses at university. Michael needs to register for at least 4 courses.
2. Joyce is also registering for courses at university. She cannot register for more than 7 courses.
3. In a geography test, Simon is allowed to choose 4 questions from each section.
4. A baker can bake at most 50 chocolate cakes in 1 day.
5. Megan and Katja can carry at most 400 koeksisters.
• most prot
• least cost
• largest area
m p Prot
60 30
65 30
70 30
66 23 33 13
Table 10.2
The question is How do you nd the feasible region? We will use the graphical method of solving a
system of linear equations to determine the feasible region. We draw all constraints as graphs and mark the
area that satises all constraints. This is shown in Figure 10.1 for Mrs Nkosi's farm.
Vertices (singular: vertex) are the points on the graph where two or more of the constraints overlap or
cross. If the linear objective function has a minimum or maximum value, it will occur at one or more of the
vertices of the feasible region.
Now we can use the methods we learnt previously to nd the points at the vertices of the feasible region.
In Figure 10.1, vertex A is at the intersection of p = 30 and m = 2p. Therefore, the coordinates of A are
(30,60). Similarly vertex B is at the intersection of p = 30 and m = 100 − p. Therefore the coordinates of
B are (30,70). Vertex C is at the intersection of m = 100 − p and m = 2p, which gives (33 31 ,66 23 ) for the
coordinates of C.
If we now substitute these points into the objective function, we get the following:
m p Prot
60 30 81 000
70 30 87 000
66 23 33 13 89 997
Table 10.3
1. If the company decides that there will be at least 10 of each prize, write down two more
inequalities from these constraints.
2. If the cost of manufacturing a kettle is R60 and a toaster is R50, write down an objective
function C which can be used to determine the cost to the company of both kettles and
toasters.
3. Sketch the graph of the feasibility region that can be used to determine all the possible
combinations of kettles and toasters that honour the promises of the company.
4. How many of each prize will represent the cheapest option for the company?
5. How much will this combination of kettles and toasters cost?
a. Write down the constraint inequalities that can be deduced from the given information.
b. Represent these inequalities graphically and indicate the feasible region clearly.
c. The clinic is seeking to maximise the income, I, earned from the sales of the two products. Each
video will sell for R50 and each book for R30. Write down the objective function for the income.
d. What maximum income will be generated by the two guides?
3. A patient in a hospital needs at least 18 grams of protein, 0,006 grams of vitamin C and 0,005 grams
of iron per meal, which consists of two types of food, A and B. Type A contains 9 grams of protein,
0,002 grams of vitamin C and no iron per serving. Type B contains 3 grams of protein, 0,002 grams of
vitamin C and 0,005 grams of iron per serving. The energy value of A is 800 kilojoules and of B 400
kilojoules per serving. A patient is not allowed to have more than 4 servings of A and 5 servings of B.
There are xA servings of A and yB servings of B on the patient's plate.
b. Represent the constraints graphically on graph paper. Use the scale 1 unit = 20mm on both axes.
Shade the feasible region.
c. Deduce from the graphs, the values of xA and yB which will give the minimum kilojoule intake
per meal for the patient.
4. A certain motorcycle manufacturer produces two basic models, the 'Super X' and the 'Super Y'. These
motorcycles are sold to dealers at a prot of R20 000 per 'Super X' and R10 000 per 'Super Y'. A 'Super
X' requires 150 hours for assembly, 50 hours for painting and nishing and 10 hours for checking and
testing. The 'Super Y' requires 60 hours for assembly, 40 hours for painting and nishing and 20 hours
for checking and testing. The total number of hours available per month is: 30 000 in the assembly
department, 13 000 in the painting and nishing department and 5 000 in the checking and testing
department. The above information can be summarised by the following table:
Department Hours for `Super X' Hours for Super `Y' Maximum hours avail-
able per month
Table 10.4
Let x be the number of 'Super X' and y be the number of 'Super Y' models manufactured per month.
5. A group of students plan to sell x hamburgers and y chicken burgers at a rugby match. They have
meat for at most 300 hamburgers and at most 400 chicken burgers. Each burger of both types is sold
in a packet. There are 500 packets available. The demand is likely to be such that the number of
chicken burgers sold is at least half the number of hamburgers sold.
6. Fashion-cards is a small company that makes two types of cards, type X and type Y. With the available
labour and material, the company can make not more than 150 cards of type X and not more than
120 cards of type Y per week. Altogether they cannot make more than 200 cards per week. There is
an order for at least 40 type X cards and 10 type Y cards per week. Fashion-cards makes a prot of
R5 for each type X card sold and R10 for each type Y card. Let the number of type X cards be x and
the number of type Y cards be y, manufactured per week.
a. One of the constraint inequalities which represents the restrictions above is x ≤ 150. Write the
other constraint inequalities.
b. Represent the constraints graphically and shade the feasible region.
c. Write the equation that represents the prot P (the objective function), in terms of x and y.
d. Calculate the maximum weekly prot.
7. To meet the requirements of a specialised diet a meal is prepared by mixing two types of cereal, Vuka
and Molo. The mixture must contain x Vuka cereal and y packets of Molo cereal. The meal
packets of
requires at least 15 g of protein and at least 72 g of carbohydrates. Each packet of Vuka cereal contains
4 g of protein and 16 g of carbohydrates. Each packet of Molo cereal contains 3 g of protein and 24 g
of carbohydrates. There are at most 5 packets of cereal available. The feasible region is shaded on the
attached graph paper.
Figure 10.2
8. A bicycle manufacturer makes two dierent models of bicycles, namely mountain bikes and speed bikes.
The bicycle manufacturer works under the following constraints: No more than 5 mountain bicycles
can be assembled daily. No more than 3 speed bicycles can be assembled daily. It takes one man to
assemble a mountain bicycle, two men to assemble a speed bicycle and there are 8 men working at the
bicycle manufacturer. Let x represent the number of mountain bicycles and let y represent the number
of speed bicycles.
500 × ns (10.10)
800 × nb (10.11)
Therefore the objective function, which is the total cost of hiring ns small trailers and nb big trailers
for 1 day is:
650 × m (10.13)
2
The prot of planting p m of potatoes is:
1500 × p (10.14)
Therefore the objective function, which is the total prot of planting mielies and potatoes is:
xk ≥ 10 (10.16)
and
yt ≥ 10 (10.17)
Also the store has promised to give away at least 40 prizes in total. Therefore:
xk + yt ≥ 40 (10.18)
Step 3. The cost of manufacturing a kettle is R60 and a toaster is R50. Therefore the cost the total cost C is:
Step 4.
Figure 10.3
Step 5. From the graph, the coordinates of vertex A are (30,10) and the coordinates of vertex B are (10,30).
Step 6. At vertex A, the cost is:
C = 60xk + 50yt
= 60 (30) + 50 (10)
(10.20)
= 1800 + 500
= 2300
At vertex B, the cost is:
C = 60xk + 50yt
= 60 (10) + 50 (30)
(10.21)
= 600 + 1500
= 2100
Step 7. The cheapest combination of prizes is 10 kettles and 30 toasters, costing the company R2 100.
Geometry
11.1 Polygons 1
11.1.1 Introduction
11.1.1.1 Extension : History of Geometry
Work in pairs or groups and investigate the history of the development of geometry in the last 1500 years.
Describe the various stages of development and how dierent cultures used geometry to improve their lives.
The works of the following people or cultures should be investigated:
103
104 CHAPTER 11. GEOMETRY
Figure 11.2
The surface area of a pyramid is calculated by adding the area of each face together.
1
V = A·h (11.1)
3
where A is the area of the base and h is the height.
A cone is like a pyramid, so the volume of a cone is given by:
1 2
V = πr h. (11.2)
3
A square pyramid has volume
1 2
V = a h (11.3)
3
where a is the side length of the square base.
We accept the following formulae for volume and surface area of a sphere (ball).
Figure 11.3
2
Click here for the solution
2 http://www.fhsst.org/l2D
2. Water covers approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. Taking the radius of the Earth to be 6378 km,
what is the total area of land (area not covered by water)?
3
Click here for the solution
3. A triangular pyramid is placed on top of a triangular prism. The prism has an equilateral triangle of
side length 20 cm as a base, and has a height of 42 cm. The pyramid has a height of 12 cm.
Figure 11.4
4
Click here for the solution
Figure 11.5
If
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
1. A=P ; B =Q; C =R; D=S ; E =T and
AB BC CD DE EA
2.
P Q = QR = RS = ST = T P
then the polygons ABCDE and PQRST are similar.
Figure 11.6
3 http://www.fhsst.org/l2W
4 http://www.fhsst.org
AB x kx DE
= = = (11.5)
BC y ky EF
Figure 11.7
CB FE
1.
AC = DF
2. AC · F E = CB · DF
AB DE BC FE
3.
BC = F E and AB = DE
AB DE AC DF
4.
AC = DF and AB = DE
h1 = h2
1 (11.7)
area [U+25B5]ABC 2 BC×h1 BC
∴ = 1 = EF
2 EF ×h2
area [U+25B5]DEF
Figure 11.8
• A special case of this happens when the bases of the triangles are equal: Triangles with equal bases
between the same parallel lines have the same area.
