0.

3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 1

0.3 FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

When you prepared for calculus, you learned to manipulate functions by adding, subtracting, multiplying
and dividing them, as well as calculating functions of functions (composition). In calculus, we will still be
dealing with functions and their applications. We will create new functions by operating on old ones. We
will derive information from the graphs of the functions and from the derived functions. We will find ways
to describe the point–by–point behavior of functions as well as their behavior "close to" some points and
also over entire intervals. We will find tangent lines to graphs of functions and areas between graphs of
functions. And, of course, we will see how these ideas can be used in a variety of fields.

This section and the next one are a review of information and procedures you should already know about
functions before we begin calculus.

What is a function?

Definition of Function:
A function from a set X to a set Y is a rule for assigning to each element of the set X a single
element of the set Y. A function assigns a unique (exactly one) output element in the set Y to each
input element from the set X.

The rule which defines a function is often given by an equation, but it could also be given in words or
graphically or by a table of values. In practice, functions are given in all of these ways, and we will use all
of them in this book.

In the definition of a function, the set X of all inputs is called the domain of the function. The set Y of all
outputs produced from these inputs is called the range of the function. Two different inputs, elements in
the domain, can be assigned to the same output, an element in the range, but one input cannot lead to 2
different outputs.

Most of the time we will work with functions whose domains and ranges are real numbers, but there are
other types of functions all around us. Final grades for this course is an example of a function. For each
student, the instructor will assign a final grade based on some rule for evaluating that student's
performance. The domain of this function consists of all students registered for the course, and the range
consists of the letters A, B, C, D, F, and perhaps W (withdrawn). Two students can receive the same final
grade, but only one grade will be assigned to each student.

Function Machines

Functions are abstract structures, but sometimes it is easier to think of them in a more concrete way. One
way is to imagine that a function is a special purpose computer, a machine which accepts inputs, does
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 2

something to those inputs according to the defining rule, and produces an output. The output is the value
of the function for the given input value. If the defining rule for a function f is "multiply the input by
itself" , f(input) = (input)(input) , then Fig. 1 shows the results of putting the inputs x, 5, a, c + 3 and
x + h into the machine f.

Practice 1: If we have a function machine g whose rule is "divide 3 by the input and add 1",
g(x) = 3/x + 1, what outputs do we get from the inputs x, 5, a, c + 3 and x + h ? What happens
if we put 0 into the machine g?

You expect your calculator to behave as a function: each time you press the same input sequence of keys
you expect to see the same output display. In fact, if your calculator did not produce the same output each
time you would need a new calculator. (On many calculators there is a key which does not produce the
same output each time you press it. Which key is that?)

Functions Defined by Equations

If the domain consists of a collection of real numbers (perhaps all real numbers) and the range is a
collection of real numbers, then the function is called a numerical function. The rule for a numerical
function can be given in several ways, but it is usually written as a formula. If the rule for a numerical
function , f , is "the output is the input number multiplied by itself", then we could write the rule as
2
f(x) = x.x = x . The use of an "x" to represent the input is simply a matter of convenience and custom.
2 2 2
We could also represent the same function by f(a) = a , f(€#) = # or f( input ) = ( input ) .

2 2 2
For the function f defined by f(x) = x – x , we have that f(3) = 3 – 3 = 6, f(.5) = (.5) – (.5) = –.25, and
2
f(–2) = (–2) – (–2) = 6 . Notice that the two different inputs, 3 and –2, both lead to the output of 6.
That is allowable for a function. We can also evaluate f if the input contains variables. If we replace the
"x" with something else in the notation "f(x)", then we must replace the "x" with the same thing
everywhere in the equation:
2 2 2 2
f(c) = c – c , f(a+1) = (a+1) – (a+1) = (a + 2a + 1) – (a + 1) = a + a ,
2 2 2 2
f(x+h) = (x+h) – (x+h) = (x +2xh+h ) – (x+h) , and, in general, f(input) = (input) – (input) .
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 3

For more complicated expressions, we can just proceed step–by–step:

2 2 2 2 2
f(x+h) – f(x) {(x+h) – (x+h)} – {x – x} {(x +2xh+h ) – (x+h)} – {x – x}
h = h = h

2
2xh + h – h h(2x + h – 1)
= h = h = 2x + h – 1 .

2
Practice 2: For the function g defined by g(t) = t – 5t , evaluate g(1), g(–2), g(w+3), g(x+h),
g(x+h) – g(x)
g(x+h) – g(x), and h .

