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Chinese culture
Chinese culture (simplified Chinese: 中华⽂
化 ; traditional Chinese: 中 華 ⽂ 化 ; pinyin:
Zhōnghuá wénhuà) is one of the world's
oldest cultures, originating thousands of years
ago.[1][2] The area over which the culture
prevails covers a large geographical region in
East Asia and is extremely diverse and
varying, with customs and traditions varying
greatly between provinces, cities, and even
towns as well.
Porcelain is so Qinghuaci (blue and white pottery), the
identified with China most famous type of porcelain during
Chinese civilization is historically considered
that it is called "china" the Qing dynasty. In the early modern
the dominant culture of East Asia.[3] With in everyday English period, it was also an important
China being one of the earliest ancient usage. merchandise of China's international
civilizations, Chinese culture exerts profound trade.
influence on the philosophy, virtue, etiquette,
and traditions of Asia to date.[4] Chinese
language, ceramics, architecture, music, dance,
literature, martial arts, cuisine, visual arts, philosophy,
business etiquette, religion, politics, and history have
global influence, while its traditions and festivals are
also celebrated, instilled, and practiced by people
around the world.[5][6][7]

Contents
Identity
Regional
Social structure
Spiritual values Chinese ink wash painting Snow Plums and Twin
Religion called Eagles by Lin Liang Cranes by Bian
Philosophy and legalism (1416–1480). Located at Jingzhao(1355–1428).
Hundred Schools of Thought the National Palace Located at the Guangdong
Language Museum. Museum.

Calligraphy
Literature
Poetry in Tang dynasty
Ci in Song dynasty
Qu in Yuan dynasty
The novels in Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty
Fashion and clothing
Pre-Qing
Qipao
Arts
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Chinese lantern
Chinese hand fan
Carved lacquer
Folding screen
Chinese jade
Mythological beings in Chinese culture
Loong
Fenghuang
Qilin
Xuanwu
Music, instruments and dancing
Architecture
Chinese palace
Paifang
Chinese garden
Martial arts
Leisure
Cuisine
Tea culture
Food culture
Major subcultures
North
South
Gallery
See also
Notes
References
External links

Identity
From the Qin dynasty to the late Qing dynasty (221 BC – AD 1840), the Chinese government divided Chinese people
into four classes: landlord, peasant, craftsmen, and merchant. Landlords and peasants constituted the two major
classes, while merchant and craftsmen were collected into the two minor. Theoretically, except for the position of the
Emperor, nothing was hereditary.

China's majority ethnic group, the Han Chinese are an East Asian ethnic group and nation. They constitute
approximately 92% of the population of China, 95% of Taiwan (Han Taiwanese),[8] 76% of Singapore,[9] 23% of
Malaysia, and about 17% of the global population, making them the world's largest ethnic group, numbering over 1.3
billion people.

In modern China, there are 56 officially labelled ethnic groups.[10] Throughout Chinese history, many non-Chinese
ethnic groups have assimilated with the Han Chinese, retained their distinct ethnic identities, or faded away.[11] At the
same time, the Han Chinese majority has maintained distinct linguistic and regional cultural traditions throughout the
ages. The term Zhonghua Minzu (simplified Chinese: 中 华 民 族 ; traditional Chinese: 中 華 民 族 ) has been used to
describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do
with distinguishing the family name.

Regional
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During the 361 years of civil war after the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD),
there was a partial restoration of feudalism when wealthy and powerful
families emerged with large amounts of land and huge numbers of semi-serfs.
They dominated important civilian and military positions of the government,
making the positions available to members of their own families and
clans.[12][13] After the Tang dynasty's yellow emergence, the government
extended the imperial examination system as an attempt to eradicate this
feudalism. Traditional Chinese culture covers large geographical territories, Residence of the Lu Family in
where each region is usually divided into distinct sub-cultures. Each region is Dongyang, built in the Ming
often represented by three ancestral items. For example, Guangdong is period.
represented by chenpi, aged ginger and hay.[14][15] Others include ancient
cities like Lin'an (Hangzhou), which include tea leaf, bamboo shoot trunk, and
hickory nut.[16] Such distinctions give rise to the old Chinese proverb: "⼗⾥不
同⾵, 百⾥不同俗/⼗⾥不同⾵": "praxis vary within ten li, customs vary within
a hundred li". The 31 provincial-level divisions of the People's Republic of
China grouped by its former administrative areas from 1949 to 1980, which
are now known as traditional regions.
Fenghuang County, an ancient
Social structure town that harbors many
architectural remains of Ming
Since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form of Chinese and Qing styles.
monarch has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have
different names for the various positions within society. Conceptually each
imperial or feudal period is similar, with the government and military officials
ranking high in the hierarchy, and the rest of the population under regular
Chinese law.[17] From the late Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) onwards,
traditional Chinese society was organized into a hierarchic system of socio-
economic classes known as the four occupations.
Hongcun, a village in Yi County
in the historical Huizhou region
However, this system did not cover all social groups while the distinctions
of southern Anhui Province.
between all groups became blurred ever since the commercialization of
Chinese culture in the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE). Ancient Chinese
education also has a long history; ever since the Sui dynasty (581–618 CE)
educated candidates prepared for the imperial examinations which drafted
exam graduates into government as scholar-bureaucrats.This led to the
creation of a meritocracy, although success was available only to males who
could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to Xinye, a village noted for its well-
write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who preserved Ming and Qing era
passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as architecture and ancient
jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. A major mythological residential buildings.

structure developed around the topic of the mythology of the imperial exams.
Trades and crafts were usually taught by a shifu. The female historian Ban
Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women in the Han dynasty and outlined the four
virtues women must abide to, while scholars such as Zhu Xi and Cheng Yi
would expand upon this. Chinese marriage and Taoist sexual practices are
some of the rituals and customs found in society.
Flower Theatre, a Qing period
guildhall.
With the rise of European economic and military power beginning in the mid-
19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained
adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to

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combine the strengths of Chinese and European cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one of
experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration
of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.

Spiritual values
Most spirituality are derived from Chinese Buddhism, Taoism and
Confucianism. The subject of which school was the most influential is
always debated as many concepts such as Neo-Confucianism, Buddhism
and many others have come about. Reincarnation and other rebirth concept
is a reminder of the connection between real-life and the after-life. In
Chinese business culture, the concept of guanxi, indicating the primacy of
relations over rules, has been well documented.[18] While many deities are
part of the tradition, some of the most recognized holy figures include Guan
Yin, the Jade Emperor and Buddha.
Hanging Monastery, a temple with
the combination of Taoism, Chinese Buddhism has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas
Buddhism, and Confucianism.
including art, politics, literature, philosophy, medicine, and material
culture.The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into
Chinese and the inclusion of these translations together with works
composed in China into a printed canon had far-reaching implications for
the dissemination of Buddhism throughout China. Chinese Buddhism is
also marked by the interaction between Indian religions, Chinese religion,
and Taoism.

