Research Methodology and Statistics
Research Methodology and Statistics
Research Methodology and Statistics
Research process contains a series of closely related activities which has to carry out by a researcher.
Research process requires patients. There is no measure that shows your research is the best. It is an
art rather than a science. Following are the main steps in social or business research process.
Making Hypothesis
The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on the researcher experience. The
hypothesis is to draw the positive & negative cause and effect aspects of a problem. Hypothesis
narrows down the area of a research and keep a researcher on the right path.
Sampling
The researcher must design a sample. It is a plan for taking its respondents from a specific areas or
universe. The sample may be of two types:
1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-probability Sampling
Data collection
Data collection is the most important work, is researcher. The collection of information must be
containing on facts which is from the following two types of researcher.
Hypothesis Testing
Research data is then forwarded to test the hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to the facts or
not? To find the answer the process of testing hypothesis is undertaken which may result in accepting
or rejecting the hypothesis.
Preparation of Report
A researcher should prepare a report for which he has done is his work. He must keep in his mind the
following points:
Research Problem
1 .Ex: Does negative news interest people more than positive news?
Narrow it down by rethinking over the problem. (Consider feasibility of problem)
2.Ex: Does negative news such as robbery, corruption interest people more than positive news like
country economic growth?
How to define in general way?
Study the related subject thoroughly
Do preliminary survey or pilot survey
Survey all the research which are already undertaken in related problem. It helps to :
Formulation of a Problem
Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic into a
scientifically researchable question.
It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the:
1. WHO
2. WHAT
3. WHERE
4. WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation
A problem well defined is a problem half solved
Ill defined problem may create hurdles like:
1. What data are to be collected?
2. What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?
3. What relations are to be explored?
4. What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
WHY IS A GOOD PROBLEM FORMULATION IMPORTANT?
1. Formulating a Problem formulation is the first and most important step of a research process.
2. The problem formulation is like an identification of a destination before undertaking a
journey.
3. The research problem serves as a foundation of a research study; like a building and its
foundation.
4. If it is well formulated, you can expect a good study to follow.
Steps in problem formulation
1. Developing Title
2. Building a conceptual model
3. Defining the Objective of the study
4. Setting investigative Questions
5. Formulation of Hypotheses
6. Operational definition of Concepts
7. Delimiting the scope of the Study.
Types of Hypothesis
First, we must take a moment to define independent and dependent variables. Simply put, an independent
variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the effect. The independent variable can be changed whereas
the dependent variable is what you're watching for change. For example: How does the amount of makeup one
applies affect how clear their skin is? Here, the independent variable is the makeup and the dependent variable is
the skin.
The six most common forms of hypotheses are:
Simple Hypothesis
Complex Hypothesis
Empirical Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "HO")
Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "H1")
Logical Hypothesis
Statistical Hypothesis
simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables: the independent variable and the
dependent variable.
Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity.
complex hypothesis examines the relationship between two or more independent variables and two or more
dependent variables.
Overweight adults who 1) value longevity and 2) seek happiness are more likely than other adults to 1) lose their
excess weight and 2) feel a more regular sense of joy.
null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no relationship between the two variables, or
there is a lack of information to state a scientific hypothesis. This is something to attempt to disprove or
discredit.
There is no significant change in my health during the times when I drink green tea only or root beer only.
This is where the alternative hypothesis (H1) enters the scene. In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis,
researchers will seek to discover an alternative hypothesis.
My health improves during the times when I drink green tea only, as opposed to root beer only.
Logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence. Generally, you want to turn a logical
hypothesis into an empirical hypothesis, putting your theories or postulations to the test.
Cacti experience more successful growth rates than tulips on Mars. (Until we're able to test plant growth in
Mars' ground for an extended period of time, the evidence for this claim will be limited and the hypothesis
will only remain logical.)
empirical hypothesis, or working hypothesis, comes to life when a theory is being put to the test, using
observation and experiment. It's no longer just an idea or notion. It's actually going through some trial and error,
and perhaps changing around those independent variables.
Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than roses watered with liquid Vitamin E. (Here, trial and
error is leading to a series of findings.)
Simplicity
A hypothesis should be so dabble to every layman, P.V young says, “A hypothesis wo0uld be simple,
if a researcher has more in sight towards the problem”. W-ocean stated that, “A hypothesis should be
as sharp as razor’s blade”. So, a good hypothesis must be simple and have no complexity.
Clarity
A hypothesis must be conceptually clear. It should be clear from ambiguous information’s. The
terminology used in it must be clear and acceptable to everyone.
Testability
A good hypothesis should be tested empirically. It should be stated and formulated after verification
and deep observation. Thus testability is the primary feature of a good hypothesis.
Relevant to Problem
If a hypothesis is relevant to a particular problem, it would be considered as good one. A hypothesis is
guidance for the identification and solution of the problem, so it must be accordance to the problem.
Specific
It should be formulated for a particular and specific problem. It should not include generalization. If
generalization exists, then a hypothesis cannot reach to the correct conclusions.
The sketch of how research should be conducted can be prepared using research design. Hence,
the market research study will be carried out on the basis of research design.
