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Natural Ventilation ^ 1

Natural ventilation is an economic means of providing air changes in

a building. It uses components integral with construction such as air
bricks and louvres, or openable windows. The sources for natural
ventilation are wind effect/pressure and stack effect/pressure.

Stack effect is an application of convected air currents. Cool air is

encouraged to enter a building at low level. Here it is warmed by
the occupancy, lighting, machinery and/or purposely located heat
emitters. A column of warm air rises within the building to discharge
through vents at high level, as shown on the following page. This
can be very effective in tall office-type buildings and shopping malls,
but has limited effect during the summer months due to warm
external temperatures. A temperature differential of at least 10 K is
needed to effect movement of air, therefore a supplementary system
of mechanical air movement should be considered for use during the
warmer seasons.
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Manometer or U Gauge

When used with a flexible tube, hand bellows and control cock, this
equipment is suitable for measuring gas installation pressure and
testing for leakage. It is also suitable for air testing drains and
discharge stacks.

The glass tube is contained in a protective metal or wooden box. It

is mounted against a scale graduated in millibars or millimetres.
1 mbar is the pressure exerted by a 9 „ 81 mm (10 mm is close enough)
head of water. Water is levelled in the tube to zero on the scale.
Care must be taken to note the scale calibration. Some manometers
are half scale, which means the measures are in mbar or mm but
they are double this to give a direct reading. Others are indirect, as
shown. With these, the water displacements either side of the zero
must be added.
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Construction Site Electricity ^ 2

Equipment:

Incoming site assembly (ISA) † provided by the local electricity supply

company. It contains their switchgear, overload protection,
transformers and meters for a 400 volt, three-phase supply at 300,
200 and 100 amps.

Main distribution assembly (MDA) † contains three-phase and single-

phase distribution boards, overload protection and lockable
switchgear. May be combined with the ISA to become an ISDA.

Transformer assembly (TA) † supplied from the MDA to transform

voltage down to 110 V, 50 V and possibly 25 V for use in very
damp situations.

Earth monitor unit (EMU) † used where mobile plant requires flexible
cables at mains voltage. A very low-voltage current is conducted
between plant and EMU and earth conductor, so that if this is
interrupted by a fault a monitoring unit disconnects the supply.

Socket outlet assembly (SOA) † a 110 volt supply source at 32 amps

with switchgear and miniature circuit breakers for up to eight 16 amp
double pole sockets to portable tools.

Cable colour codes and corresponding operating voltage:

Colour Voltage

Violet 25

White 50

Yellow 110

Blue 230

Red 400

Black 500/650

Refs: BS 4363: Specification for distribution assemblies for reduced

low voltage electricity supplies for construction and building
sites.
BS 7375: Code of practice for distribution of electricity on
construction and building sites.
BS EN 60439-4: Specification for low-voltage switchgear and
control assemblies. Particular requirements for assemblies for
construction sites.
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Light and Light Sources ^ 1

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. It is similar in nature

and behaviour to radio waves at one end of the frequency spectrum
and X-rays at the other. Light is reflected from a polished (specular)
surface at the same angle that strikes it. A matt surface reflects in
a number of directions and a semi-matt surface responds somewhere
between a polished and a matt surface.

Illumination produced from a light source perpendicular to the

surface:

E ¼ I
d2

E ¼ illumination on surface (Iux)

I ¼ Illumination intensity from source (cd)

d ¼ distance from light source to surface (m).

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Light and Light Sources ^ 2

Definitions and units of measurement:

. Luminous intensity † candela (cd), a measurement of the

magnitude of luminance or light reflected from a surface, i.e.
cd/m2 .
. Luminous flux † lumen (lm), a measurement of the visible light
energy emitted.
. Illuminance † Lumens per square metre (lm/m2 ) or lux (lx), a
measure of the light falling on a surface.
. Efficacy † efficiency of lamps in lumens per watt (lm/W).
Luminous efficacy ¼ Luminous flux output  Electrical power input.
. Glare index † a numerical comparison ranging from about 10 for
shaded light to about 30 for an exposed lamp. Calculated by
considering the light source size, location, luminances and effect
of its surroundings.