1
area [U+25B5]ABC = · h · BC = area [U+25B5]DBC (11.8)
2
Figure 11.9
• Triangles on the same side of the same base, with equal areas, lie between parallel lines.
Figure 11.10
Theorem 1 Proportion Theorem: A line drawn parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other two sides
proportionally.
Figure 11.11
1
area [U+25B5]ADE 2 AD·h1 AD
area [U+25B5]BDE = 1 = DB
2 DB·h1
1
area [U+25B5]ADE 2 AE·h2 AE
area [U+25B5]CED = 1 = EC
2 EC·h2
Similarly,
AD AE
AB = AC
(11.13)
AB AC
BD = CE
Following from Theorem "Proportion" (Section 11.2.1.1: Proportion), we can prove the midpoint theorem.
Theorem 2 Midpoint Theorem: A line joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the
third side and equal to half the length of the third side.
Proof : This is a special case of the Proportionality Theorem (Theorem "Proportion" (Section 11.2.1.1:
Proportion)). If AB = BD and AC = AE, and AD = AB + BD = 2AB AE = AC + CB = 2AC then DE k
BC and BC = 2DE.
Figure 11.12
Theorem 3 Similarity Theorem 1: Equiangular triangles have their sides in proportion and are therefore
similar.
Figure 11.13
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Given:[U+25B5]ABC and [U+25B5]DEF with A=D; B =E ; C =F
R.T.P.:
AB AC
= (11.14)
DE DF
Construct: G on AB, so that AG = DE, H on AC, so that AH = DF
AG = DE (const.)
AH = D (const.)
^ ^
A = D (given)
∴ [U+25B5]AGH ≡ [U+25B5]DEF (SAS)
^ ^ ^ (11.15)
∴ AGH = E =B
∴ GH k BC (corres.∠'s equal)
AG AH
∴ AB = AC (proportion theorem)
DE DF
∴ AB = AC (AG = DE; AH = DF)
∴ [U+25B5]ABC ||| [U+25B5]DEF
Theorem 4 Similarity Theorem 2: Triangles with sides in proportion are equiangular and therefore similar.
Figure 11.14
1
area [U+25B5]ADE 2 AD·h1 AD
area [U+25B5]BDE = 1 = DB
2 DB·h1
1
area [U+25B5]ADE 2 AE·h2 AE
area [U+25B5]CED = 1 = EC
2 EC·h2
AD AE
but
DB = EC (given)
area [U+25B5]ADE area [U+25B5]ADE
∴ area [U+25B5]BDE = area [U+25B5]CED
(11.17)
∴ area [U+25B5]BDE = area [U+25B5]CED
∴ DE k BC (same side of equal base DE, same area)
^ ^
∴ADE = ABC (corres ∠'s)
^ ^
and AED = ACB
Theorem 5 Pythagoras' Theorem: The square on the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is equal to the
sum of the squares on the other two sides.
^
Given:[U+25B5] ABC with A= 90◦
Figure 11.15
Required to prove:BC 2 = AB 2 + AC 2
Proof :
^
Let C = x
^
∴ DAC = 90◦ − x (∠'s of a [U+25B5])
^
∴ DAB = x (11.20)
^
ABD = 90◦ − x (∠'s of a [U+25B5])
^ ^ ^
BDA = C D A =A= 90◦
AB BD AD CA CD AD
∴ = = and = = (11.22)
CB BA CA CB CA BA
∴ AB 2 = CB × BD and AC 2 = CB × CD (11.23)
∴ AB 2 + AC 2 = CB (BD + CD)
= CB (CB)
(11.24)
= CB 2
i.e.BC 2 = AB 2 + AC 2
Figure 11.16
Figure 11.17
Figure 11.18
CB 3 DS
2.
YB = 2 . Find SB .
Figure 11.19
3. Given the following gure with the following lengths, nd AE, EC and BE. BC = 15 cm, AB = 4 cm,
CD = 18 cm, and ED = 9 cm.
Figure 11.20
4. Using the following gure and lengths, nd IJ and KJ. HI = 26 m, KL = 13 m, JL = 9 m and HJ =
32 m.
Figure 11.21
Figure 11.22
Figure 11.23
7. If LM k JK, calculate y.
Figure 11.24
Figure 11.25
There are many dierent methods of specifying the requirements for determining the equation of a straight
line. One option is to nd the equation of a straight line, when two points are given.
Assume that the two points are (x1 ; y1 ) and (x2 ; y2 ), and we know that the general form of the equation
for a straight line is:
y = mx + c (11.25)
So, to determine the equation of the line passing through our two points, we need to determine values for
m (the gradient of the line) and c (the y -intercept of the line). The resulting equation is
y − y1 = m (x − x1 ) (11.26)
y1 = mx1 + c
(11.27)
y2 = mx2 + c
We now have two equations, with two unknowns, m and c.
y2 − y1 = mx2 − mx1
y2 −y1
∴ m = x2 −x1
(11.28)
y1 = mx1 + c
c = y1 − mx1
Now, to make things a bit easier to remember, substitute into (11.25):
y = mx + c
= mx + (y1 − mx1 ) (11.29)
y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
tip: If you are asked to calculate the equation of a line passing through two points, use:
y2 − y1
m= (11.30)
x2 − x1
to calculate m and then use:
y − y1 = m (x − x1 ) (11.31)
For example, the equation of the straight line passing through (−1; 1) and (2; 2) is given by rst calculating
m
y2 −y1
m = x2 −x1
2−1 (11.32)
= 2−(−1)
1
= 3
y − y1 = m (x − x1 ) (11.33)
to obtain
1
y − y1 = 3 (x − x1 ) . (11.34)
1
y − (1) = 3 (x − (−1))
1 1
y−1 = 3x + 3
(11.35)
1 1
y = 3x + 3 + 1
1 4
y = 3x + 3
So, y = 31 x + 4
3 passes through (−1; 1) and (2; 2).
Figure 11.26
11.3.1.2 Equation of a Line through One Point and Parallel or Perpendicular to Another Line
Another method of determining the equation of a straight-line is to be given one point, (x1 ; y1 ), and to
be told that the line is parallel or perpendicular to another line. If the equation of the unknown line is
y = mx + c and the equation of the second line is y = m 0 x + c0 , then we know the following:
y − y1 = m (x − x1 ) (11.37)
m=2 (11.38)
y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
y−1 = 2 (x − (−1)
y−1 = 2 (x + 1)
(11.39)
y−1 = 2x + 2
y = 2x + 2 + 1
y = 2x + 3
Figure 11.27: The equation of the line passing through (−1; 1) and parallel to y = 2x − 1 is y = 2x + 3.
It can be seen that the lines are parallel to each other. You can test this by using your ruler and measuring
the perpendicular distance between the lines at dierent points.
Figure 11.28: (a) A line makes an angle θ with the x-axis. (b) The angle is dependent on the gradient.
If the gradient of f is mf and the gradient of g is mg then mf > mg and θf > θg .
In Figure 11.28(a), we see that the line makes an angle θ with the x-axis. This angle is known as the
inclination of the line and it is sometimes interesting to know what the value of θ is.
Firstly, we note that if the gradient changes, then the value of θ changes (Figure 11.28(b)), so we suspect
that the inclination of a line is related to the gradient. We know that the gradient is a ratio of a change in
the y -direction to a change in the x-direction.
∆y
m= (11.40)
∆x
But, in Figure 11.28(a) we see that
∆y
tanθ = ∆x
(11.41)
∴m = tanθ
∴ tanθ = 1
(11.42)
∴θ = 45◦
a. y = 2x − 3
b. y = 13 x − 7
c. 4y = 3x + 8
d. y = − 23 x + 3 (Hint: if m is negative θ must be in the second quadrant)
e. 3y + x − 3 = 0
3. Show that the line y=k for any constant k is parallel to the x-axis. (Hint: Show that the inclination
of this line is 0◦ .)
4. Show that the line x=k for any constant k is parallel to the y-axis. (Hint: Show that the inclination
of this line is 90◦ .)
11.4 Transformations 7
11.4.1 Transformations
11.4.1.1 Rotation of a Point
When something is moved around a xed point, we say that it is rotated about the point. What happens
to the coordinates of a point that is rotated by 90◦ or 180◦ around the origin?
Table 11.1
Figure 11.29
What do you notice about the x-coordinates? What do you notice about the y -coordinates? What would
happen to the coordinates of point A, if it was rotated to the position of point C? What about point B
rotated to the position of D?
Table 11.2
Figure 11.30
What do you notice about the x-coordinates? What do you notice about the y -coordinates? What would
happen to the coordinates of point A, if it was rotated to the position of point E? What about point F
rotated to the position of B?
From these activities you should have come to the following conclusions:
◦ ◦
• 90 clockwise rotation: The image of a point P(x; y) rotated clockwise through 90 around the origin
is P'(y; −x). We write the rotation as
(x; y) → (y; −x).