Religion
Chinese religion was originally oriented to worshipping the supreme god
The Fengxian cave (c. 675 AD) of
Shang Di during the Xia and Shang dynasties, with the king and diviners
the Longmen Grottoes,
acting as priests and using oracle bones. The Zhou dynasty oriented it to
commissioned by Wu Zetian.
worshipping the broader concept of heaven. A large part of Chinese culture
is based on the notion that a spiritual world exists. Countless methods of
divination have helped answer questions, even serving as an alternative to
medicine. Folklores have helped fill the gap between things that cannot be
explained. There is often a blurred line between myth, religion and
unexplained phenomenon. Many of the stories have since evolved into
traditional Chinese holidays. Other concepts have extended to the outside
of mythology into spiritual symbols such as Door god and the Imperial
Inside a cave of Longmen Grottoes guardian lions. Along with the belief of the holy, there is also the evil.
Practices such as Taoist exorcism fighting mogwai and jiangshi with
peachwood swords are just some of the concepts passed down from
generations. A few Chinese fortune telling rituals are still in use today after thousands of years of refinement.

Taoism is a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (道,
literally "Way", also romanized as Dao). The Tao is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in
Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists.[19][20]
Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order.[19] Taoist ethics vary depending
on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasize wu wei (effortless action), "naturalness", simplicity,
spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: 慈 "compassion", 儉/俭 "frugality", and 谦 "humility". The roots of Taoism go
back at least to the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the School of Yinyang

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(Naturalists), and was deeply influenced by one of the oldest texts of Chinese culture, the Yijing, which expounds a
philosophical system about how to keep human behavior in accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The
"Legalist" Shen Buhai may also have been a major influence, expounding a realpolitik of wu wei.[20][21][22] The Tao Te
Ching, a compact book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (Chinese: ⽼⼦; pinyin: Lǎozǐ; Wade–Giles: Lao Tzu),
is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi.

Philosophy and legalism

Confucianism, also known as Ruism, was always being the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China's
history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. A number of
more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism.There was often conflict between the
philosophies, e.g. the Song dynasty Neo-Confucians believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of
Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of
New Confucians (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights
are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".[23]

Confucianism is described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of

governing, or simply a way of life.[24] Confucianism developed from what was later called the Hundred Schools of
Thought from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), who considered himself a
retransmitter of the values of the Zhou dynasty golden age of several centuries before.[25] In the Han dynasty (206 BCE
– 220 CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" Huang-Lao, as the official ideology while the emperors
mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism.

Hundred Schools of Thought

The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophies and
schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BC, during
the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period
of ancient China.[26] An era of great cultural and intellectual
expansion in China,[27] it was fraught with chaos and bloody
battles, but it was also known as the Golden Age of Chinese
philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were
developed and discussed freely. This phenomenon has been
called the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought (百家
爭 鳴 / 百 家 争 鸣 ; bǎijiā zhēngmíng; pai-chia cheng-ming;
"hundred schools contend"). The thoughts and ideas
Birth places of notable Chinese philosophers of
discussed and refined during this period have profoundly
the Hundred Schools of Thoughts in the Zhou
influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the dynasty.
present day in China and across East Asia. The intellectual
society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who
were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This
period ended with the rise of the imperial Qin Dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. A traditional source for
this period is the Shiji, or Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian. The autobiographical section of the Shiji, the
"Taishigong Zixu" (太史公⾃序), refers to the schools of thought described below.

Mohism was an ancient Chinese philosophy of logic, rational thought and science developed by the academic scholars
who studied under the ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi (c. 470 BC–c. 391 BC) and embodied in an eponymous book:
the Mozi. Another group is the School of the Military (兵家; Bingjia) that studied warfare and strategy; Sunzi and Sun
Bin were influential leaders. The School of Naturalists was a Warring States era philosophy that synthesized the
concepts of yin-yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.[28] His theory attempted

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to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female,
negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and
earth).

Language
The ancient written standard was Classical Chinese. It was used for
thousands of years, but was mostly used by scholars and intellectuals which
forms the "top" class of the society called "shi da fu ( ⼠ ⼤ 夫 )". It was
difficult but possible for ordinary people to promote to this class by passing
written exams. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by
famous artists became prized possessions. Chinese literature has a long
past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the I Ching or "Book of Changes"
dates to around 1000 BC. A flourishing of philosophy during the Warring
States period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's Analects and
Laozi's Tao Te Ching. (See also: the Chinese classics.) Dynastic histories
were often written, beginning with Sima Qian's seminal Records of the
Grand Historian, which was written from 109 BC to 91 BC.The Tang
dynasty witnessed a poetic flowering, while the Four Great Classical Novels
of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing dynasties.
Printmaking in the form of movable type was developed during the Song
dynasty. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to
comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty
Range of Chinese dialect groups
frequently participated in these discussions as well.
according to the Language Atlas of
China.[29]
Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played
key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some
classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the
displeasure of authorities.At the start of the 20th century, most of the population were still illiterate, and the many
mutually-unintelligible languages spoken (Mandarin, Wu, Yue (Cantonese), Min Nan (Ban-lam-gu), Jin, Xiang, Hakka,
Gan, Hui, Ping etc.) in different regions prevented communication with people from other areas. Nevertheless, the
written language keeps the communication open and passing the official orders and documentations throughout the
entire region of China. Reformers set out to establish a national language, settling on the Beijing-based Mandarin as
the spoken form. After the May 4th Movement, Classical Chinese was quickly replaced by written vernacular Chinese,
modeled after the vocabulary and grammar of the standard spoken language.[30]

Calligraphy
Chinese calligraphy is a form of aesthetically pleasing writing (calligraphy), or, the artistic expression of human
language in a tangible form. There are some general standardizations of the various styles of calligraphy in this
tradition. Chinese calligraphy and ink and wash painting are closely related: they are accomplished using similar tools
and techniques, and have a long history of shared artistry. Distinguishing features of Chinese painting and calligraphy
include an emphasis on motion charged with dynamic life. According to Stanley-Baker, "Calligraphy is sheer life
experienced through energy in motion that is registered as traces on silk or paper, with time and rhythm in shifting
space its main ingredients."[31] Calligraphy has also led to the development of many forms of art in China, including
seal carving, ornate paperweights, and inkstones.

In China, calligraphy is referred to as Shūfǎ (書法/书法), literally: "the way/method/law of writing";[32] Shodō ( 書道 /
书 道) in Japan (literally: "the way/principle of writing"); and Seoye (서예; 書 藝 ) in Korea (literally: "the
skill/criterion[33] of writing"). Chinese calligraphy is normally regarded as one of the "arts" (Chinese 藝術/艺术 pinyin:

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yìshù) in the countries where it

is practised. Chinese calligraphy
focuses not only on methods of
writing but also on cultivating
one's character ( ⼈ 品 )[34] and
taught as a pursuit (－ 書 法 ;
pinyin: shūfǎ, "the rules of
writing Han characters"[35]).
The Four Treasures of the Study -
brush, ink, paper and ink stone in
Chinese calligraphy traditions. Literature Chinese calligraphy written by the

The Zhou dynasty is often

poet Wang Xizhi ( 王羲之 ) of the Jin
dynasty
regarded as the touchstone of Chinese cultural development. Concepts
covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of subjects
including poetry, astrology, astronomy, calendar, constellations and many others. Some of the most important early
texts include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics. Many Chinese concepts such as Yin
and Yang, Qi, Four Pillars of Destiny in relation to heaven and earth were theorized in the pre-imperial periods. By the
end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese culture would embark on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for the common
citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun would be pioneers in modern literature. After the founding of the People's Republic of
China, the study of Chinese modern literature has gradually been increased over time. Modern-era literature has
formed an aspect in the process of forming modern interpretations of nationhood and creation of a sense of national
spirit.