Functions Defined by Graphs and Tables of Values

The graph of a numerical function f consists of a plot of ordered pairs (x,y) where x is in the domain of
f and y = f(x). A table of values of a numerical function consists of a list of some of the ordered pairs
(x,y) where y = f(x). Fig. shows a graph of f(x) = sin(x) for –4 ≤ x ≤ 9.

A function can be defined by a graph or by a table of

values, and these types of definitions are common in
applied fields. The outcome of an experiment will
depend on the input, but the experimenter may not
know the "rule" for predicting the outcome. In that
case, the experimenter usually represents the experiment function as a table of measured outcome values
verses input values or as a graph of the outcomes verses the inputs. The table and graph in Fig. 3 show
the deflections obtained when weights are loaded at the end of a wooden stick. The graph in Fig. 4 shows
o
the temperature of a hot cup of tea as a function of the time as it sits in a 68 F room. In these
experiments, the "rule" for the function is that f(input) = actual outcome of the experiment.

Tables have the advantage

of presenting the data
explicitly, but it is often
difficult to detect patterns
simply from lists of
numbers. Graphs tend to
obscure some of the
precision of the data, but
patterns are much easier to
detect visually
–– we can actually see what is happening with the numbers.
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 4

Creating Graphs of Functions

Most people understand and can interpret pictures more quickly than tables of data or equations, so if we
have a function defined by a table of values or by an equation, it is often useful and necessary to create a
picture of the function, a graph.

A Graph from a Table of Values

If we have a table of values of the function, perhaps consisting of measurements obtained from an
experiment, then we can simply plot the ordered pairs in the xy–plane to get a graph which consists of a
collection of points.

Fig. 5 shows the lengths and weights of trout

caught (and released) during several days of
fishing. It also shows a line which comes
"close" to the plotted points. From the graph,
you could estimate that a 17 inch trout would
weigh slightly more than one pound.

A Graph from an Equation

Creating the graph of a function given by an equation is similar to creating one from a table of values –– we
need to plot enough points (x,y) where y = f(x) so we can be confident of the shape and location of the
graph of the entire function. We can find a point (x,y) which satisfies y = f(x) by picking a value for x
and then calculating the value for y by evaluating f(x). Then we can enter the (x,y) value in a table or
simply plot the point (x,y) .

If you recognize the form of the equation and know something about the shape of graphs of that form, you may
not have to plot many points. If you do not recognize the form of the equation then you will have to plot more
points, maybe 10 or 20 or 234: it depends on how complicated the graph appears and on how important it is to
you (or your boss) to have an accurate graph. Evaluating y = f(x) at a lot of different values for x and then
plotting the points (x,y) is usually not very difficult, but it can be very time–consuming. Fortunately, there are
now calculators and personal computers which will do the evaluations and plotting for you.

Is every graph the graph of a function?

The definition of function requires that each element of the domain, each input value, be sent by the
function to exactly one element of the range, to exactly one output value, so for each input x-value there
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 5

will be exactly one output y–value, y = f(x). The points (x, y1) and (x,y2) cannot both be on the graph of
f unless y1 = y2 . The graphic interpretation of this result is called the Vertical Line Test.

Vertical Line Test for a Function:

A graph is the graph of a function if and only if a vertical line drawn
through any point in the domain intersects the graph at exactly one point.

Fig. 6(a) shows the graph of a function. Figs. 6(b) and

6(c) show graphs which are not the graphs of functions,
and vertical lines are shown which intersect those
graphs at more than one point. Non–functions are not
"bad", and sometimes they are necessary to describe
complicated phenomena.

Reading Graphs Carefully

Calculators and computers can help students, reporters, business people and scientific professionals create
graphs quickly and easily, and because of this, graphs are being used more often than ever to present
information and justify arguments. And this text takes a distinctly graphical approach to the ideas and
meaning of calculus. Calculators and computers can help us create graphs, but we need to be able to read
them carefully. The next examples illustrate some types of information which can be obtained by carefully
reading and understanding graphs.

Example 1: A boat starts from St. Thomas and sails due

west with the velocity shown in Fig. 7
(a) When is the boat traveling the fastest?
(b) What does a negative velocity away from
St. Thomas mean?
(c) When is the boat the farthest from St. Thomas?

Solution: (a) The greatest speed is 10 mph at t = 3 hours.

(b) It means that the boat is heading back toward St. Thomas.
(c) The boat is farthest from St. Thomas at t = 6 hours. For t < 6 the boat's velocity is positive, and
the distance from the boat to St. Thomas is increasing. For t > 6 the boat's velocity is negative,
and the distance from the boat to St. Thomas is decreasing.
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 6

Practice 3: You and a friend start out together and hike along the
same trail but walk at different speeds (Fig. 8).
(a) Who is walking faster at t = 20?
(b) Who is ahead at t = 20?
(c) When are you and your friend farthest apart?
(d) Who is ahead when t = 50?