• 90◦ anticlockwise rotation: The image of a point P(x; y) rotated anticlockwise through 90◦ around the
origin is P'(−y; x). We write the rotation as (x; y) → (−y; x).
• 180◦ rotation: The image of a point P(x; y) rotated through 180◦ around the origin is P'(−x; −y). We
write the rotation as (x; y) → (−x; −y).
Figure 11.31
Figure 11.32
Figure 11.33
11.4.1.1.3 Rotation
1. For each of the following rotations about the origin: (i) Write down the rule. (ii) Draw a diagram
showing the direction of rotation.
' '
a. OA is rotated to OA with A(4;2) and A (-2;4)
' '
b. OB is rotated to OB with B(-2;5) and B (5;2)
' '
c. OC is rotated to OC with C(-1;-4) and C (1;4)
2. Copy ∆XYZ onto squared paper. The co-ordinates are given on the picture.
◦
a. Rotate ∆XYZ anti-clockwise through an angle of 90 about the origin to give ∆X' Y' Z' . Give the
' ' '
co-ordinates of X , Y and Z .
◦
b. Rotate ∆XYZ through 180 about the origin to give ∆X' ' Y' ' Z' ' . ''
Give the co-ordinates of X , Y
''
''
and Z .
Figure 11.34
Table 11.3
Figure 11.35
What do you notice about the x-coordinates? What do you notice about the y -coordinates? What would
happen to the coordinates of point A, if the square ABCD was enlarged by a factor 2?
Figure 11.36
In the gure quadrilateral HIJK has been enlarged by a factor of 2 through the origin to become H'I'J'K'.
Complete the following table using the information in the gure.
Table 11.4
1. the co-ordinates
2. the lengths when we enlarge by a factor of 2?
We conclude as follows:
Let the vertices of a triangle have co-ordinates S(x1 ; y1 ), T(x2 ; y2 ), U(x3 ; y3 ). [U+25B5]S'T'U' is an
enlargement through the origin of [U+25B5]STU by a factor of c (c > 0).
Figure 11.37
11.4.1.2.3 Transformations
1. Copy polygon STUV onto squared paper and then answer the following questions.
Figure 11.38
Figure 11.39
3.
Figure 11.40
Step 1.
Figure 11.41
Step 2. The cone has two faces: the base and the walls. The base is a circle of radius r and the walls can be
opened out to a sector of a circle.
Figure 11.42
This curved surface can be cut into many thin triangles with height close to a (a is called the slant
height). The area of these triangles will add up to
1
2 × base×height(of a small triangle) which is
1
2 × 2πr × a = πra
Step 3. a can be calculated by using the Theorem of Pythagoras. Therefore:
p
a= r2 + h2 (11.43)
Step 4.
Ab = πr2 (11.44)
Step 5.
Aw = πra
√ (11.45)
= πr r2 + h2
Step 6.
A = Ab + Aw
√ (11.46)
= πr2 + πr r2 + h2
1
V = A·h (11.47)
3
where A is the area of the base and h is the height of the pyramid. For a square base this means
1
V = a·a·h (11.48)
3
where a is the length of the side of the square base.
Figure 11.43
Step 2.
1
= 3 ·2·2·3
1
= 3 · 12 (11.49)
3
= 4 cm
Solution to Exercise 11.1.3 (p. 105)
Step 1. Since the polygons are similar,
PQ TU
PR = SU
x 3
∴ x+(3−x) = 4
(11.50)
∴ x3 = 3
4
9
∴x = 4
JI JK 5
We need to calculate
KI : We were given KI = 3 So rearranging, we have JK = 53 KI And:
JI = JK + KI
5
= 3 KI + KI
(11.55)
8
= 3 KI
JI 8
KI = 3
5 8
= 3 × 3
(11.56)
40
= 9
(x1 ; y1 ) = (−3; 2)
(11.59)
(x2 ; y2 ) = (5; 8)
Step 2.
y2 −y1
m = x2 −x1
8−2
= 5−(−3)
6 (11.60)
= 5+3
6
= 8
3
= 4
Step 3.
y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
3
y − (2) = 4 (x − (−3))
3
y = 4 (x + 3) + 2
(11.61)
3 3
= 4x + 4 · 3 + 2
3 9 8
= 4x + 4 + 4
3 17
= 4x + 4
Step 4. The equation of the straight line that passes through (−3; 2) and (5; 8) is y = 43 x + 17
4 .
Trigonometry
12.1 Graphs of trig functions 1
1. Cultures
a. Ancient Egyptians
b. Mesopotamians
c. Ancient Indians of the Indus Valley
2. People
125
126 CHAPTER 12. TRIGONOMETRY
Figure 12.1: Graph of f (θ) = sin (2θ) (solid line) and the graph of g (θ) = sin (θ) (dotted line).
1. a (θ) = sin0, 5θ
2. b (θ) = sin1θ
3. c (θ) = sin1, 5θ
4. d (θ) = sin2θ
5. e (θ) = sin2, 5θ
k>0 k<0
Figure 12.2
Table 12.1: Table summarising general shapes and positions of graphs of functions of the form
12.1.2.1.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = sin (kθ), the details of calculating the intercepts with the y axis are given.
There are many x-intercepts.
y = sin (kθ)
yint = sin (0) (12.1)
= 0
Figure 12.4: Graph of f (θ) = cos (2θ) (solid line) and the graph of g (θ) = cos (θ) (dotted line).
1. a (θ) = cos0, 5θ
2. b (θ) = cos1θ
3. c (θ) = cos1, 5θ
4. d (θ) = cos2θ
5. e (θ) = cos2, 5θ
k>0 k<0
Figure 12.5
Table 12.2: Table summarising general shapes and positions of graphs of functions of the form
y = cos (kx). The curve y = cos (x) is plotted with a dotted line.
12.1.2.2.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = cos (kθ), the details of calculating the intercepts with the y axis are given.
The y -intercept is calculated as follows:
y = cos (kθ)
yint = cos (0) (12.2)
= 1
Figure 12.7: The graph of tan (2θ) (solid line) and the graph of g (θ) = tan (θ) (dotted line). The
asymptotes are shown as dashed lines.
1. a (θ) = tan0, 5θ
2. b (θ) = tan1θ
3. c (θ) = tan1, 5θ
4. d (θ) = tan2θ
5. e (θ) = tan2, 5θ
k>0 k<0
Figure 12.8
Table 12.3: Table summarising general shapes and positions of graphs of functions of the form
y = tan (kθ).
12.1.2.3.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = tan (kθ), the details of calculating the intercepts with the x and y axis are
given.
There are many x-intercepts; each one is halfway between the asymptotes.
The y -intercept is calculated as follows:
y = tan (kθ)
yint = tan (0) (12.3)
= 0
12.1.2.3.4 Asymptotes
The graph of tankθ has asymptotes because as kθ approaches 90◦ , tankθ approaches innity. In other words,
there is no dened value of the function at the asymptote values.
Figure 12.10: Graph of f (θ) = sin (θ + 30◦ ) (solid line) and the graph of g (θ) = sin (θ) (dotted line).
p>0 p<0
Figure 12.11
Table 12.4: Table summarising general shapes and positions of graphs of functions of the form
y = sin (θ + p). The curve y = sin (θ) is plotted with a dotted line.
12.1.2.4.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = sin (θ + p), the details of calculating the intercept with the y axis are given.
The y -intercept is calculated as follows: set θ = 0◦
y = sin (θ + p)
yint = sin (0 + p) (12.4)
= sin (p)
Figure 12.13: Graph of f (θ) = cos (θ + 30◦ ) (solid line) and the graph of g (θ) = cos (θ) (dotted line).
p>0 p<0
Figure 12.14
Table 12.5: Table summarising general shapes and positions of graphs of functions of the form
12.1.2.5.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = cos (θ + p), the details of calculating the intercept with the y axis are given.
The y -intercept is calculated as follows: set θ = 0◦
y = cos (θ + p)
yint = cos (0 + p) (12.5)
= cos (p)
Figure 12.16: The graph of tan (θ + 30◦ ) (solid lines) and the graph of g (θ) = tan (θ) (dotted lines).
k>0 k<0
Figure 12.17
Table 12.6: Table summarising general shapes and positions of graphs of functions of the form
y = tan (θ + p). The curve y = tan (θ) is plotted with a dotted line.
12.1.2.6.3 Intercepts
For functions of the form, y = tan (θ + p), the details of calculating the intercepts with the y axis are given.
The y -intercept is calculated as follows: set θ = 0◦
y = tan (θ + p)
(12.6)
yint = tan (p)
12.1.2.6.4 Asymptotes
The graph of tan (θ + p) has asymptotes because as θ+p approaches 90◦ , tan (θ + p) approaches innity.
Thus, there is no dened value of the function at the asymptote values.