Poetry in Tang dynasty

Tang poetry refers to poetry written in or
around the time of or in the characteristic
style of China's Tang dynasty (June 18, 618 –
June 4, 907, including the 690–705 reign of
Wu Zetian) or follows a certain style, often
considered as the Golden Age of Chinese
poetry. During the Tang dynasty, poetry
continued to be an important part of social A Tang dynasty era copy of the preface to the Lantingji Xu poems
composed at the Orchid Pavilion Gathering, originally attributed to
life at all levels of society. Scholars were
Wang Xizhi (303–361 AD) of the Jin dynasty
required to master poetry for the civil service
exams, but the art was theoretically available
to everyone.[36] This led to a large record of poetry and poets, a partial record of which survives today. Two of the most
famous poets of the period were Li Bai and Du Fu. Tang poetry has had an ongoing influence on world literature and
modern and quasi-modern poetry. The Quantangshi ("Complete Tang Poems") anthology compiled in the early
eighteenth century includes over 48,900 poems written by over 2,200 authors.[37]

The Quantangwen ( 全 唐 ⽂ , "Complete Tang Prose"), despite its name, contains more than 1,500 fu and is another
widely consulted source for Tang poetry.[37] Despite their names, these sources are not comprehensive, and the
manuscripts discovered at Dunhuang in the twentieth century included many shi and some fu, as well as variant
readings of poems that were also included in the later anthologies.[37] There are also collections of individual poets'
work, which generally can be dated earlier than the Qing anthologies, although few earlier than the eleventh
century.[38] Only about a hundred Tang poets have such collected editions extant.[38] Another important source is
anthologies of poetry compiled during the Tang dynasty, although only thirteen such anthologies survive in full or in
part.[39] Many records of poetry, as well as other writings, were lost when the Tang capital of Changan was damaged by
war in the eighth and ninth centuries, so that while more than 50,000 Tang poems survive (more than any earlier

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period in Chinese history), this still likely represents only a small portion of the poetry that was actually produced
during the period.[38] Many seventh-century poets are reported by the 721 imperial library catalog as having left
behind massive volumes of poetry, of which only a tiny portion survives,[38] and there are notable gaps in the poetic
œuvres of even Li Bai and Du Fu, the two most celebrated Tang poets.[38]

Ci in Song dynasty
Ci (辭/辞) are a poetic form, a type of lyric poetry, done in the tradition of Classical Chinese poetry. Ci use a set of
poetic meters derived from a base set of certain patterns, in fixed-rhythm, fixed-tone, and variable line-length formal
types, or model examples: the rhythmic and tonal pattern of the ci are based upon certain, definitive musical song
tunes. They are also known as Changduanju (⾧短句/长短句, "lines of irregular lengths") and Shiyu (詩餘/诗馀, "that
which is beside poetry").Typically the number of characters in each line and the arrangement of tones were determined
by one of around 800 set patterns, each associated with a particular title, called cípái 詞牌/词牌. Originally they were
written to be sung to a tune of that title, with set rhythm, rhyme, and tempo. The Song dynasty was also a period of
great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works such as Su Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao and Shen Kuo's Dream
Pool Essays. There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as Sima Guang's Zizhi
Tongjian of 1084 or the Four Great Books of Song fully compiled and edited by the 11th century.

Notable Confucianists, Taoists and scholars of all classes have made significant contributions to and from documenting
history to authoring saintly concepts that seem hundreds of years ahead of time. Although the oldest surviving textual
examples of surviving ci are from 8th century CE Dunhuang manuscripts,[40] beginning in the poetry of the Liang
dynasty, the ci followed the tradition of the Shi Jing and the yuefu: they were lyrics which developed from anonymous
popular songs into a sophisticated literary genre; although in the case of the ci form some of its fixed-rhythm patterns
have an origin in Central Asia. The form was further developed in the Tang dynasty. Although the contributions of Li
Bo (also known as Li Po, 701 – 762) are fraught with historical doubt, certainly the Tang poet Wen Tingyun (812–870)
was a great master of the ci, writing it in its distinct and mature form.[41] One of the more notable practitioners and
developers of this form was Li Yu of the Southern Tang Dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
However, the ci form of Classical Chinese poetry is especially associated with the poetry of the Song Dynasty, during
which it was indeed a popular poetic form. A revival of the ci poetry form occurred during the end of the Ming dynasty
and the beginning of the Qing dynasty which was characterized by an exploration of the emotions connected with
romantic love together with its valorization, often in a context of a brief poetic story narrative within a ci poem or a
linked group of ci poems in an application of the chuanqi form of short story tales to poetry.[42]

Qu in Yuan dynasty
The Qu form of poetry is a type of Classical Chinese poetry form, consisting of words written in one of a number of
certain, set tone patterns, based upon the tunes of various songs. Thus Qu poems are lyrics with lines of varying longer
and shorter lengths, set according to the certain and specific, fixed patterns of rhyme and tone of conventional musical
pieces upon which they are based and after which these matched variations in lyrics (or individual Qu poems)
generally take their name.[43] The fixed-tone type of verse such as the Qu and the ci together with the shi and fu forms
of poetry comprise the three main forms of Classical Chinese poetry. In Chinese literature, the Qu (Chinese: 曲; pinyin:
qǔ; Wade–Giles: chü) form of poetry from the Yuan dynasty may be called Yuanqu (元曲 P: Yuánqǔ, W: Yüan-chü). Qu
may be derived from Chinese opera, such as the Zaju (雜劇/杂剧), in which case these Qu may be referred to as sanqu
(散曲). The San in Sanqu refers to the detached status of the Qu lyrics of this verse form: in other words, rather than
being embedded as part of an opera performance the lyrics stand separately on their own. Since the Qu became
popular during the late Southern Song dynasty, and reached a special height of popularity in the poetry of the Yuan
dynasty, therefore it is often called Yuanqu (元曲), specifying the type of Qu found in Chinese opera typical of the Yuan
dynasty era. Both Sanqu and Ci are lyrics written to fit a different melodies, but Sanqu differs from Ci in that it is more

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colloquial, and is allowed to contain Chenzi ( 襯 字 / 衬 字 "filler words" which are additional words to make a more
complete meaning). Sanqu can be further divided into Xiaoling (⼩令) and Santao (散套), with the latter containing
more than one melody.

The novels in Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty

The Four Great Classical[44] or Classic Novels of Chinese literature[45][a] are
the four novels commonly regarded by Chinese literary criticism to be the
greatest and most influential of pre-modern Chinese fiction. Dating from
the Ming and Qing dynasties, they are well-known to most Chinese either
directly or through their many adaptations to Chinese opera and other
forms of popular culture. They are among the world's longest and oldest
novels and are considered to be the pinnacle of China's literary
achievement in classic novels, influencing the creation of many stories,
plays, movies, games, and other forms of entertainment across other parts Ming Dynasty wood carving books
of East Asia. in Tian Yi Chamber colllection

Chinese fiction, rooted in narrative classics such as Shishuo Xinyu, Sou

Shen Ji, Wenyuan Yinghua, Da Tang Xiyu Ji, Youyang Zazu, Taiping Guangji, and official histories, developed into
the novel as early as the Song dynasty. The novel as an extended prose narrative which realistically creates a believable
world of its own evolved in China and in Europe from the 14th to 18th centuries, though a little earlier in China.
Chinese audiences were more interested in history and were more historically minded. They appreciated relative
optimism, moral humanism, and relative emphasis on collective behavior and the welfare of the society.[47]

The rise of a money economy and urbanization beginning in the Song era led to a professionalization of entertainment
which was further encouraged by the spread of printing, the rise of literacy, and education. In both China and Western
Europe, the novel gradually became more autobiographical and serious in exploration of social, moral, and
philosophical problems. Chinese fiction of the late Ming dynasty and early Qing dynasty was varied, self-conscious, and
experimental. In China, however, there was no counterpart to the 19th-century European explosion of novels. The
novels of the Ming and early Qing dynasties represented a pinnacle of classic Chinese fiction.[48] The scholar and
literary critic Andrew H. Plaks argues that Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, and
The Golden Lotus collectively constituted a technical breakthrough reflecting new cultural values and intellectual
concerns. Their educated editors, authors, and commentators used the narrative conventions developed from earlier
story-tellers, such as the episodic structure, interspersed songs and folk sayings, or speaking directly to the reader, but
they fashioned self-consciously ironic narratives whose seeming familiarity camouflaged a Neo-Confucian moral
critique of late Ming decadence. Plaks explores the textual history of the novels (all published after their author's
deaths, usually anonymously) and how the ironic and satiric devices of these novels paved the way for the great novels
of the 18th century.[49] Plaks further shows these Ming novels share formal characteristics.

