Natural Gas Engineering

Natural Gas Production: Rock Properties

G
IIT
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C
O
O
MDr Pankaj Tiwari

IIT Guwahati
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 Reservoir Fluid Flow
Properties and compositions of natural gas  Gas-specific gravity,
 Pseudo-critical properties
 Viscosity (0.01 to 0.04 cp)
 Density- Vapor density
 Compressibility factor

G
 Formation and expansion volume

IIT
 Density, need z-factor and molecular weight

S_
 Reynolds number, need density and viscosity

C
Reservoir Fluid Flow:

O
 Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir- Gas

O
 Types of fluids in the reservoir - Compressible
M
 Flow regimes- Transient/pseduosteady state
 Reservoir Geometry- Radial

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 Parameters

Real gas pseudo-pressure m(p) Al-Hussainy et al. (1966)

widely used for mathematical modeling of IPR of gas wells.

𝑝
2𝑝

G
𝑚 𝑃 = න 𝑑𝑝 psi2/cp)x106
μ𝑧

IIT
𝑝𝑏

S_
where pb is the base pressure (14.7 psia).

C
It is a "pseudo-property" of gas : depends on gas

O
viscosity and compressibility factor, which are

O
properties of the gas (functions of pressure and
temperature.). M
P (psia) μ (cp) z 2p/(μz) m(p) Real Gas Normalized Pressure
𝑝𝑟
14.7 - - - 𝑝𝑟
n 𝑃 =න 𝑑𝑝𝑟
Procedure 50
- 0
𝑧
- -
where pr is the pseudo-reduced pressure.
100 - - -
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 Parameters

Reynolds Number 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 − 𝑓𝑡 3

𝑅 = 10.73
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 − °𝑅

Psc = 14.7 psi

4 × 28.97𝛾𝑔 𝑞𝑝𝑠𝑐 Tsc = 520°R

G
𝑁𝑅𝑒 =

IIT
𝜋𝐷𝜇𝑅𝑇𝑠𝑐

S_
C
𝛾𝑔 𝑞
𝑁𝑅𝑒 = 20.09

O
𝐷𝜇

O
M
p is in psia,
q is in Mscf/d,
D is in inches,
𝜇 is in cp,
T is in R.
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 Initial Gas in Place
Gas in place

• For a given quantity of gas

𝑝 1 𝑞1 𝑝 2 𝑞2

G
𝑝1𝑉1 𝑝𝑏𝑉𝑏
= =

IIT
𝑍1𝑇1 𝑍𝑏𝑇𝑏 𝑍1𝑇1 𝑍2𝑇2

S_
where:
V1 = volume of space-holding gas, cu ft

C
Vb = volume of gas in the reservoir at standard conditions, cu ft
b = standard conditions for gas measurement

O
O
 Initial gas in place A = Area ( reservoir), acres
𝐴ℎɸ𝑆𝑔M h = Reservoir net thickness in ft
𝐺𝑖 = 43,560 (𝑠𝑐𝑓) ϕ = Reservoir porosity
𝐵𝑔
Sg = Gas saturation
Bg = Gas formation volume factor

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 Reservoir Rock Properties
Reservoir Rock Properties
 Study of rock properties and rock interactions with fluids: Petrophysics
 Physical properties of petroleum reservoir rocks: Theoretical and laboratory

 Porosity: Voids in Rock

G
 Logs
 Permeability: Ability to move from one pore to another

IIT
 Laboratory
 Fluid saturations: Volume occupied by a fluid  Correlation

S_
 Capillary characteristics: Preference to a fluid  Isoporosity contour map

 Compressibility: Changes in bulk/pore volume

C
 Net pay thickness: That contributes to fluid recovery

O
O
 Fluid-rock interaction: Wettability
M
 Reservoir Heterogeneity : Variation in reservoir properties

 Rock property data are essential

 Quantity and distribution of hydrocarbon
 When combined with fluid properties, control the flow of the existing phases within the reservoir
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 Reservoir Rock Properties

Porosity (𝜙)
 Measure of the storage capacity (pore volume) that is capable of holding fluids

G
𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

IIT
ɸ= =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

S_
 Absolute Porosity

C
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒−𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
ɸ𝑎 = =

O
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

O
 Effective Porosity
M
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
ɸ=
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

 The effective porosity is the value that is used in all reservoir engineering calculations: Recoverable hydrocarbon fluids
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 Reservoir Rock Properties
Porosity (𝜙)
 Effective Porosity
 Saturate the rock sample 100% with a fluid of known density
 Increase in weight due to the saturating fluid – Effective porosity

G
Bulk Volume : 43,560 Ah ,ft3

IIT
 Absolute Porosity
 Crushed the rock : Actual volume of solid Pore Volume : 43,560 Ahɸ ,ft3

S_
 Isolated pores are counted by: Absolute Porosity

C
 The reservoir rock porosity :

O
 Average Porosity  Vertical- Large variation
σ 𝜙𝑖

O
𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑒 𝜙 =  Horizontal
𝑛 M
σ 𝜙𝑖 ℎ𝑖
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑒 𝜙 =
σ ℎ𝑖
σ 𝜙𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑒 𝜙 =
σ 𝐴𝑖
σ 𝜙𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑖
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑒 𝜙 =
 n = total number of core samples
σ 𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑖
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 Reservoir Rock Properties
Saturation (S)
 Fraction of pore volume occupied by a particular fluid: Based on pore volume not bulk volume

G
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 The saturation ranges from 0 to 100%
S𝑔 =