The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not
vice-versa. Variables, designated tools to gather information, how will the tools be used to collect and
analyze data and other factors are decided in research design on the basis of a research technique is
decided.
An impactful research design usually creates minimum bias in data and increases trust on the collected
and analyzed research information. Research design which produces the least margin of error in
experimental research can be touted as the best. The essential elements of research design are:
Case study
Meaning:
The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete
observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even the entire
community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the full
analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. The case study deals with the
processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, case study is essentially an intensive investigation of
the particular unit under consideration. The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that account
for the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.
Evolution and scope: The case study method is a widely used systematic field research technique in sociology
these days. The credit for introducing this method to the field of social investigation goes to Frederic Le Play
who used it as a hand-maiden to statistics in his studies of family budgets. Herbert Spencer was the first to use
case material in his comparative study of different cultures. Dr. William Healy resorted to this method in his
study of juvenile delinquency, and considered it as a better method over and above the mere use of statistical
data. Similarly, anthropologists, historians, novelists and dramatists have used this method concerning problems
pertaining to their areas of interests. Even management experts use case study methods for getting clues to
several management problems. In brief, case study method is being used in several disciplines. Not only this, its
use is increasing day by day.
Assumptions: The case study method is based on several assumptions. The important assumptions may be listed
as follows:
1. The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature in spite of the fact that human
behaviour may vary according to situations.
2. The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.
3. The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.
Major phases involved: Major phases involved in case study are as follows:
1. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be investigated or the unit of attention.
2. Collection of data, examination and history of the given phenomenon.
3. Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental treatment.
4. Application of remedial measures i.e., treatment and therapy (this phase is often characterized as case work).
5. Follow-up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment applied.
Advantages:
There are several advantages of the case study method that follow from the various characteristics outlined
above. Mention may be made here of the important advantages.
1. Being an exhaustive study of a social unit, the case study method enables us to understand fully the
behaviour pattern of the concerned unit. In the words of Charles Horton Cooley, “case study deepens our
perception and gives us a clearer insight into life…. It gets at behaviour directly and not by an indirect and
abstract approach.”
2. Through case study a researcher can obtain a real and enlightened record of personal experiences which
would reveal man’s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that drive him to action along with the forces
that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behaviour.
3. This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social unit and its relationship with
the social factors and the forces involved in its surrounding environment.
4. It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in testing them. Case
studies, thus, enable the generalised knowledge to get richer and richer.
5. The method facilitates intensive study of social units which is generally not possible if we use either the
observation method or the method of collecting information through schedules. This is the reason why case
study method is being frequently used, particularly in social researches.
6. Information collected under the case study method helps a lot to the researcher in the task of constructing the
appropriate questionnaire or schedule for the said task requires thorough knowledge of the concerning
universe.
7. The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the case study method depending
upon the prevalent circumstances. In other words, the use of different methods such as depth interviews,
questionnaires, documents, study reports of individuals, letters, and the like is possible under case study
method.
8. Case study method has proved beneficial in determining the nature of units to be studied along with the
nature of the universe. This is the reason why at times the case study method is alternatively known as “mode
of organising data”.
9. This method is a means to well understand the past of a social unit because of its emphasis of historical
analysis. Besides, it is also a technique to suggest measures for improvement in the context of the present
environment of the concerned social units.
10. Case studies constitute the perfect type of sociological material as they represent a real record of personal
experiences which very often escape the attention of most of the skilled researchers using other techniques.
11. Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his analysing ability
and skill.
12. This method makes possible the study of social changes. On account of the minute study of the different
facets of a social unit, the researcher can well understand the social change then and now. This also facilitates
the drawing of inferences and helps in maintaining the continuity of the research process. In fact, it may be
considered the gateway to and at the same time the final destination of abstract knowledge.
13. Case study techniques are indispensable for therapeutic and administrative purposes. They are also of
immense value in taking decisions regarding several management problems. Case data are quite useful for
diagnosis, therapy and other practical case problems.
Limitations: Important limitations of the case study method may as well be highlighted.
1. Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in case studies is often not
comparable. Since the subject under case study tells history in his own words, logical concepts and units of
scientific classification have to be read into it or out of it by the investigator.
2. Read Bain does not consider the case data as significant scientific data since they do not provide knowledge
of the “impersonal, universal, non-ethical, non-practical, repetitive aspects of phenomena.” Real information
is often not collected because the subjectivity of the researcher does enter in the collection of information in a
case study.
3. The danger of false generalisation is always there in view of the fact that no set rules are followed in
collection of the information and only few units are studied.
4. It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure. More time is needed under case study method since
one studies the natural history cycles of social units and that too minutely.
5. The case data are often vitiated because the subject, according to Read Bain, may write what he thinks the
investigator wants; and the greater the rapport, the more subjective the whole process is.
6. Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at times, and as such the
usefulness of case data is always subject to doubt.
7. Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to use it in case of a big society.
Sampling is also not possible under a case study method.
8. Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study method. He often thinks that he has
full knowledge of the unit and can himself answer about it. In case the same is not true, then consequences
follow. In fact, this is more the fault of the researcher rather than that of the case method.