Fashion and clothing

China's fashion history covers hundreds of years with some of the most colorful and diverse arrangements. Different
social classes in different eras boast different fashion trends, the color yellow was usually reserved for the emperor
during China's Imperial era.

Pre-Qing
From the beginning of its history, Han clothing (especially in elite circles) was inseparable from silk, supposedly
discovered by the Yellow Emperor's consort, Leizu. The dynasty to follow the Shang, the Western Zhou Dynasty,
established a strict hierarchical society that used clothing as a status meridian, and inevitably, the height of one's rank

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influenced the ornateness of a costume. Such markers included the length

of a skirt, the wideness of a sleeve and the degree of ornamentation. In
addition to these class-oriented developments, Han Chinese clothing
became looser, with the introduction of wide sleeves and jade decorations
hung from the sash which served to keep the yi closed. The yi was
essentially wrapped over, in a style known as jiaoling youren, or wrapping
the right side over before the left, because of the initially greater challenge
to the right-handed wearer (people of Zhongyuan discouraged left-
handedness like many other historical cultures, considering it unnatural,
barbarian, uncivilized, and unfortunate). The Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BC –
1046 BC), developed the rudiments of Chinese clothing; it consisted of a yi,
a narrow-cuffed, knee-length tunic tied with a sash, and a narrow, ankle-
length skirt, called chang, worn with a bixi, a length of fabric that reached
the knees. Vivid primary colors and green were used, due to the degree of
technology at the time.

Tang dynasty mural from Li Xian's

Qipao tomb in Qianling showing Han
nobility clothing of the era.
During the Qing dynasty,
China's last imperial dynasty, a
dramatic shift of clothing occurred, examples of which include the
cheongsam (or qipao in Mandarin). The clothing of the era before the Qing
dynasty is referred to as Hanfu or traditional Han Chinese clothing. Many
symbols such as phoenix have been used for decorative as well as economic
purposes. Among them were the Banners (qí), mostly Manchu, who as a
group were called Banner People ( 旗 ⼈ pinyin: qí rén). Manchu women
typically wore a one-piece dress that retrospectively came to be known as
the qípáo (旗袍, Manchu: sijigiyan or banner gown). The generic term for
both the male and the female forms of Manchu dress, essentially similar
garments, was chángpáo (⾧ 袍/ 长 袍 ). The qipao fitted loosely and hung
straight down the body, or flared slightly in an A-line. Under the dynastic
laws after 1636, all Han Chinese in the banner system were forced to adopt
Qianlong Emperor (A Chinese the Manchu male hairstyle of wearing a queue as did all Manchu men and
Emperor of Qing Dynasty) wore dress in Manchu qipao. However, the order for ordinary non-Banner Han
Manchurian Chinese-clothing – civilians to wear Manchu clothing was lifted and only Han who served as
Qipao.( 旗袍
) officials were required to wear Manchu clothing, with the rest of the civilian
Han population dressing however they wanted. Qipao covered most of the
woman's body, revealing only the head, hands, and the tips of the toes. The
baggy nature of the clothing also served to conceal the figure of the wearer regardless of age. With time, though, the
qipao were tailored to become more form fitting and revealing. The modern version, which is now recognized
popularly in China as the "standard" qipao, was first developed in Shanghai in the 1920s, partly under the influence of
Beijing styles. People eagerly sought a more modernized style of dress and transformed the old qipao to suit their
tastes. Slender and form fitting with a high cut, it had great differences from the traditional qipao. It was high-class
courtesans and celebrities in the city that would make these redesigned tight fitting qipao popular at that time.[50] In
Shanghai it was first known as zansae or "long dress" (⾧衫—Mandarin Chinese: chángshān; Shanghainese: zansae;
Cantonese: chèuhngsāam), and it is this name that survives in English as the "cheongsam". Most Han civilian men
eventually voluntarily adopted Manchu clothing while Han women continued wearing Han clothing. Until 1911, the
changpao was required clothing for Chinese men of a certain class, but Han Chinese women continued to wear loose

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jacket and trousers, with an overskirt for formal occasions. The qipao was a new fashion item for Han Chinese women
when they started wearing it around 1925.The original qipao was wide and loose. As hosiery in turn declined in later
decades, cheongsams nowadays have come to be most commonly worn with bare legs.

Arts
Chinese art is visual art that, whether ancient
or modern, originated in or is practiced in
China or by Chinese artists. The Chinese art in
the Republic of China (Taiwan) and that of
overseas Chinese can also be considered part
of Chinese art where it is based in or draws on
Chinese heritage and Chinese culture. Early
"stone age art" dates back to 10,000 BC,
mostly consisting of simple pottery and
sculptures. After this early period Chinese art,
like Chinese history, is typically classified by Close up on Double Cats in the Garden, by Mao Yi,
the succession of ruling dynasties of Chinese Happiness (Cui Bai). It was 12th century.
emperors, most of which lasted several painted by Cui Bo, active
during the reign of Shenzong.
hundred years.
National Palace Museum
Chinese art has arguably the oldest continuous
tradition in the world, and is marked by an
unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse
and gradual recovery of classical styles. The media that have usually been classified in the West since the Renaissance
as the decorative arts are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large
workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in Chinese ceramics.

Different forms of art have swayed under the influence of great philosophers, teachers, religious figures and even
political figures. Chinese art encompasses all facets of fine art, folk art and performance art. Porcelain pottery was one
of the first forms of art in the Palaeolithic period. Early Chinese music and poetry was influenced by the Book of Songs,
and the Chinese poet and statesman Qu Yuan.

Chinese painting became a highly appreciated art in court circles encompassing a wide variety of Shan shui with
specialized styles such as Ming dynasty painting. Early Chinese music was based on percussion instruments, which
later gave away to stringed and reed instruments. By the Han dynasty papercutting became a new art form after the
invention of paper. Chinese opera would also be introduced and branched regionally in addition to other performance
formats such as variety arts.