Example 2: In Fig. 9, which has the largest slope: the line through

the points A and P, the line through B and P, or the line

through C and P?

Solution: The line through C and P has the largest slope:

mPC > mPB > mPA .

Practice 4: In Fig. 10, the point Q on the curve is fixed, and the point P is moving
to the right along the curve toward the point Q. As P moves toward Q:
(a) the x–coordinate of P is Increasing, Decreasing, Remaining constant, or None of these.
(b) the x–increment from P to Q is Increasing, Decreasing, Remaining constant, or
None of these
(c) the slope from P to Q is Increasing, Decreasing, Remaining constant, or None of these.

Example 3: The graph of y = f(x) is shown in Fig. 11. Let

g(x) be the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f(x) at the
point (x,f(x)).
(a) Estimate the values g(1), g(2) and g(3).
(b) When does g(x) = 0? (c) At what value(s) of x is g(x)
largest? (d) Sketch the graph of y = g(x).

Solution: (a) Fig. 11 shows the graph y = f(x) with several tangent lines to the graph of f. From Fig. 11
we can estimate that g(1) (the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f at (1,0) ) is
approximately equal to 1. Similarly, g(2) ≈ 0 and g(3) ≈ –1.
(b) The slope of the tangent line appears to be horizontal (slope = 0) at x = 2 and at x = 5.
(c) The tangent line to the graph appears to have greatest slope (be steepest) near x = 1.5 .
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 7

(d) We can build a table of values of g(x) and then sketch the graph of these values.

x f(x) g(x) = tangent slope at (x, f(x) )

0 –1 .5
1 0 1
2 2 0
3 1 –1
4 0 –1
5 –1 0
6 –.5 .5
The graph y = g(x) is given in Fig. 12.

Practice 5: Water is flowing into a container (Fig. 13) at a constant rate of 3

gallons per minute. Starting with an empty container, sketch the graph of the height of
the water in the container as a function of time.

Problems

In problems 1 – 4, use the shapes and slopes of the data to

match the given numerical triples to the graphs in the figures.
(For example, A: 3, 3, 6 in Problem 1. is "over and up" so
it matches graph (a) in Fig. 14. B is "down and over" so it
matches graph (c) in Fig. 14.)

1. Fig. 14. Data: A: 3, 3, 6 B: 12, 6, 6

C: 7, 7, 3 D: 2, 4, 4

2. Fig. 15. Data: A: 7, 10, 7 B: 17.3, 17.3, 25

C: 4, 4, 8 D: 12, 8, 16

3. Fig. 16. Data: A: 7, 14, 10 B: 23, 45, 22

C: 0.8, 1.2, 0.8 D: 6, 9, 3

4. Fig. 17. Data: A: 6, 3, 9 B: 18, 10, 10

C: 12, 6, 9 D: 3.7, 1.9, 3.6

5. Water is flowing into each of the bottles in Fig. 18 at a steady

rate. Match each bottle shape with the graph of the height of
the water as a function of time.
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 8

6. Sketch the shapes of bottles which will have the water

height versus time graphs in Fig. 19.

x
7. f(x) = x2 + 3 , g(x) = x–5 , and h(x) = x – 2

(a) evaluate f(1), g(1) and h(1) (b) graph f(x), g(x) and h(x) for –5 ≤ x ≤ 10
(c) evaluate f(3x), g(3x) and h(3x) (d) evaluate f(x+h), g(x+h) and h(x+h)

8. Find the slope of the line through the points P and Q when
(a) P = (1,3), Q = (2,7) (b) P = (x, x2 + 2), Q = ( x+h , (x+h)2 + 2)
(c) P = (1,3), Q = (x, x2 + 2) What are the values of these slopes in (c) if x = 2, x = 1.1, x = 1.002?

9. Find the slope of the line through the points P and Q when
(a) P = (1,5), Q = (2,7) (b) P = (x, x2 + 3x – 1), Q = ( x+h , (x+h)2 + 3(x+h) – 1)
(c) P = (1,3), Q = (x, x2 + 3x – 1) What are the values of these slopes in (c) if x = 1.3, x = 1.1, x = 1.002?

f(a + h) – f(a) g(a + h) – g(a)

10. f(x) = x2 + x and g(x) = 3/x. Evaluate and simplify h and h
when a = 1, a = 2, a = –1, a = x.

f(a+h) – f(a) g(a+h) – g(a)

11. f(x) = x2 – 2x and g(x) = x . Evaluate and simplify h and h
when a = 1, a = 2, a = 3, a = x.