IIT
𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 Sg + So+ Sw = 1.0

S_
 Critical gas saturation Sgc

C
O
 Gas saturation increases as the reservoir pressure declines- Gas evolved from oil phase

O
 The saturation above which gas begins to move- Critical gas saturation
M
σ 𝜙𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑆𝑔𝑖
 Average saturation S𝑔 =
σ 𝜙𝑖 ℎ𝑖

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 Reservoir Rock Properties

Permeability (k)
 Property of the porous media that measures the capacity and ability of the formation to transmit the fluids.
 Controls the directional movement and the flow of rate of the reservoir fluid in the formation

G
 Henry Darcy (1956) : Darcy’s Law

IIT
 Apparent Fluid flowing velocity, cm/sec

S_
 Laminar Flow 𝑘 𝑑𝑝  Proportionality constant or permeability, darcys
𝑣=−
𝜇 𝑑𝑙  𝜇 = viscosity of the flowing fluid, cp
 No reaction between fluid and rock

C
𝑑𝑝
 Only a single phase present 𝑘 𝐴 𝑑𝑝  𝑑𝑙
= pressure drop per unit length, atm/cm
q= − 𝜇 𝑑𝑙

O
 q = Flow rate through the porous media, cm3/sec

O
 A = Cross sectional area across which flow occrs, cm2
 Absolute permeability (k)
M  1 darcy = 1000 md

 Measured by passing a fluid of known viscosity through a core plug of measured dimension

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 Reservoir Rock Properties
Permeability (k)
 Absolute Permeability
 Permeability at 100% saturation (single phase only)
 It is a property of the rock and is independent of the fluid used in the measurement.

G
 This assumes that the fluid does not interact with the rock

IIT
 Effective Permeability (ki)
 Permeability for one fluid when the media is saturated with more than one fluid

S_
 Itis a function of the fluid saturation & the wetting characteristics of the rock.

C
 Relative Permeability (Kri)

O
 Ratio of effective permeability to absolute permeability

O
 Averaging absolute permeability M σ 𝑘𝑖 ℎ𝑖
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑒 𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
σ ℎ𝑖
𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑒 𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑔
Geometric 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑒 𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑔
 Permeability: Pore geometry, wettability, fluid distribution, saturation history
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 Reservoir Rock Properties

Wettability: :

 Tendency of one fluid to spared on or adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids

G
 The wettability of reservoir rocks to the fluids : The distribution of fluids in porous media

IIT
 Wetting phase tends to occupy the smaller pores and the nonwetting phase occupies more open channels

S_
 The Contact angle : Wettability characteristic of the liquid for the solid

C
O
 Contact angle

O
 Complete wettability : 0°
M
 Complete nonwetting : 180°

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 Reservoir Rock Properties

Surface and Interfacial Tension

 The forces at the interphase when two immiscible fluids are in contact – Force/length

G
 Surface tension

IIT
𝑟ℎ𝑔ρ𝑤
 When the interphase is between liquid and gas σ𝑔𝑤 =

S_
2𝑐𝑜𝑠θ

 Interfacial tension

C
O
𝑟ℎ𝑔(ρ𝑤 − ρ𝑜
 When the interphase is between liquid (oil) and liquid (water) σ𝑜𝑤 =

O
2𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
M

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 Reservoir Rock Properties

Rock Compressibility

 A measure of the pore volume compression of the formation

G
 A reservoir is subjected to an overburden pressure: Depth, Formation, Geological age, etc

IIT
 The pressure in the rock pore space, reservoir pressure: 0.5 psi/ft depth

S_
 The difference between overburden and internal pore pressure: Effective overburden pressure
 During Pressure depletion process, the internal pore volume decreases and, thus the effective overburden increases

C
O
O
 The bulk volume of reservoir rock is reduced
M 1 𝜕𝑉𝑝
 Sand grains within the pore space expand
 Rock compressibility C𝑝 = − ( )
𝑉 𝜕𝑝 𝑇

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 Reservoir Rock Properties

Darcy’s Law

 For Liner flow

G
𝑘 𝐴 𝑑𝑝
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴
q= − q=− (𝑝2 − 𝑝1) q= (𝑝1 − 𝑝2)
𝜇𝐿 𝜇𝐿

IIT
𝜇 𝑑𝑙

S_
C
 For Radial flow : Reservoir to wellbore
𝑘 𝐴 𝑑𝑝
𝑟𝑒
𝑘 𝐴 𝑝𝑒 2𝜋𝑘ℎ
q= 𝑟𝑒 (𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓)

O
q= q න 𝑑𝑟 = න 𝑑𝑝
𝜇 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 𝜇 𝑃 𝜇 ln(𝑟 )

O
𝑤 𝑤𝑓
𝑤
M

 Assuming Reservoir is homogeneous and is complete saturated with a single fluid (liquid)

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 Unit System

Typical Units of reservoir and production engineering calculations

Variables US Field Unit SI Unit Conversion

G
Area Acre m2 4.04 × 103

IIT
Compressibility psi-1 Pa-1 1.45 × 10−4

S_
Length ft m 3.05 × 10−1
Permeability md m2 9.9 × 10−16

C
O
Pressure psi Pa 6.9 × 103

O
Rate (Oil) Stb/D m3/s 1.84 × 10−6
Rate (Gas)
M Mscf/D m3/s 3.28 × 10−4
Viscosity cp Pa-s 1 × 10−3

Earlougher, 1977
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Natural gas production

G
IIT
S_
C
Reservoir Fluid Flow:

O
O
 Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir- Gas
M  Types of fluids in the reservoir - Compressible
 Flow regimes- Transient/pseduosteady state
 Reservoir Geometry- Radial

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