Chinese lantern
The Chinese paper lantern (紙燈籠, 纸灯笼) is a lantern made of thin, brightly colored paper.[51] Paper lanterns come
in various shapes and sizes, as well as various methods of construction. In their simplest form, they are simply a paper
bag with a candle placed inside, although more complicated lanterns consist of a collapsible bamboo or metal frame of
hoops covered with tough paper. Sometimes, other lanterns can be made out of colored silk (usually red) or vinyl. Silk
lanterns are also collapsible with a metal expander and are decorated with Chinese characters and/or designs. The
vinyl lanterns are more durable; they can resist rain, sunlight, and wind. Paper lanterns do not last very long, they soon
break, and silk lanterns last longer. The gold paper on them will soon fade away to a pale white, and the red silk will
become a mix between pink and red. Often associated with festivals, paper lanterns are common in China, Japan,
Korea, Taiwan, and similarly in Chinatowns with large communities of Overseas Chinese, where they are often hung
outside of businesses to attract attention. In Japan the traditional styles include bonbori and chōchin and there is a
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special style of lettering called chōchin moji used to write on

them. Airborne paper lanterns are called sky lanterns, and are
often released into the night sky for aesthetic effect at lantern
festivals.

The Chinese sky lantern ( 天 燈 , 天 灯 ), also known as

Kongming lantern, is a small hot air balloon made of paper,
with an opening at the bottom where a small fire is
suspended. In Asia and elsewhere around the world, sky
lanterns have been traditionally made for centuries, to be
launched for play or as part of long-established festivities. The
Red lanterns are hung from the trees during the
name "sky lantern" is a translation of the Chinese name but
Chinese New Year celebrations in Ditan Park
(Temple of Earth) in Beijing. they have also been referred to as sky candles or fire balloons.
The general design is a thin paper shell, which may be from
about 30 cm to a couple of metres across, with an opening at
the bottom. The opening is usually about 10 to 30 cm wide (even for the largest shells), and is surrounded by a stiff
collar that serves to suspend the flame source and to keep it away from the walls. When lit, the flame heats the air
inside the lantern, thus lowering its density and causing the lantern to rise into the air. The sky lantern is only airborne
for as long as the flame stays alight, after which the lantern sinks back to the ground.

Chinese hand fan

The oldest existing Chinese fans are a pair of woven bamboo, wood or paper
side-mounted fans from the 2nd century BCE.[52] The Chinese character for
"fan" (扇) is etymologically derived from a picture of feathers under a roof.
A particular status and gender would be associated with a specific type of
fan. During the Song dynasty, famous artists were often commissioned to
paint fans. The Chinese dancing fan was developed in the 7th century. The
Chinese form of the hand fan was a row of feathers mounted in the end of a
handle. In the later centuries, Chinese poems and four-word idioms were A commercially produced scented
used to decorate the fans by using Chinese calligraphy pens. In ancient wood folding fan, featuring a
drawing of the Great Wall of China.
China, fans came in various shapes and forms (such as in a leaf, oval or a
half-moon shape), and were made in different materials such as silk,
bamboo, feathers, etc.[53]

Carved lacquer
Carved lacquer or Qīdiāo (Chinese: 漆 雕 ) is a distinctive Chinese form of decorated lacquerware. While lacquer has
been used in China for at least 3,000 years,[54] the technique of carving into very thick coatings of it appears to have
been developed in the 12th century CE. It is extremely time-consuming to produce, and has always been a luxury
product, essentially restricted to China,[55] though imitated in Japanese lacquer in somewhat different styles. The
producing process is called Diāoqī (雕漆/彫漆, carving lacquer).Though most surviving examples are from the Ming
and Qing dynasties, the main types of subject matter for the carvings were all begun under the Song dynasty, and the
development of both these and the technique of carving were essentially over by the early Ming. These types were the
abstract guri or Sword-Pommel pattern, figures in a landscape, and birds and plants. To these some designs with
religious symbols, animals, auspicious characters (right) and imperial dragons can be added.[54] The objects made in
the technique are a wide range of small types, but are mostly practical vessels or containers such as boxes, plates and
trays. Some screens and pieces of Chinese furniture were made. Carved lacquer is only rarely combined with painting
in lacquer and other lacquer techniques.[56]

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Later Chinese writers dated the introduction of carved lacquer to the Tang
dynasty (618–906), and many modern writers have pointed to some late
Tang pieces of armour found on the Silk Road by Aurel Stein and now in
the British Museum. These are red and black lacquer on camel hide, but the
lacquer is very thin, "less than one millimeter in thickness", and the effect
very different, with simple abstract shapes on a plain field and almost no
impression of relief.[57] The style of carving into thick lacquer used later is
first seen in the Southern Song (1127–1279), following the development of
techniques for making very thick lacquer.[58] There is some evidence from
literary sources that it had existed in the late Tang.[59] At first the style of
decoration used is known as guri (屈輪/曲仑) from the Japanese word for
Box with the character for "Spring"
春
( ), Qianlong period, Qing Dynasty.
the ring-pommel of a sword, where the same motifs were used in metal, and
is often called the "Sword-Pommel pattern" in English. This style uses a
Nanjing Museum
family of repeated two-branched scrolling shapes cut with a rounded profile
at the surface, but below that a "V" section through layers of lacquer in
different colours (black, red and yellow, and later green), giving a "marbled" effect from the contrasted colours; this
technique is called tìxī (剔犀/剃犀) in Chinese. This style continued to be used up to the Ming dynasty, especially on
small boxes and jars with covers, though after the Song only red was often used, and the motifs were often carved with
wider flat spaces at the bottom level to be exposed.[60]

Folding screen
A folding screen ( 屏 风 ， 屏 ⾵ ) is a type of free-standing furniture. It
consists of several frames or panels, which are often connected by hinges or
by other means. It can be made in a variety of designs and with different
kinds of materials. Folding screens have many practical and decorative
uses. It originated from ancient China, eventually spreading to the rest of
East Asia, Europe, and other parts of the world. Screens date back to China
during the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BCE).[61][62] These were initially
one-panel screens in contrast to folding screens.[63] Folding screens were
invented during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE).[64] Depictions of
Chinese folding screen used at the
those folding screens have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one in
Austrian imperial court, 18th
Zhucheng, Shandong Province.[61] century, the Imperial Furniture
Collection
Folding screens were originally made from wooden panels and painted on
lacquered surfaces, eventually folding screens made from paper or silk
became popular too.[63] Even though folding screens were known to have been used since antiquity, it became rapidly
popular during the Tang dynasty (618–907).[65] During the Tang dynasty, folding screens were considered ideal
ornaments for many painters to display their paintings and calligraphy on.[62][63] Many artists painted on paper or silk
and applied it onto the folding screen.[62] There were two distinct artistic folding screens mentioned in historical
literature of the era. One of it was known as the huaping (simplified Chinese: 画屏; traditional Chinese: 畫屏; literally:
'painted folding screen') and the other was known as the shuping (simplified Chinese: 书屏; traditional Chinese: 書屏;
literally: 'calligraphed folding screen').[63][65] It was not uncommon for people to commission folding screens from
artists, such as from Tang-era painter Cao Ba or Song-era painter Guo Xi.[62] The landscape paintings on folding
screens reached its height during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[61] The lacquer techniques for the Coromandel
screens, which is known as kuǎncǎi (款彩 "incised colors"),[66] emerged during the late Ming dynasty (1368–1644)[67]
and was applied to folding screens to create dark screens incised, painted, and inlaid with art of mother-of-pearl, ivory,
or other materials.