1. y = sin3x
2. y = −cos2x
3. y = tan 21 x
4. y = sin (x − 45◦ )
5. y = cos (x + 45◦ )
6. y = tan (x − 45◦ )
7. y = 2sin2x
8. y = sin (x + 30◦ ) + 1
If the two equal sides are of length a, then the hypotenuse, h, can be calculated as:
h2 = a2 + a2
= 2a2 (12.7)
√
∴ h = 2a
So, we have:
opposite(45◦ )
sin (45◦ ) = hypotenuse
= √a (12.8)
2a
= √1
2
adjacent(45◦ )
cos (45◦ ) = hypotenuse
= √a (12.9)
2a
= √1
2
opposite(45◦ )
tan (45◦ ) = adjacent(45◦ )
a (12.10)
= a
= 1
We can try something similar for 30◦ and 60◦ . We start with an equilateral triangle and we bisect one angle
as shown in Figure 12.20. This gives us the right-angled triangle that we need, with one angle of 30◦ and
◦
one angle of 60 .
1
If the equal sides are of length a, then the base is
2 a and the length of the vertical side, v, can be
calculated as:
1 2
v2 = a2 − 2a
= a2 − 41 a2
(12.11)
3 2
= 4a
√
3
∴ v = 2 a
So, we have:
opposite(30◦ )
sin (30◦ ) = hypotenuse
a
= 2 (12.12)
a
1
= 2
adjacent(30◦ )
cos (30◦ ) = hypotenuse
√
3
2 a (12.13)
= a
√
3
= 2
opposite(30◦ )
tan (30◦ ) = adjacent(30◦ )
a
= √2
3 (12.14)
2 a
= √1
3
opposite(60◦ )
sin (60◦ ) = hypotenuse
√
3
2 a (12.15)
= a
√
3
= 2
adjacent(60◦ )
cos (60◦ ) = hypotenuse
a
= 2 (12.16)
a
1
= 2
opposite(60◦ )
tan (60◦ ) = adjacent(60 ◦)
√
3
2 a (12.17)
= a
√2
= 3
You do not have to memorise these identities if you know how to work them out.
tip:
Figure 12.21
opposite hypotenuse
tanθ = adjacent × hypotenuse
(12.18)
opposite hypotenuse
= hypotenuse × adjacent
opposite adjacent
But, we also know that sinθ is dened as: sinθ = hypotenuse and that cosθ is dened as: cosθ = hypotenuse
opposite hypotenuse
tanθ = hypotenuse × adjacent
1
= sinθ × cosθ (12.19)
sinθ
= cosθ
sinθ
tip: tanθ can also be dened as: tanθ = cosθ
Figure 12.22
AC AB
We see that:
BC and cosθ = BC .
sinθ =
We also know from the Theorem of Pythagoras that: AB 2 + AC 2 = BC 2 .
So we can write:
AC 2 AB 2
sin2 θ + cos2 θ
= BC + BC
AC 2 AB 2
= BC 2 + BC 2
AC 2 +AB 2 (12.20)
= BC 2
BC 2
= BC 2 (fromPythagoras)
= 1
1. tan2 θ · cos2 θ
1 2
2.
cos2 θ − tan θ
c. 1 − tan2 θ.sin2 θ
d. 1 − sinθ.cosθ.tanθ
e. 1 − sin2 θ
1−cos2 θ
f.
cos2 θ − cos2 θ
2. Prove the following:
1+sinθ cosθ
a.
cosθ = 1−sinθ
2
b. sin θ + (cosθ − tanθ) (cosθ + tanθ) = 1 − tan2 θ
(2cos2 θ−1) 1 1−tan2 θ
c.
1 + (1+tan2 θ) = 1+tan2 θ
1 cosθtan2 θ
d.
cosθ − 1 =1
2sinθcosθ 1
e.
sinθ+cosθ = sinθ + cosθ − sinθ+cosθ
cosθ 1
f.
sinθ + tanθ · cosθ = sinθ
a. In the gure P and P' lie on the circle with radius 2. OP makes an angle
√ θ = 30◦ with the x-axis.
P thus has coordinates 3; 1 . If P' is the reection of P about the y -axis (or the line x = 0),
use symmetry to write down the coordinates of P'.
b. Write down values for sinθ, cosθ and tanθ.
c. Using the coordinates for P' determine sin (180◦ − θ), cos (180◦ − θ) and tan (180◦ − θ).
Figure 12.23
a. From your results try and determine a relationship between the function values of (180◦ − θ) and
θ.
2. Function values of (180◦ + θ)
a. In the gure P and P' lie on the circle with radius 2. OP makes an angle
√ θ = 30◦ with the x-axis.
P thus has coordinates 3; 1 . P' is the inversion of P through the origin (reection about both
the x- and y -axes) and lies at an angle of 180◦ + θ with the x-axis. Write down the coordinates
of P'.
b. Using the coordinates for P' determine sin (180◦ + θ), cos (180◦ + θ) and tan (180◦ + θ).
3 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m38870/1.1/>.
c. From your results try and determine a relationship between the function values of (180◦ + θ) and
θ.
Figure 12.24
a. In the gure P and P' lie on the circle with radius 2. OP makes an angle
√ θ = 30◦ with the x-axis.
P thus has coordinates 3; 1 . P' is the reection of P about the x-axis or the line y = 0. Using
symmetry, write down the coordinates of P'.
b. Using the coordinates for P' determine sin (360◦ − θ), cos (360◦ − θ) and tan (360◦ − θ).
◦
c. From your results try and determine a relationship between the function values of (360 − θ) and
θ.
Figure 12.25
It is possible to have an angle which is larger than 360◦ . The angle completes one revolution to give 360◦
and then continues to give the required angle. We get the following results:
a. sin163◦
b. cos327◦
c. tan248◦
d. cos213◦
3. Determine the following without the use of a calculator:
a. cos 300◦
b. sin 135◦
c. cos 150◦
d. tan 330◦
e. sin 120◦
f. tan2 225◦
g. cos 315◦
h. sin2 420◦
i. tan 405◦
j. cos 1020◦
k. tan2 135◦
l. 1 − sin2 210◦
a. In the gure P and P' lie on the circle with radius 2. OP makes an angle
√ θ = 30◦ with the x-axis.
P thus has coordinates 3; 1 . P' is the reection of P about the line y = x. Using symmetry,
write down the coordinates of P'.
b. Using the coordinates for P' determine sin (90◦ − θ), cos (90◦ − θ) tan (90◦ − θ).
and
◦
c. From your results try and determine a relationship between the function values of (90 − θ) and
θ.
Figure 12.26
Figure 12.27
Complementary angles are positive acute angles that add up to 90◦ . e.g. 20◦ and 70◦ are complementary
angles.
Sine and cosine are known as co-functions. Two functions are called co-functions if f (A) = g (B)
whenever A + B = 90◦ (i.e. A and B are complementary angles). The other trig co-functions are secant and
cosecant, and tangent and cotangent.
The function value of an angle is equal to the co-function of its complement (the co-co rule).
Thus for sine and cosine we have
1. cos50◦
2. sin320◦
3. cos230◦
= −cosθ
◦
and likewise for cos (θ − 90 ) = sinθ
12.3.1.5 Summary
The following summary may be made
tip:
1.These reduction formulae hold for any angle θ. For convenience, we usually work with θ as if
it is acute, i.e. 0◦ < θ < 90◦ .
2.When determining function values of 180◦ ± θ, 360◦ ± θ and −θ the functions never change.
◦ ◦
3.When determining function values of 90 ±θ and θ−90 the functions changes to its co-function
(co-co rule).
12.4 Equations 4
sinθ = 0, 5 (12.28)
As explained in previous Grades,the solution of Equation (12.28) is obtained by examining the intersecting
points of the graphs of:
y = sinθ
(12.29)
y = 0, 5
Both graphs, for −720◦ < θ < 720◦ , are shown in Figure 12.28 and the intersection points of the graphs are
shown by the dots.
Figure 12.28: Plot of y = sinθ and y = 0, 5 showing the points of intersection, hence the solutions to
the equation sinθ = 0, 5.
In the domain for θ of −720◦ < θ < 720◦ , there are 8 possible solutions for the equation sinθ = 0, 5.
These are θ = [−690 , −570◦ , −330◦ , −210◦ , 30◦ , 150◦ , 390◦ , 510◦ ]
◦
sinθ = 0, 5 (12.30)
is solved as
sinθ = 0, 5
∴ θ = arcsin0, 5 (12.31)
◦
= 30
Trigonometric equations often look very simple. Consider solving the equation sinθ = 0, 7. We can take
the inverse sine of both sides to nd that θ = sin−1 (0, 7). If we put this into a calculator we nd that
sin−1 (0, 7) = 44, 42◦ . This is true, however, it does not tell the whole story.
Figure 12.29: The sine graph. The dotted line represents y = 0, 7. There are four points of intersection
on this interval, thus four solutions to sinθ = 0, 7.
We can, of course, solve trigonometric equations in any range by drawing the graph.
Figure 12.30: The graph and unit circle showing the sign of the sine function.
In Figure 12.30 we have split the sine graph into four quadrants, each 90◦ wide. We call them quadrants
because they correspond to the four quadrants of the unit circle. We notice from Figure 12.30 that the sine
st nd rd th
graph is positive in the 1 and 2 quadrants and negative in the 3 and 4 . Figure 12.31 shows similar
graphs for cosine and tangent.