Examples of illumination levels and limiting glare indices for different

activities:

Activity/location Illuminance (lux) Limiting glare index

Assembly work: (general) 250 25

(fine) 1000 22

Computer room 300 16

House 50 to 300* n/a

Laboratory 500 16

Lecture/classroom 300 16

Offices: (general) 500 19

(drawing) 750 16

Public house bar 150 22

Shops/supermarkets 500 22

Restaurant 1 00 22

* Varies from 50 in bedrooms to 300 in kitchen and study.

The Building Regulations, Approved Document L2 requires that non-

domestic buildings have reasonably efficient lighting systems and
make use of daylight where appropriate.
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Electric Lamps ^ 1

Filament lamps † the tungsten iodine lamp is used for floodlighting.

Evaporation from the filament is controlled by the presence of iodine
vapour. The gas-filled, general-purpose filament lamp has a fine
tungsten wire sealed within a glass bulb. The wire is heated to
incandescence (white heat) by the passage of an electric current.

Discharge lamps † these do not have a filament, but produce light

by excitation of a gas. When voltage is applied to the two
electrodes, ionisation occurs until a critical value is reached when
current flows between them. As the temperature rises, the mercury
vaporises and electrical discharge between the main electrodes
causes light to be emitted.

Fluorescent tube † this is a low pressure variation of the mercury

discharge lamp. Energised mercury atoms emit ultra-violet radiation
and a blue/green light. The tube is coated internally with a
fluorescent powder which absorbs the ultra-violet light and re-
radiates it as visible light.
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Electric Lamps ^ 2

Fluorescent strip lamps have many applications. The fittings and

reflectors shown are appropriate for use in industrial locations, with
a variation which creates an illuminated ceiling more suited to shops
and offices. A false ceiling of thermaluscent panels provides well-
diffused illumination without glare and contributes to the insulation
of the ceiling. Other services should not be installed in the void as
they will cast shadows on to the ceiling. Tubes are mounted on
batten fittings and the inside of the void should be painted white to
maximise effect.

High pressure sodium discharge lamps produce a consistent golden

white light in which it is possible to distinguish colours. They are
suitable for floodlighting, commercial and industrial lighting and
illumination of highways. The low pressure variant produces light
that is virtually monochromatic. The colour rendering is poor when
compared to the high pressure lamp. Sodium vapour pressure for high
and low pressure lamps is 0 „ 5 Pa and 33 kPa, and typical efficacy is
125 and 180 lm/W respectively.
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Luminaires and Polar Curves

Luminaire † a word to describe the complete lighting unit including

the lamp. When selecting a lamp type, it is important to select a
luminaire to complement the lamp both functionally and aesthetically.
A luminaire has several functions: it defines the lamp position,
protects the lamp and may contain the lamp control mechanism. In
the interests of safety it must be well insulated, in some
circumstances resistant to moisture, have adequate appearance for
purpose and be durable.

Polar curve † shows the directional qualities of light from a lamp

and luminaire by graphical representation, as shown in outline on the
previous page. A detailed plot can be produced on polar co-
ordinated paper from data obtained by photometer readings at
various angles from the lamp. The co-ordinates are joined to
produce a curve.

Typical representation:
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Compact Fluorescent Lamps

Compact fluorescent lamps are a smaller variation and development

of the standard fluorescent tube fitting. They are manufactured with
conventional bayonet or screw fittings. Unit cost is higher than
tungsten filament bulbs but will last over 8000 hours, consuming
only about 25% of the energy of a conventional bulb. Tungsten
filament bulbs have a life expectancy of about 1000 hours.

The comfort type produces gentle diffused light and is suitable where
continuous illumination is required. The prismatic types are more
robust and are suitable for application to workshops and commercial
premises. Electronic types are the most efficient, consuming only
20% of the energy that would be used in a tungsten filament bulb.
Compact fluorescent lamps are not appropriate for use with dimmer
switches.

The Buildings Regulations, Approved Document L, lists compact

fluorescent lamps as an acceptable means for lighting non-domestic
buildings.