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Chinese jade
Chinese jade ( ⽟ ) refers to the jade mined or carved in China from the
Neolithic onward. It is the primary hardstone of Chinese sculpture.
Although deep and bright green jadeite is better known in Europe, for most
of China's history, jade has come in a variety of colors and white "mutton-
fat" nephrite was the most highly praised and prized. Native sources in
Henan and along the Yangtze were exploited since prehistoric times and
have largely been exhausted; most Chinese jade today is extracted from the
northwestern province of Xinjiang. Jade was prized for its hardness,
durability, musical qualities, and beauty.[68] In particular, its subtle, 璧
A Chinese jade named Bi( ) with a
translucent colors and protective qualities[68] caused it to become dual dragon motif, Warring States
associated with Chinese conceptions of the soul and immortality.[69] The period
most prominent early use was the crafting of the Six Ritual Jades, found
since the 3rd-millennium BC Liangzhu culture: the bi, the cong, the huang,
the hu, the gui, and the zhang.[70] Although these items are so ancient that their original meaning is uncertain, by the
time of the composition of the Rites of Zhou, they were thought to represent the sky, the earth, and the four directions.
By the Han dynasty, the royal family and prominent lords were buried entirely ensheathed in jade burial suits sewn in
gold thread, on the idea that it would preserve the body and the souls attached to it. Jade was also thought to combat
fatigue in the living.[68] The Han also greatly improved prior artistic treatment of jade.[71] These uses gave way after
the Three Kingdoms period to Buddhist practices and new developments in Taoism such as alchemy. Nonetheless, jade
remained part of traditional Chinese medicine and an important artistic medium. Although its use never became
widespread in Japan, jade became important to the art of Korea and Southeast Asia.

Mythological beings in Chinese culture

Loong
Loongs, also known as Chinese Dragon, are
legendary creatures in Chinese mythology,
Chinese folklore, and East Asian culture.
Chinese dragons have many animal-like forms
such as turtles and fish, but are most Relief of a dragon in Fuxi Relief of a fenghuang in Fuxi
commonly depicted as snake-like with four Temple (Tianshui). They are Temple (Tianshui). They are
legs. They traditionally symbolize potent and mythological birds of East Asia mythological birds of East Asia
auspicious powers, particularly control over that reign over all other that reign over all other birds.
animals.
water, rainfall, typhoons, and floods. The
dragon is also a symbol of power, strength,
and good luck for people who are worthy of it. During the days of Imperial China, the Emperor of China usually used
the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power and strength.[72] They are also the symbol and representative for the Son
of Heaven, the Mandate of Heaven, the Celestial Empire and the Chinese Tributary System during the history of China.

Fenghuang
Fenghuang (鳳凰) are mythological birds found in Chinese and East Asian mythology that reign over all other birds.
The males were originally called feng and the females hu a ng but such a distinction of gender is often no longer made
and they are blurred into a single feminine entity so that the bird can be paired with the Chinese dragon, which is
traditionally deemed male. The fenghuang is also called the August Rooster" (simplified Chinese: 鹍 鸡 ; traditional

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Chinese: 鶤雞 or 鵾雞; pinyin: yùnjī or kūnjī; Wade–Giles: yün4-chi1 or k'un1-chi1) since it sometimes takes the place
of the Rooster in the Chinese zodiac. In the Western world, it is commonly called the Chinese phoenix or simply
Phoenix, although mythological similarities with the Western phoenix are superficial.

Qilin
The Qilin ([tɕʰǐ.lǐn]; Chinese: 麒 麟 ), or Kirin in Japanese, is a mythical
hooved chimerical creature known in Chinese culture, said to appear with
the imminent arrival or passing of a sage or illustrious ruler.[73] Qilin is a
specific type of the lin mythological family of one-horned beasts. The
earliest references to the qilin are in the 5th century BC Zuo Zhuan.[74][75]
The qilin made appearances in a variety of subsequent Chinese works of
history and fiction, such as Feng Shen Bang. Emperor Wu of Han
apparently captured a live qilin in 122 BC, although Sima Qian was

Gilin with the head and scaly body skeptical of this.[76]

of a dragon, tail of a lion and cloven
hoofs like a deer. Its body
enveloped in sacred flames. Detail Xuanwu
from Entrance of General Zu Xuanwu (Chinese: ⽞ 武 ) is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese
Dashou Tomb (Ming Tomb).
constellations. Despite its English name, it is usually depicted as a turtle
entwined together with a snake. It is known as Genbu in Japanese and
Hyeonmu in Korean. It represents the north and the winter season.In Japan, it is one of the four guardian spirits that
protect Kyoto and it is said that it protects the city on the north. Represented by the Kenkun Shrine, which is located
on top of Mt Funaoka in Kyoto.The creature's name is identical to that of the important Taoist god Xuanwu, who is
sometimes (as in Journey to the West) portrayed in the company of a turtle and snake.

Music, instruments and dancing

Music and dance were closely associated in the very early periods of China.
The music of China dates back to the dawn of Chinese civilization with
documents and artifacts providing evidence of a well-developed musical
culture as early as the Zhou dynasty (1122 BCE – 256 BCE). The earliest
music of the Zhou dynasty recorded in ancient Chinese texts includes the
ritual music called yayue and each piece may be associated with a dance.
Some of the oldest written music dates back to Confucius's time. The first
major well-documented flowering of Chinese music was exemplified
through the popularization of the qin (plucked instrument with seven
strings) during the Tang Dynasty, although the instrument is known to
have played a major role before the Han Dynasty. Guzheng, a type of Chinese
instrument.
There are many musical instruments that are integral to Chinese culture,
such as the Xun (Ocarina-type instrument that is also integral in Native
American cultures), Guzheng (zither with movable bridges), guqin (bridgeless zither), sheng and xiao (vertical flute),
the erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute), pipa (pear-shaped plucked lute), and many others.

Dance in China is a highly varied art form, consisting of many modern and traditional dance genres. The dances cover
a wide range, from folk dances to performances in opera and ballet, and may be used in public celebrations, rituals and
ceremonies. There are also 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in China, and each ethnic minority group in China
also has its own folk dances. The best known Chinese dances today are the Dragon dance and the Lion Dance.

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Architecture
Chinese architecture is a
style of architecture that has
taken shape through the
ages and influenced the
architecture of East Asia for
many centuries. The
Bian Lian("Face-Changing") structural principles of
Performer Chinese architecture have
remained largely unchanged,
Liaodi Pagoda, The Pagoda of
the main changes being only
Song dynasty Tianing Temple,
the decorative details. Since the Tang dynasty, Chinese architecture has Liao Dynasty
had a major influence on the architectural styles of East Asia such as
Japan and Korea. Chinese architecture, examples for which can be
found from more than 2,000 years ago, is almost as old as Chinese
civilization and has long been an important hallmark of Chinese culture.
There are certain features common to Chinese architecture, regardless
of specific regions, different provinces or use. The most important is
symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur as it applies to
everything from palaces to farmhouses. One notable exception is in the
design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like The Ten Thousand Poyang Yongfu
Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's Copies of the Temple Pagoda,
Huayan Sutra Song dynasty
composition is to create enduring flow, to let the patron wander and
Pagoda,
enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself. Feng shui
commonly known
has played a very important part in structural development. The as the White
Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which has evolved over three Pagoda, Liao
thousand years. It includes both the vast gardens of the Chinese dynasty
emperors and members of the imperial family, built for pleasure and to
impress, and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, poets,
former government officials, soldiers and merchants, made for reflection and escape from the outside world. They
create an idealized miniature landscape, which is meant to express the harmony that should exist between man and
nature.[77] A typical Chinese garden is enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds, rock works, trees and
flowers, and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the garden, connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries.
By moving from structure to structure, visitors can view a series of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll of
landscape paintings.