Figure 12.31: Graphs showing the sign of the cosine and tangent functions.
All of this can be summed up in two ways. Table 12.9 shows which trigonometric functions are positive
and which are negative in each quadrant.
st nd rd th
1 2 3 4
Table 12.9: The signs of the three basic trigonometric functions in each quadrant.
st
A more convenient way of writing this is to note that all functions are positive in the 1 quadrant, only
nd rd th
sine is positive in the 2 , only tangent in the 3 and only cosine in the 4 . We express this using the
CAST diagram (Figure 12.32). This diagram is known as a CAST diagram as the letters, taken anticlockwise
from the bottom right, read C-A-S-T. The letter in each quadrant tells us which trigonometric functions are
positive in that quadrant. The `A' in the 1
st
quadrant stands for all (meaning sine, cosine and tangent are
all positive in this quadrant). `S', `C' and `T' ,of course, stand for sine, cosine and tangent. The diagram is
shown in two forms. The version on the left shows the CAST diagram including the unit circle. This version
is useful for equations which lie in large or negative ranges. The simpler version on the right is useful for
ranges between 0◦ and 360◦ . Another useful diagram shown in Figure 12.32 gives the formulae to use in
each quadrant when solving a trigonometric equation.
Figure 12.32: The two forms of the CAST diagram and the formulae in each quadrant.
θ = arcsin0, 3
(12.32)
= 17, 46◦
However, we know that this is just one of innitely many possible answers. We get the rest of the answers
by nding relationships between this small angle, θ, and answers in other quadrants. To do this we use our
small angle θ as a reference angle. We then look at the sign of the trigonometric function in order to
decide in which quadrants we need to work (using the CAST diagram) and add multiples of the period to
each, remembering that sine, cosine and tangent are periodic (repeating) functions. To add multiples of the
period we use 360◦ · n (where n is an integer) for sine and cosine and 180◦ · n, n ∈ Z, for the tangent.
sinθ = 0, 3 (12.33)
the equation balanced. We chose quadrants I and III because tan was positive and we used the formulae θ in
quadrant I and (180◦ + θ) in quadrant III. To nd solutions where −360◦ < x < 360◦ we substitue integers
for n:
• n = 0; x = 39, 1◦ ; 129, 1◦
• n = 1; x = 129, 1◦ ; 219, 1◦
• n = 2; x = 219, 1◦ ; 309, 1◦
• n = 3; x = 309, 1◦ ; 399, 1◦ (too big!)
• n = −1; x = −50, 9◦ ; 39, 1◦
• n = −2; x = −140, 1◦ ; −50, 9◦
• n = −3; x = −230, 9◦ ; −140, 9◦
• n = −4; x = −320, 9◦ ; −230, 9◦
Solution: x = −320, 9◦ ; −230◦ ; −140, 9◦ ; −50, 9◦ ; 39, 1◦ ; 129, 1◦ ; 219, 1◦ and 309, 1◦
This type of equation can be easily solved by rearranging to get a more familiar linear equation
sin2 x = 0, 5
√ (12.36)
⇒ sinx = ± 0, 5
This gives two linear trigonometric equations. The solutions to either of these equations will satisfy the
original quadratic.
The next level of complexity comes when we need to solve a trinomial which contains trigonometric
functions. It is much easier in this case to use temporary variables. Consider solving
Here we notice that tan (2x + 1) occurs twice in the equation, hence we let y = tan (2x + 1) and rewrite:
y 2 + 3y + 2 = 0 (12.38)
That should look rather more familiar. We can immediately write down the factorised form and the solutions:
(y + 1) (y + 2) = 0
(12.39)
⇒ y = −1 OR y = −2
Next we just substitute back for the temporary variable: tan (2x + 1) = −1 or tan (2x + 1) = −2 And
then we are left with two linear trigonometric equations. Be careful: sometimes one of the two solutions
will be outside the range of the trigonometric function. In that case you need to discard that solution. For
example consider the same equation with cosines instead of tangents cos2 (2x + 1) + 3cos (2x + 1) + 2 = 0
Using the same method we nd that cos (2x + 1) = −1 or cos (2x + 1) = −2 The second solution cannot
be valid as cosine must lie between −1 and 1. We must, therefore, reject the second equation. Only solutions
to the rst equation will be valid.
Consider [U+25B5]ABC .
Figure 12.33
The area of [U+25B5]ABC can be written as: area [U+25B5]ABC = 12 c·h. However, h can be calculated
^ ^
in terms of A or B as:
^
h
sin A = b
(12.41)
^
∴ h = b · sin A
and
^
h
sin B = a
(12.42)
^
∴ h = a · sin B
^ ^
1
Therefore the area of [U+25B5]ABC is:
2c · h = 12 c · b · sin A= 12 c · a · sin B
^
1
Similarly, by drawing the perpendicular between point B and line AC we can show that:
2c · b · sin A=
^
1
2a · b · sin C
^ ^ ^
1
Therefore the area of [U+25B5]ABC is:
2c · b · sin A= 12 c · a · sin B = 12 a · b · sin C
^ ^ ^
1 sinA sinB
If we divide through by
2 a · b · c, we get: a = b = sinc C
This is known as the sine rule and applies to any triangle, right angled or not.
Figure 12.34
^ ^
a. [U+25B5]PQR in which Q= 64◦ ; R= 24◦ and r=3
^ ^
b. [U+25B5]KLM in which K = 43◦ ; M = 50◦ and m=1
^ ^
c. [U+25B5]ABC in which A= 32, 7◦ ; C = 70, 5◦ and a = 52, 3
^ ^
d. [U+25B5]XYZ in which X = 56◦ ; Z = 40◦ and x = 50
^ ^
3. In [U+25B5]ABC, A= 116◦ ; C = 32◦ and AC = 23 m. Find the length of the side AB.
^ ^
◦ ◦
4. In [U+25B5]RST, R= 19 ; S = 30 and RT = 120 km. Find the length of the side ST.
^ ^
5. In [U+25B5]KMS, K = 20◦ ; M = 100◦ and s = 23 cm. Find the length of the side m.
^
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bccos A
^
b2 = c2 + a2 − 2cacos B (12.43)
^
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcos C
^ ^ ^
where a is the side opposite A, b is the side opposite B and c is the side opposite C.
The cosine rule relates the length of a side of a triangle to the angle opposite it and the lengths of the
other two sides.
^
Consider [U+25B5]ABC which we will use to show that: a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bccos A .
Figure 12.35
2
In [U+25B5]DCB : a2 = (c − d) + h2 from the theorem of Pythagoras.
2 2 2
In [U+25B5]ACD : b = d + h from the theorem of Pythagoras.
2
We can eliminate h from and to get:
2
b2 − d 2 = a2 − (c − d)
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2cd + d2 − d2
(12.44)
= b2 + c2 − 2cd + d2 − d2
= b2 + c2 − 2cd
^ ^
In order to eliminate d we look at [U+25B5]ACD, where we have: cos A= db . So, d = bcos A . Substituting
^
this into (12.44), we get: a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bccos A
The other cases can be proved in an identical manner.
Figure 12.36
^
a. X = 71, 4◦ ; y = 3, 42 km and z = 4, 03 km
^
b. ; x = 103, 2 cm; Y = 20, 8◦ and z = 44, 59 cm
^ ^
That means that in the [U+25B5]DEF , the area is given by: A = 12 DE · EF sin E = 12 EF · F Dsin F =
^
1
2FD · DEsin D
Figure 12.37
In order show that this is true for all triangles, consider [U+25B5]ABC .
Figure 12.38
The area of any triangle is half the product of the base and the perpendicular height. For [U+25B5]ABC ,
^ ^
1
this is: A= 2c · h. However, h can be written in terms of A as: h = bsin A So, the area of [U+25B5]ABC
^
is: A = 21 c · bsin A .
Using an identical method, the area rule can be shown for the other two angles.
Figure 12.39
^
a. P = 40◦ ; q = 9 and r = 25
^
b. Q= 30◦ ; r = 10 and p=7
^
c. R= 110◦ ; p = 8 and q=9
2. Find the area of:
^
a. [U+25B5]XYZ with XY= 6 cm; XZ= 7 cm and Z = 28◦
^
b. [U+25B5]PQR with PR= 52 cm; PQ= 29 cm and P = 58, 9◦
^
c. [U+25B5]EFG with FG= 2, 5 cm; EG= 7, 9 cm and G= 125◦
3. Determine the area of a parallelogram in which two adjacent sides are 10 cm and 13 cm and the angle
between them is 55◦ .
2
4. If the area of [U+25B5]ABC is 5000 m with a = 150 m and b = 70 m, what are the two possible sizes
^
of C?
Table 12.10
Table 12.11
12.5.3 Exercises
1. Q is a ship at a point 10 km due South of another ship P. R is a lighthouse on the coast such that
^ ^
P =Q= 50◦ . Determine:
a. the distance QR
b. the shortest distance from the lighthouse to the line joining the two ships (PQ).