12. The temperatures in Fig. 20 were

recorded during a 12 hour period in
Chicago.
(a) At what time was the temperature
the highest? Lowest?
(b) How fast was the temperature
rising at 10 am? At 1 pm?
(c) What could have caused the drop
in temperature between 1 pm
and 3 pm?
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 9

13. The graph in Fig. 21 shows the distance of an airplane

from an airport during a several hour flight.
(a) How far was the airplane from the airport at
1 pm? At 2 pm?
(b) How fast was the distance changing at 1 pm?
(c) How could the distance from the plane to the airport
remain unchanged from 1:45 pm until 2:30 pm
without the airplane falling?

14. The graph in Fig. 22 shows the height of a diver above the
water level at time t seconds.
(a) What was the height of the diving board?
(b) When did the diver hit the water?
(c) How deep did the diver get?
(d) When did the diver return to the surface?

15. a) Sketch the lines tangent to the curve in Fig. 23 at x = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

b) For what value(s) of x is the value of the function largest? Smallest?
c) For what value(s) of x is the slope of the tangent line largest? Smallest?

16. Fig. 24 shows the height of the water

(above and below mean sea level) at a
Maine beach.
a) At which time(s) was the most
beach exposed? The least?
b) At which time(s) was the current
the strongest?
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 10

17. Imagine that you are ice skating, from left to right, along the path
in Fig. 25. Sketch the path you will follow if you fall at
points A, B, and C.

18. Define s(x) to be the slope of the line through the points (0,0) and (x, f(x) ) in Fig. 26 . (For
example, s(3) = { slope of the line
through (0,0) and (3, f(3) ) } = 4/3. )
a) Evaluate s(1), s(2), and s(4).
b) For which integer value of x
between 1 and 7 is
s(x) smallest?

19. Let f(x) = x + 1 and define s(x) to be the slope of the line
through the points (0,0) and (x, f(x) ) in Fig. 27 . (For example,
s(2) = { slope of the line through (0,0) and (2,3) } = 3/2. )
a) Evaluate s(1), s(3) and s(4).
b) Find an equation for s(x) in terms of x.

20. Define A(x) to be the area of the rectangle bounded by the

axes, the line y = 2, and a vertical line at x as in Fig. 28.
(For example, A(3) = area of a 2 by 3 rectangle = 6.)
a) Evaluate A(1), A(2) and A(5).
b) Find an equation for A(x) in terms of x.
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 11

21. Use the graph of y = f(x) in Fig. 29 to complete the table. (You will have to estimate the
values of the slopes.)

x f(x) slope of the line tangent

to the graph of f at (x, f(x))

0 1 1
1
2
3
4

22. Sketch the graphs of water height versus time for water
pouring into a bottle shaped like:
(a) a milk carton (b) a spherical glass vase
(c) an oil drum (cylinder) lying on its side
(d) a giraffe (e) you.

23. Design bottles whose graphs of (highest) water height versus time will look like those in Fig. 30.

Section 0.3 PRACTICE Answers

Practice 1: Input Output Input Output

3 3
x x +1 c+3 c+3 +1
3 3
5 5 + 1 = 1.6 x+h x+h +1
3
a a +1
3
0 g(0) = 0 + 1 which is not defined because of division by 0.

2
Practice 2: g(t) = t – 5t .
2 2
g(1) = 1 – 5(1) = –4 . g(–2) = (–2) – 5(–2) = 14 .
2 2 2
g(w + 3) = (w + 3) –5(w + 3) = w + 6w + 9 – 5w – 15 = w + w – 6 .
2 2
g(x + h) = (x + h) – 5(x + h) = x + 2xh + h – 5x – 5h .
2 2 2 2
g(x + h) – g(x) = ( x + 2xh + h – 5x – 5h ) – ( x – 5x ) = 2xh + h – 5h .

2
g(x + h) – g(x) 2xh + h – 5h
h = h = 2x + h – 5 .
0.3 Functions and Graphs Contemporary Calculus 12

Practice 3: (a) Friend (b) Friend

(c) At t = 40. Before that your friend is walking faster and increasing the distance between
you. Then you start to walk faster than your friend and start to catch up.
(d) Friend. You are walking faster than your friend at t = 50, but you still have
not caught up.

Practice 4: (a) The x–coordinate is increasing. (b) The x–increment ∆x is decreasing.

(c) The slope of the line through P and Q is decreasing.

Practice 5: See Fig. 31.