Chinese palace
The Chinese palace is an imperial complex where the royal court and the civil government resided. Its structures are
considerable and elaborate. The Chinese character gong (宮; meaning "palace") represents two connected rooms (呂)
under a roof (⼧). Originally the character applied to any residence or mansion, but it was used in reference to solely
the imperial residence since the Qin dynasty (3rd century BC). A Chinese palace is composed of many buildings. It has
large areas surrounded by walls and moats. It contains large halls (殿) for ceremonies and official business, as well as
smaller buildings, temples, towers, residences, galleries, courtyards, gardens, and outbuildings. Apart from the main
imperial palace, Chinese dynasties also had several other imperial palaces in the capital city where the empress, crown
prince, or other members of the imperial family dwelled. There also existed palaces outside of the capital city called
"away palaces" (離宮/离宫) where the emperors resided when traveling. Empress dowager Cixi (慈禧太后) built the
Summer Palace or Yiheyuan (頤和園/颐和园 – "The Garden of Nurtured Harmony") near the Old Summer Palace, but
on a much smaller scale than the Old Summer Palace.[78]
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Paifang
Paifang, also known as a Pailou, is a traditional style of Chinese architectural
arch or gateway structure that is related to the Indian Torana from which it
is derived.[79] The word paifang (Chinese: 牌 坊 ; pinyin: páifāng) was
originally a collective term for the top two levels of administrative division
and subdivisions of ancient Chinese cities. The largest division within a city
in ancient China was a fang (坊; fāng), equivalent to a current day precinct.
Each fang was enclosed by walls or fences, and the gates of these enclosures
were shut and guarded every night. Each fang was further divided into
several pai ( 牌 ; pái; 'placard'), which is equivalent to a current day
(unincorporated) community. Each pai, in turn, contained an area including
Corner tower of the Forbidden several hutongs (alleyways). This system of urban administrative division
City, Beijing. It symbols imperial and subdivision reached an elaborate level during the Tang dynasty, and
class in ancient China.
continued in the following dynasties. For example, during the Ming dynasty,
Beijing was divided into a total of 36 fangs. Originally, the word paifang
referred to the gate of a fang and the marker for an entrance of a building complex or a town; but by the Song dynasty,
a paifang had evolved into a purely decorative monument.

Chinese garden
The Chinese garden is a landscape garden cantonese style which has evolved
over the years. It includes both the vast gardens of the Chinese emperors and
members of the imperial family, built for pleasure and to impress, and the
more intimate gardens created by scholars, poets, former government officials,
soldiers and merchants, made for reflection and escape from the outside world.
They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is meant to express the
harmony that should exist between man and nature.[77] A typical Chinese
garden is enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds, rock works, trees
and flowers, and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the garden,
connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries. By moving from structure to
structure, visitors can view a series of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like
a scroll of landscape paintings. The earliest recorded Chinese gardens were
created in the valley of the Yellow River, during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046
BC). These gardens were large enclosed parks where the kings and nobles
hunted game, or where fruit and vegetables were grown. Early inscriptions
from this period, carved on tortoise shells, have three Chinese characters for Jichang Garden in Wuxi (1506–
1521), built during the Ming
garden, you, pu and yuan. You was a royal garden where birds and animals
Dynasty, is an exemplary work of
were kept, while pu was a garden for plants. During the Qin dynasty (221–206 South Chinese style garden.
BC), yuan became the character for all gardens.[80]

The old character for yuan is a small picture of a garden; it is enclosed in a square which can represent a wall, and has
symbols which can represent the plan of a structure, a small square which can represent a pond, and a symbol for a
plantation or a pomegranate tree.[81] According to the Shiji, one of the most famous features of this garden was the
Wine Pool and Meat Forest (酒池⾁林). A large pool, big enough for several small boats, was constructed on the palace
grounds, with inner linings of polished oval shaped stones from the sea shores. The pool was then filled with wine. A
small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had skewers of roasted meat
hanging from their branches. King Zhou and his friends and concubines drifted in their boats, drinking the wine with
their hands and eating the roasted meat from the trees. Later Chinese philosophers and historians cited this garden as
an example of decadence and bad taste.[82]:11 During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), in 535 BC, the

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Terrace of Shanghua, with lavishly decorated palaces, was built by King

Jing of the Zhou dynasty. In 505 BC, an even more elaborate garden, the
Terrace of Gusu, was begun. It was located on the side of a mountain, and
included a series of terraces connected by galleries, along with a lake where
boats in the form of blue dragons navigated. From the highest terrace, a
view extended as far as Lake Tai, the Great Lake.[82]:12

Martial arts
A Moon gate in a Chinese garden
China is one of the main birth places of Eastern martial arts. Chinese
martial arts, often named under the umbrella terms kung fu and wushu,
are the several hundred fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in China. These fighting styles are often
classified according to common traits, identified as "families" (家; jiā), "sects" (派; pài) or "schools" (门/⾨; mén) of
martial arts. Examples of such traits include Shaolinquan (少林拳) physical exercises involving Five Animals ( 五 形 )
mimicry, or training methods inspired by Old Chinese philosophies, religions and legends. Styles that focus on qi
manipulation are called "internal "(內家拳/内家拳; nèijiāquán), while others that concentrate on improving muscle
and cardiovascular fitness are called "external" (外家拳; wàijiāquán). Geographical association, as in "northern"(北拳;
běiquán) and "southern" (南拳; nánquán), is another popular classification method.

Chinese martial arts are collectively given the name Kung Fu (gong) "achievement" or "merit", and (fu) "man", thus
"human achievement") or (previously and in some modern contexts) Wushu ("martial arts" or "military arts"). China
also includes the home to the well-respected Shaolin Monastery and Wudang Mountains. The first generation of art
started more for the purpose of survival and warfare than art. Over time, some art forms have branched off, while
others have retained a distinct Chinese flavor. Regardless, China has produced some of the most renowned martial
artists including Wong Fei Hung and many others. The arts have also co-existed with a variety of weapons including
the more standard 18 arms. Legendary and controversial moves like Dim Mak are also praised and talked about within
the culture. Martial arts schools also teach the art of lion dance, which has evolved from a pugilistic display of Kung Fu
to an entertaining dance performance.

Leisure
A number of games and pastimes are popular within Chinese culture. The most common game is Mahjong. The same
pieces are used for other styled games such as Shanghai Solitaire. Others include pai gow, pai gow poker and other
bone domino games. Weiqi and xiangqi are also popular. Ethnic games like Chinese yo-yo are also part of the culture
where it is performed during social events. Qigong pronounced (Chi Kung) is the practice of spiritual, physical, and
medical techniques. It is as a form of exercise and although it is commonly used among the elderly, any one of any age
can practice it during their free time. With its combination of physical flexibility and movement, breathing technique,
and constant state of focus and mediation, it has also been a way to cleanse and heal the body and helps get in touch
with your inner-self. Qigong has continuous rhythmic movements that help reduce stress and build stamina as well as
to improve certain functions of the body such as cardiovascular and digestive.

Cuisine
Chinese cuisine is a very important part of Chinese culture, which includes cuisine originating from the diverse regions
of China, as well as from Chinese people in other parts of the world. Because of the Chinese diaspora and historical
power of the country, Chinese cuisine has influenced many other cuisines in Asia, with modifications made to cater to
local palates.The preference for seasoning and cooking techniques of Chinese provinces depend on differences in
historical background and ethnic groups. Geographic features including mountains, rivers, forests and deserts also
have a strong effect on the local available ingredients, considering climate of China varies from tropical in the south to
subarctic in the northeast. Imperial, royal and noble preference also plays a role in the change of Chinese cuisines.