Figure 12.40
^ ^
2. WXYZ is a trapezium (WXkXZ) with WX= 3 m; YZ= 1, 5 m;Z = 120◦ and W = 30◦
a. Determine the distances XZ and XY.
^
b. Find the angle C .
Figure 12.41
3. On a ight from Johannesburg to Cape Town, the pilot discovers that he has been ying 3◦ o course.
At this point the plane is 500 km from Johannesburg. The direct distance between Cape Town and
Johannesburg airports is 1 552 km. Determine, to the nearest km:
a. The distance the plane has to travel to get to Cape Town and hence the extra distance that the
plane has had to travel due to the pilot's error.
b. The correction, to one hundredth of a degree, to the plane's heading (or direction).
^ ^ ^
4. ABCD is a trapezium (ie. ABkCD). AB= x; B A D = a; B C D = b and B D C = c. Find an
expression for the length of CD in terms of x, a, b and c.
Figure 12.42
5. A surveyor is trying to determine the distance between points X and Z. However the distance cannot
be determined directly as a ridge lies between the two points. From a point Y which is equidistant
^
from X and Z, he measures the angle X Y Z.
^ p
a. If XY= x and X Y Z = θ, show that XZ= x 2 (1 − cosθ).
b. Calculate XZ (to the nearest kilometre) if x = 240 km and θ = 132◦ .
Figure 12.43
Figure 12.44
Figure 12.45
= tan2 θ · cos2 θ
sin2 θ
= cos2 θ · cos2 θ (12.45)
2
= sin θ
Step 2.
1 2
= cos2 θ − tan θ
1 sin2 θ
= cos2 θ − cos2 θ
(12.46)
1−sin2 θ
= cos2 θ
cos2 θ
= cos2 θ = 1
sin293◦ = −0, 92 · · ·
(12.49)
◦
−sin67 = −0, 92 · · ·
tanθ + 0, 5 = 1, 5
(12.51)
tanθ = 1
Step 2.
y = tanθ
(12.52)
y = 1
Step 3.
Figure 12.46
tanθ + 0, 5 = 1, 5
tanθ = 1
(12.53)
∴ θ = arctan1
= 45◦
Solution to Exercise 12.4.3 (p. 143)
Step 1. Because we are told that x is an acute angle, we can simply apply an inverse trigonometric function
to both sides.
x
sin 2 = 0, 5
x
⇒ 2 = arcsin0, 5
(12.54)
⇒ x
2 = 30◦
∴x = 60◦
Solution to Exercise 12.4.4 (p. 143)
Step 1. We take a look at the graph of sinx = 0, 5 on the interval [−360◦ , 360◦ ]. We want to know when the
y value of the graph is 0, 5, so we draw in a line at y = 0, 5.
Figure 12.47
Step 2. Notice that this line touches the graph four times. This means that there are four solutions to the
equation.
Step 3. Read o the x values of those intercepts from the graph as x = −330◦ , −210◦ , 30◦ and 150◦ .
Figure 12.48
S A
T C
Table 12.12
sinθ = 0, 3
⇒θ = arcsin0, 3 (12.55)
◦
⇒θ = 17, 46
Step 3. Our solution lies in quadrants I and II. We therefore use θ and 180◦ − θ, and add the 360◦ · n for the
periodicity of sine.
180◦ − θ θ
◦
180 + θ 360◦ − θ
Table 12.13
◦ ◦
= 162, 54 + 360 · n, n ∈ Z
This is called the general solution.
Step 4. We can then nd all the values of θ by substituting n = ..., −1, 0, 1, 2, ...etc. For example, If n =
0, θ = 17, 46◦ ; 162, 54◦ If n = 1, θ = 377, 46◦ ; 522, 54◦ If n = −1, θ = −342, 54◦ ; −197, 46◦ We
can nd as many as we like or nd specic solutions in a given interval by choosing more values for n.
Step 1.
(2y + 1) (y − 1) = 0 (12.58)
∴ y = −0, 5 or y = 1 (12.59)
Both equations are valid ( i.e. lie in the range of cosine). General solution:
cosx = 1 [90◦ ]
I; IV : x = 0◦ + 360◦ · n, n ∈ Z (12.62)
◦
= 360 · n, n ∈ Z
Now we nd the specic solutions in the interval [−180◦ ; 360◦ ]. Appropriate values of n yield
sinx = 0 (12.65)
2sinx = cosx
2sinx cosx
cosx = cosx
(12.66)
2tanx = 1
1
tanx = 2
sinx = 0 [0◦ ]
(12.67)
∴ x = 180◦ · n, n ∈ Z
tanx = 1
2 [26, 57◦ ]
(12.68)
I; III : x = 26, 57 + 180◦ · n, n ∈ Z
◦
Specic solution in the interval [−360◦ ; 360◦ ]: x = −360◦ ; −206, 57◦ ; −180◦ ; −26, 57◦ ; 0◦ ; 26, 57◦ ; 180◦ ; 206, 25◦ ; 360◦
Solution to Exercise 12.5.1 (p. 149)
Step 1. We can see that the two lighthouses and the boat form a triangle. Since we know the distance between
the lighthouses and we have two angles we can use trigonometry to nd the remaining two sides of the
triangle, the distance of the boat from the two lighthouses.
Figure 12.49
Step 2. We need to know the lengths of the two sides AC and BC. We can use the sine rule to nd our missing
lengths.
BC AB
=
^ ^
sinA sinC
^
AB·sinA
BC = (12.69)
^
sinC
(0,67km)sin(37◦ )
= sin(128◦ )
= 0, 51km
AC AB
=
^ ^
sinB sinC
^
AB·sinB
AC = (12.70)
^
sinC
(0,67km)sin(15◦ )
= sin(128◦ )
= 0, 22km
Step 1.
^
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bdcos A
^
b2 +c2 −a2
∴ cos A = 2bc
82 +52 −72 (12.71)
= 2·8·5
= 0, 5
^
∴ A = arccos0, 5 = 60◦
^
1
A = 2 cbsin A
= 1
2 · 7 · 7 · sin80◦ (12.72)
= 24, 13
Statistics
13.1 Standard deviation and variance 1
13.1.1 Introduction
This chapter gives you an opportunity to build on what you have learned in previous grades about data
handling and probability. The work done will be mostly of a practical nature. Through problem solving
and activities, you will end up mastering further methods of collecting, organising, displaying and analysing
data. You will also learn how to interpret data, and not always to accept the data at face value, because
data is sometimes misused and abused in order to try to falsely prove or support a viewpoint. Measures
of central tendency (mean, median and mode) and dispersion (range, percentiles, quartiles, inter-quartile,
semi-inter-quartile range, variance and standard deviation) will be investigated. Of course, the activities
involving probability will be familiar to most of you - for example, you may have played dice or card games
even before you came to school. Your basic understanding of probability and chance gained so far will be
deepened to enable you to come to a better understanding of how chance and uncertainty can be measured
and understood.
13.1.2.1 Variance
The variance of a data set is the average squared distance between the mean of the data set and each data
value. An example of what this means is shown in Figure 13.1. The graph represents the results of 100 tosses
of a fair coin, which resulted in 45 heads and 55 tails. The mean of the results is 50. The squared distance
2
between the heads value and the mean is (45 − 50) = 25 and the squared distance between the tails value
2
and the mean is (55 − 50) = 25. The average of these two squared distances gives the variance, which is
1
2 (25 + 25) = 25.
1 This content is available online at <http://cnx.org/content/m38858/1.1/>.
161
162 CHAPTER 13. STATISTICS
Figure 13.1
P 2
2 ( (x − x))
σ = . (13.1)
n
Since the population variance is squared, it is not directly comparable with the mean and the data themselves.
P 2
2 (x − x)
s = . (13.2)
n−1
Since the sample variance is squared, it is also not directly comparable with the mean and the data
themselves.
A common question at this point is "Why is the numerator squared?" One answer is: to get rid of the
negative signs. Numbers are going to fall above and below the mean and, since the variance is looking for
distance, it would be counterproductive if those distances factored each other out.
In statistics, the standard deviation is the most common measure of statistical dispersion. Standard
deviation measures how spread out the values in a data set are. More precisely, it is a measure of the average
distance between the values of the data in the set and the mean. If the data values are all similar, then
the standard deviation will be low (closer to zero). If the data values are highly variable, then the standard
variation is high (further from zero).
The standard deviation is always a positive number and is always measured in the same units as the
original data. For example, if the data are distance measurements in metres, the standard deviation will
also be measured in metres.
s
P 2
(x − x)
σ= (13.3)
n
s
P 2
(x − x)
s= (13.4)
n−1
It is often useful to set your data out in a table so that you can apply the formulae easily. For example to
calculate the standard deviation of {57; 53; 58; 65; 48; 50; 66; 51}, you could set it out in the following way:
sum of items
x = number
Pof items
x
= n
(13.5)
448
= 8
= 56
Note: To get the deviations, subtract each number from the mean.