Energy Saving Chart

Energy Ordinary Energy Over 8000 hours

saver light bulb saving save up to

25 W 100 W 80% 47 „ 70

18 W 75 W 73% 36 „ 25

11 W 60 W 80% 31 „ 16

9 W 40 W 72% 19 „ 72

Domestic energy costed at 7 „ 95p/kWh

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Lumen Method of Lighting Design

The lumen method of lighting design is used to determine a lighting

layout that will provide a design maintained illuminance. It is valid if
the luminaires are mounted above the working plane in a regular
pattern. The method uses the formula: N = (E \ A)  (F \ U \ M):

N ¼ number of lamps

E ¼ average illuminance on the working plane (lux)

A ¼ area of the working plane (m2 )

F ¼ flux from one lamp (lumens)

U ¼ utilisation factor

M ¼ maintenance factor.

The utilisation factor (U) is the ratio of the lumens received on the
working plane to the total flux output of lamps in the scheme. The
maintenance factor (M) is a ratio which takes into account the light
lost due to an average expectation of dirtiness of light fittings and
surfaces.

Spacing-to-height ratio (SHR) is the centre-to-centre (S) distance

between adjacent luminaires to their mounting height (H) above the
working plane. Manufacturers‡ catalogues can be consulted to
determine maximum SHRs, e.g. a luminaire with trough reflector is
about 1 „ 65 and an enclosed diffuser about 1 „ 4.
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Permanent Supplementary Lighting of Interiors

Illumination of building interiors is a very important factor for

designers. This will relate to user convenience and visual impact of
the building. Overall considerations fall into three categories:

A † daylighting alone, in which the window area occupies about 80%

of the façades
B † permanent supplementary artificial lighting of interiors, in which
the window area is about 20% of the façades
C † permanent artificial lighting of interiors in which there are no
windows.

Occupants of buildings usually prefer a view to the outside.

Therefore the choice of lighting for most buildings is from type A or
B. With type B the building may be wider, because artificial lighting is
used to supplement daylighting. Although the volume is the same as
type A the building perimeter is less, thus saving in wall
construction. Type B building also has lower heat gains and energy
losses through the glazing, less noise from outside and less
maintenance of windows.

Ref: BS ISO 8995: Lighting of indoor work places.

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Daylighting ^ 1

The daylight received inside a building can be expressed as `the ratio

of the illumination at the working point indoors, to the total light
available simultaneously outdoors'. This can also be expressed as a
percentage and it is known as the `daylight factor'.

The daylight factor includes light from:

. Sky component † light received directly from the sky; excluding

direct sunlight.
. External reflected component † light received from exterior
reflecting surfaces.
. Internal reflected component † light received from internal
reflecting surfaces.

If equal daylight factor contours are drawn for a room, they will
indicate how daylighting falls as distance increases from a window.

Refs: BRE Digests 309 and 310: Estimating daylight in buildings.

BS 8206-2: Lighting for buildings. Code of practice for
daylighting.
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Daylighting ^ 2

The effect of daylight in a room can be studied by using scaled

models. Providing that textures and colours of a room surface are
the same, an approximate result may be obtained.

An estimate of the effect of daylight in a room may also be made

from daylight factor protractors and associated tables of data.
These were developed by the Building Research Establishment for use
with scaled drawings to determine the sky component from a sky of
uniform luminance.

There are pairs of protractors to suit different window types.

Protractor No. 1 is placed on the cross-section as shown. Readings
are taken where the sight lines intersect the protractor scale.

In the diagram, the sky component ¼ 8 „ 5
4 ¼ 4 „ 5% and an altitude

angle of 30ƒ. The sky component of 4 „ 5% must be corrected by
using protractor No. 2. This is placed on the plan as shown.
Readings from protractor No. 2 are 0 „ 25 and 0 „ 1, giving a total
correction factor of 0 „ 35. Therefore 4 „ 5 \ 0 „ 35 ¼ 1 „ 6%.

Note: Daylight protractors number 1 to 10. They are available with a

guide from the Building Research Establishment, ref. Publication code
AP80