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Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients and cooking

techniques from other cultures are integrated into Chinese cuisines over
time. The most praised "Four Major Cuisines" are Chuan, Lu, Yue and
Huaiyang, representing West, North, South and East China cuisine
correspondingly.[83] Modern "Eight Cuisines" of China[84] are Anhui,
Cantonese, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Sichuan, and Zhejiang
cuisines.[85] Color, smell and taste are the three traditional aspects used to
describe Chinese food,[86] as well as the meaning, appearance and nutrition
Spring rolls are a large variety of
of the food. Cooking should be appraised from ingredients used, cuttings,
filled, rolled appetizers or dim sum
cooking time and seasoning. It is considered inappropriate to use knives on
found in Chinese cuisine. Spring
the dining table. Chopsticks are the main eating utensils for Chinese food, rolls are the main dishes in Chinese
which can be used to cut and pick up food. Spring Festival (Chinese New Year).

Tea culture
The practice of drinking tea has a long history in China, having originated
there. The history of tea in China is long and complex, for the Chinese have
enjoyed tea for millennia. Scholars hailed the brew as a cure for a variety of
ailments; the nobility considered the consumption of good tea as a mark of
their status, and the common people simply enjoyed its flavour. In 2016,
the discovery of the earliest known physical evidence of tea from the
mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han in Xi'an was announced, indicating
that tea from the genus Camellia was drunk by Han dynasty emperors as
early as 2nd century BC.[87] Tea then became a popular drink in the Tang 茶
A traditional Chinese tea culture (
(618–907) and Song (960–1279) Dynasties.[88] 艺，茶藝 ) set and three gaiwan.

Although tea originated in China, during the Tang dynasty, Chinese tea
generally represents tea leaves which have been processed using methods inherited from ancient China. According to
popular legend, tea was discovered by Chinese Emperor Shen Nong in 2737 BCE when a leaf from a nearby shrub fell
into water the emperor was boiling.[89] Tea is deeply woven into the history and culture of China. The beverage is
considered one of the seven necessities of Chinese life, along with firewood, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce and vinegar.[90]
Around 771 BC – 476 BC the Chinese tea is used for medicinal purposes.This period also known as the "Spring and
Autumn Period", it is where Chinese people first enjoyed the juice extracted from the tea leaves that they
chewed.Chinese Tea culture refers to how tea is prepared as well as the occasions when people consume tea in China.
Tea culture in China differs from that in European countries like Britain and other Asian countries like Japan in
preparation, taste, and occasion wherein it is consumed. Even today, tea is consumed regularly, both at casual and
formal occasions. In addition to being a popular beverage, tea is used in traditional Chinese medicine, as well as in
Chinese cuisine. Green tea is one of the main worldwide teas originating in China.

Food culture
Imperial, royal and noble preference also plays a role in the change of Chinese cuisines. Because of imperial expansion
and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures are integrated into Chinese cuisines over time.The
overwhelmingly large variety of Chinese cuisine comes mainly from the practice of dynastic period, when emperors
would host banquets with over 100 dishes per meal.[91] A countless number of imperial kitchen staff and concubines
were involved in the food preparation process. Over time, many dishes became part of the everyday-citizen culture.
Some of the highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant in
Beihai Park Beijing and the Oriole Pavilion.[91] Arguably all branches of Hong Kong eastern style are in some ways
rooted from the original dynastic cuisines.

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Manhan Quanxi, literally Manchu Han Imperial Feast was one of the grandest
meals ever documented in Chinese cuisine. It consisted of at least 108 unique dishes
from the Manchu and Han Chinese culture during the Qing dynasty, and it is only
reserved and intended for the Emperors. The meal was held for three whole days,
across six banquets. The culinary skills consisted of cooking methods from all over
Imperial China.[92] When the Manchus conquered China and founded the Qing
dynasty, the Manchu and Han Chinese peoples struggled for power. The Kangxi
Emperor wanted to resolve the disputes so he held a banquet during his 66th
birthday celebrations. The banquet consisted of Manchu and Han dishes, with
officials from both ethnic groups attending the banquet together. After the Wuchang
Uprising, common people learned about the imperial banquet. The original meal
was served in the Forbidden City in Beijing.[92]

Major subcultures Photo showing serving

chopsticks (gongkuai) on
Chinese culture consists of many subcultures. In China, the cultural difference the far right, personal
chopsticks (putongkuai) in
between adjacent provinces (and, in some cases, adjacent counties within the same
the middle, and a spoon.
province) can often be as big as than that between adjacent European nations.[93] Serving chopsticks are
Thus, the concept of Han Chinese subgroups (漢族民系/汉族民系, literally "Han usually more ornate than
ethnic lineage") was born, used for classifying these subgroups within the greater the personal ones.
Han ethnicity. These subgroups are, as a general rule, classified based on linguistic
differences.

Using this linguistic classification, some of the well-known subcultures within China include:

North
Chinese Muslim culture
Culture of Beijing ( ) 京
Culture of Shandong ( / ) 魯鲁
Culture of Western China
Dongbei culture ( 東北/东北)
Shaanxi culture
晉晋
Jin culture ( / )[94][95][96]
Zhongyuan culture ( ) 豫

South
海
Haipai culture ( )
Hakka culture (客)
Hokkien culture (閩)
Hong Kong culture （港)
Hubei culture (楚)
Huizhou culture (徽)
Hunanese culture (湘)
Jiangxi culture (贛)
Jiangnan culture
Lingnan culture ( / ) 粵粤
Macanese culture
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蜀
Sichuanese culture ( )
Taiwanese culture (台)
Teochew culture (潮)
Wenzhou culture (欧)
Wuyue culture (吳/吴)

Gallery

A traditional red Chinese door Journey to the Xiqu performance 舞狮)

Lion dance (
with Imperial guardian lion West ( ⻄遊記 /
knocker ⻄游记)

Dragon dance ( 舞⻰) Taoism architecture in China

Wooden sculpture
of Guanyin

Que pillar gates of Chongqing that "Nine Dragons" handscroll section, by Chen
once belonged to a temple Rong(1244 CE), Song dynasty. Museum of Fine
dedicated to the Warring States Arts, Boston
period general Ba Manzi

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Koi Pond is a signature scenery

Traditional clothing from the Ming Hair Ornament, China, ca. 19th depicted in Chinese gardens
dynasty century

Oolong tea Ming table in the Victoria

leaves steeping and Albert Museum,
in a gaiwan 1425–1436

See also
Bian Lian
Chinese dragon
Chinese dress
Chinese folklore
Chinese garden
Chinese literature
Chinese name
Chinese sphere of influence
Chinese studies
Color in Chinese culture
Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining
Numbers in Chinese culture
Science and technology in China
Chinese astronomy
Chinese calendar
Chinese mathematics
Chinese medicine
Chinese units of measurement

Notes
a. Also known more simply as the Four Classic Novels.[46]

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本枝 四五⽇外，⾊、⾹、味盡去矣」。）
……
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External links
Aspect of Chinese culture (https://archive.is/20140126152618/http://www.artelittera.com/category.php?id_category
=482), Chang Zonglin. Li Xukui, ISBN 9787302126324, Tsinghua University Press
Exploring Ancient World Cultures – Ancient China (https://web.archive.org/web/20100609225807/http://eawc.evan
sville.edu/chpage.htm), University of Evansville

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