53 -3 9
58 2 4
65 9 81
48 -8 64
50 -6 36
66 10 100
51 -5 25
P P P 2
X = 448 x=0 X −X = 320
Table 13.1
Note:
The sum of the deviations of scores about their mean is zero. This always happens; that is
X − X = 0, for any set of data. Why is this? Find out.
Calculate the variance (add the squared results together and divide this total by the number of items).
2
(X−X )
P
Variance = n
320 (13.6)
= 8
= 40
√
Standard deviation = variance
r
2
(X−X )
P
=
q n
320 (13.7)
= 8
√
= 40
= 6.32
Figure 13.2
Table 13.2
a. Find the mean price in each city and then state which city has the lowest mean.
b. Assuming that the data is a population nd the standard deviation of each city's prices.
c. Assuming the data is a sample nd the standard deviation of each city's prices.
d. Giving reasons which city has the more consistently priced petrol?
2. The following data represents the pocket money of a sample of teenagers. 150; 300; 250; 270; 130; 80;
700; 500; 200; 220; 110; 320; 420; 140. What is the standard deviation?
3. Consider a set of data that gives the weights of 50 cats at a cat show.
Figure 13.3
Figure 13.4
27;
2. Jason is working in a computer store. He sells the following number of computers each month:
39; 3; 15; 43; 27; 19; 54; 65; 23; 45; 16 Give a ve number summary and a box and whisker plot
of his sales,
15; 11; 7; 34; 24;
3. The number of rugby matches attended by 36 season ticket holders is as follows:
22; 31; 12; 912; 9; 1; 3; 15; 5; 8; 11; 225; 2; 6; 18; 16; 17; 20; 13; 1714; 13; 11; 5; 3; 2; 23;
26; 40
a. Sum the data.
b. Using an appropriate graphical method (give reasons) represent the data.
c. Find the median, mode and mean.
d. Calculate the ve number summary and make a box and whisker plot.
e. What is the variance and standard deviation?
f. Comment on the data's spread.
g. Where are 95% of the results expected to lie?
4. Rose has worked in a orists shop for nine months. She sold the following number of wedding bouquets:
16; 14; 8; 12; 6; 5; 3; 5; 7
a. What is the ve-number summary of the data?
b. Since there is an odd number of data points what do you observe when calculating the ve-
numbers?
Cumulative 30 30 + 32 30 + 32 + 35 30 + 32 + 35 30 + 32 + 35 30 + 32 + 35
Frequency + 34 + 34 + 37 + 34 + 37 +
32
Figure 13.5
Notice the frequencies plotted at the upper limit of the intervals, so the points (30;1) (62;2) (97;3), etc
have been plotted. This is dierent from the frequency polygon where we plot frequencies at the midpoints
of the intervals.
13.2.1.3.1 Intervals
1. Use the following data of peoples ages to answer the questions. 2; 5; 1; 76; 34; 23; 65; 22; 63; 45; 53;
38 4; 28; 5; 73; 80; 17; 15; 5; 34; 37; 45; 56
2. The weights of bags of sand in grams is given below (rounded to the nearest tenth): 50,1; 40,4; 48,5;
29,4; 50,2; 55,3; 58,1; 35,3; 54,2; 43,5 60,1; 43,9; 45,3; 49,2; 36,6; 31,5; 63,1; 49,3; 43,4; 54,1
a. Decide on an interval width and state what you observe about your choice.
b. Give your lowest interval.
c. Give your highest interval.
d. Construct a cumultative frequency graph and a frequency polygon.
e. Compare the cumulative frequency graph and frequency polygon.
f. Below what value do 53% of the cases fall?
g. Below what value fo 60% of the cases fall?
Figure 13.6
• Skewed data is spread out on one side more than on the other. It can be skewed right or skewed left.
Figure 13.7
25 32 43
47 34 47
15 35 16
17 32 43
16 25 38
26 16 44
24 38 42
27 47 50
22 43 50
24 29 44
12 18 43
31 25 42
a. For each of the sets calculate the mean and the ve number summary.
b. For each of the classes nd the dierence between the mean and the median. Make box and
whisker plots on the same set of axes.
c. State which of the three are skewed (either right or left).
d. Is set A skewed or symmetrical?
e. Is set C symmetrical? Why or why not?
2. Two data sets have the same range and interquartile range, but one is skewed right and the other is
skewed left. Sketch the box and whisker plots and then invent data (6 points in each set) that meets
the requirements.
1 1 3,4 1,9
1,6 1 4 2,4
When we plot this data as points, we get the scatter plot shown in Figure 13.8.
Figure 13.8
If we are to come up with a function that best describes the data, we would have to say that a straight
line best describes this data.
deduce the type of function that best describes the data. The type of function can either be quadratic or
exponential.
1.
x y x y x y x y
-5 9,8 0 14,2 -2,5 11,9 2,5 49,3
Table 13.6
2.
x y x y x y x y
-5 75 0 5 -2,5 27,5 2,5 7,5
Table 13.7
3.
Height (cm) 147 150 152 155 157 160 163 165
Weight (kg) 52 53 54 56 57 59 60 61
63 64 66 68 70 72 74
Table 13.8
The following simulation allows you to plot scatter plots and t a curve to the plot. Ignore the error bars
(blue lines) on the points.
Figure 13.9
67 100
55 85
70 150
90 180
45 70
75 160
50 80
60 90
84 110
30 60
66 96
96 200
Table 13.9
2. The rankings of eight tennis players is given along with the time they spend practising.
154 5
390 1
130 6
70 8
240 3
280 2
175 4
103 7
Table 13.10
a. Construct a scatter plot and explain how you chose the dependent (cause) and independent (eect)
variables.
3. Eight childrens sweet consumption and sleep habits were recorded. The data is given in the following
table.
15 4
12 4,5
5 8
3 8,5
18 3
23 2
11 5
4 8
Table 13.11
Figure 13.10
Figure 13.11
2. Examine the following three plots and comment on omission, selection and bias. Hint: What is wrong
with the data and what is missing from the bar and pie charts?
Activity Hours
Sleep 8
Sports 2
School 7
Visit friend 1
Watch TV 2
Studying 3
Table 13.12
Figure 13.12
Figure 13.13
Figure 13.14
<5 2
5-10 2
10-15 4
15-20 4
20-30 8
30-40 6
40-50 10
> 50 12
Table 13.13
60 < x ≤ 70 3
70 < x ≤ 80 2
80 < x ≤ 90 6
90 < x ≤ 100 40
Table 13.14
c. What percent of cars travel more than 120 km.h−1 on this road?
d. Do cars generally exceed the speed limit?
2. The following two diagrams (showing two schools contribution to charity) have been exaggerated.
Explain how they are misleading and redraw them so that they are not misleading.
Figure 13.15
3. The monthly income of eight teachers are given as follows: R10 050; R14 300; R9 800; R15 000; R12
140; R13 800; R11 990; R12 900.
e. Determine for both of the above, how many salaries are within one standard deviation of the
mean.
f. Using the above information work out which bonus is more benecial nancially for the teachers.
1
x = 6 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6)
(13.8)
= 3, 5
Step 3. The population variance is calculated by:
(x−x)2
P
σ2 = n
1 (13.9)
= 6 (6, 25 + 2, 25 + 0, 25 + 0, 25 + 2, 25 + 6, 25)
= 2, 917
Step 4.
2
X X −X X −X
1 -2.5 6.25
2 -1.5 2.25
3 -0.5 0.25
4 0.5 0.25
5 1.5 2.25
6 2.5 6.25
P P P 2
X = 21 x=0 X −X = 17.5
Table 13.15
√
σ = 2, 917
(13.10)
= 1, 708.
Notice how this standard deviation is somewhere in between the possible deviations.
Step 2.
Figure 13.16
14.1 Introduction
In probability theory event are either independent or dependent. This chapter describes the dierences and
how each type of event is worked with.
14.2 Denitions
Two events are independent if knowing something about the value of one event does not give any information
about the value of the second event. For example, the event of getting a "1" when a die is rolled and the
event of getting a "1" the second time it is thrown are independent.
Consequently, two events are dependent if the outcome of the rst event aects the outcome of the second
event.
179
180 CHAPTER 14. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT EVENTS
For example we can draw and analyse a two-way contingency table to solve the following problem.
it may be of some importance to most citizens to understand how odds and probability assessments are made,
and how they contribute to reputations and to decisions, especially in a democracy.
Another signicant application of probability theory in everyday life is reliability. Many consumer prod-
ucts, such as automobiles and consumer electronics, utilize reliability theory in the design of the product
in order to reduce the probability of failure. The probability of failure is also closely associated with the
product's warranty.
a.
Brown eyes Not Brown eyes Totals
Black hair 50 30 80
Table 14.1
b.
Point A Point B Totals
Totals 40 60 100
Table 14.2
c.
Durban Bloemfontein Totals
Table 14.3
d.
Multivitamin A Multivitamin B Totals
Table 14.4
2. A study was undertaken to see how many people in Port Elizabeth owned either a Volkswagen or a
Toyota. 3% owned both, 25% owned a Toyota and 60% owned a Volkswagen. Draw a contingency
table to show all events and decide if car ownership is independent.
3. Jane invested in the stock market. The probability that she will not lose all her money is 0,32. What
is the probability that she will lose all her money? Explain.
'
4. If D and F are mutually exclusive events, with P(D )=0,3 and P(D or F)=0,94, nd P(F).
5. A car sales person has pink, lime-green and purple models of car A and purple, orange and multicolour
models of car B. One dark night a thief steals a car.
6. The probability of Event X is 0,43 and the probability of Event Y is 0,24. The probability of both
occuring together is 0,10. What is the probability that X or Y will occur (this inculdes X and Y
occuring simultaneously)?
7. P(H)=0,62, P(J)=0,39 and P(H and J)=0,31. Calculate:
'
a. P(H )
b. P(H or J)
' '
c. P(H or J )
'
d. P(H or J)
' '
e. P(H and J )
8. The last ten letters of the alphabet were placed in a hat and people were asked to pick one of them.
Event D is picking a vowel, Event E is picking a consonant and Event F is picking the last four letters.
Calculate the following probabilities:
'
a. P(F )
b. P(F or D)
c. P(neither E nor F)
d. P(D and E)
e. P(E and F)
'
f. P(E and D )
9. At Dawnview High there are 400 Grade 12's. 270 do Computer Science, 300 do English and 50 do
Typing. All those doing Computer Science do English, 20 take Computer Science and Typing and
35 take English and Typing. Using a Venn diagram calculate the probability that a pupil drawn at
random will take:
P (A ∩ B) = P (A) × P (B)
1 1
= 6 × 6
(14.2)
1
= 36
1
The probability of rolling a 1 and then rolling a 6 on a fair die is
36 .
P (A ∩ B) = P (A) × P (B)
1 2
= 4 × 3
(14.3)
2
= 12
1
= 6
1
The probability of rst selecting a R1 coin followed by selecting a R2 coin is
6.
Positive result 50 40 90
Table 14.5
120
Step 2. P(male).P(positive result)=
210 = 0, 57
90
P(female).P(positive result)=
210 = 0, 43
50
P(male and positive result)=
210 = 0, 24
Step 3. P(male and positive result) is the observed probability and P(male).P(positive result) is the expected
probability. These two are quite dierent. So there is no evidence that the medication's success is
independent of gender.
Step 4. To get gender independence we need the positive results in the same ratio as the gender. The gender
4
ratio is: 120:90, or 4:3, so the number in the male and positive column would have to be
7 of the total
number of patients responding positively which gives 51,4. This leads to the following table:
Table 14.6
Step 1.
Figure 14.1
Step 2.
Beige Not Beige Totals
Table 14.7
P (Beige∩Blue)
P (Beige/Blue) = P (Blue)
0,15
= (14.4)
0,55
= 0, 27
Step 4. Since P (Beige/Blue) 6= P (Beige) the events are statistically dependent.
Glossary
D Dependent events
Two events are dependent if the outcome of one event is aected by the outcome of the other
event i.e. P (A/C) 6= P (A)
I Independent events
Events are said to be independent if the result or outcome of one event does not aect the result
or outcome of the other event. So P(A/C)=P(A), where P(A/C) represents the probability of
event A after event C has occured.
Independent Events
Two events A and B are independent if when one of them happens, it doesn't aect whether the
one happens or not.
M Mathematical Model
A mathematical model is a method of using the mathematical language to describe the
behaviour of a physical system. Mathematical models are used particularly in the natural
sciences and engineering disciplines (such as physics, biology, and electrical engineering) but also
in the social sciences (such as economics, sociology and political science); physicists, engineers,
computer scientists, and economists use mathematical models most extensively.
O outlier
A point on a scatter plot which is widely separated from the other points or a result diering
greatly from others in the same sample is called an outlier.
Q Quadratic Sequence
A quadratic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which the second dierences between each
consecutive term dier by the same amount, called a common second dierence.
^
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bccos A
^
b2 = c2 + a2 − 2cacos B (12.43)
^
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcos C
^ ^ ^
where a is the side opposite A, b is the side opposite B and c is the side opposite C.
The Sine Rule
^ ^ ^ ^
sinA sinB sinC
The sine rule applies to any triangle:
a = b = c where a is the side opposite A, b is the
^ ^
side opposite B and c is the side opposite C.
two-way contingency table
A two-way contingency table is used to represent possible outcomes when two events are
combined in a statistical analysis.
C
Hyperbolic Functions, 7(75)
co-ordinate geometry, 11.3(112)
complete the square, 2.2(34) I identities, 12.2(133)
compound depreciation, 1.2(19) Independent and dependent events, 14(179)
cone, 11.1(103) Independent Events, 179, 180
cosine identity, 12.5(148) interest rate, 1.5(24)
F
11.1(103), 11.2(106), 11.3(112),
factorisation, 2.1(33)
11.4(116), 12.1(125), 12.2(133),
nance, 1.1(17), 1.2(19), 1.4(22),
12.3(137), 12.4(142), 13.1(161),
1.5(24)
13.2(166), 13.3(168), 13.4(173)
Finding i, 1.4(22)
misuse of statistics, 13.4(173)
nding n, 1.4(22)
models, 5(59)
nding the equation, 2.4(39)
ve-number summary, 13.2(166) N nominal interest rate, 1.5(24)
O
future value, 1.3(21)
outlier, 171
G
P
geometry, 11.1(103), 11.2(106), 11.3(112),
polygons, 11.1(103)
11.4(116)
population, 13.1(161)
Grade 11, (1), (5), (11), (13), 1.1(17),
present value, 1.3(21)
1.2(19), 1.3(21), 1.4(22), 1.5(24),
proportion, 11.2(106)
2.1(33), 2.2(34), 2.3(36), 2.4(39),
pyramid, 11.1(103)
3(47), 4.1(53), 4.2(54), 5(59), 6(67),
7(75), 8(81), 9(87), 10(93), 11.1(103),
11.2(106), 11.3(112), 11.4(116),
Q quadratic equation, 2.1(33), 2.4(39)
quadratic equations, 2.2(34), 2.3(36)
12.1(125), 12.2(133), 12.3(137),
quadratic formula, 2.3(36)
12.4(142), 12.5(148), 13.1(161),
Quadratic Functions, 6(67)
13.2(166), 13.3(168), 13.4(173), 14(179)
Quadratic Inequalities, 3(47)
Gradient at a point, 9(87)
Quadratic Sequence, 13
graphical representation, 13.2(166)
Quadratic sequences, (13)
graphical solution, 4.1(53)
Graphs, 6(67), 7(75), 8(81) R reduction formulae, 12.3(137)
S
standard deviation, 13.1(161)
sample, 13.1(161)
statistics, 13.1(161), 13.2(166), 13.3(168),
Shape of a data set, 168
13.4(173)
similarity, 11.1(103)
Surds, (5)
simple depreciation, 1.1(17)
surface area, 11.1(103)
simultaneous equation, 4.1(53), 4.2(54)
sine identity, 12.5(148) T The Area Rule, 151
skewed data, 13.3(168) The Cosine Rule, 149
South Africa, (1), (5), (11), (13), The Sine Rule, 148
1.1(17), 1.2(19), 1.3(21), 1.4(22), transformations, 11.4(116)
1.5(24), 2.1(33), 2.2(34), 2.3(36), triangle geometry, 11.2(106)
2.4(39), 3(47), 4.1(53), 4.2(54), 5(59), trigonometric equations, 12.4(142)
6(67), 7(75), 8(81), 9(87), 10(93), trigonometry, 12.1(125), 12.2(133),
11.1(103), 11.2(106), 11.3(112), 12.3(137), 12.4(142), 12.5(148)
11.4(116), 12.1(125), 12.2(133), two-way contingency table, 180
V
12.3(137), 12.4(142), 12.5(148),
variance, 13.1(161)
13.1(161), 13.2(166), 13.3(168),
volume, 11.1(103)
13.4(173), 14(179)
Attributions
Collection: Siyavula textbooks: Grade 11 Maths
Edited by: Free High School Science Texts Project
URL: http://cnx.org/content/col11243/1.3/
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: "Exponents"
By: Rory Adams, Free High School Science Texts Project, Sarah Blyth, Heather Williams
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m32625/1.4/
Pages: 1-3
Copyright: Rory Adams, Free High School Science Texts Project, Heather Williams
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Module: "Surds"
By: Rory Adams, Free High School Science Texts Project, Heather Williams
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m30837/1.4/
Pages: 5-9
Copyright: Rory Adams, Free High School Science Texts Project, Heather Williams
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Connexions's modular, interactive courses are in use worldwide by universities, community colleges, K-12
schools, distance learners, and lifelong learners. Connexions materials are in many languages, including
English, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Italian, Vietnamese, French, Portuguese, and Thai. Connexions is part
of an exciting new information distribution system that allows for Print on Demand Books. Connexions
has partnered with innovative on-demand publisher QOOP to accelerate the delivery of printed course
materials and textbooks into classrooms worldwide at lower prices than traditional academic publishers.