Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
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ENGINEERING DRAWING
AND
AUTOCAD
For
B.Tech/Diploma Students
According to Latest Syllabus of M.D. University (Rohtak), APJAKTU (Lucknow)
B.T.E (New Delhi)
J.M.I (New Delhi), A.M.U (Aligarh), AL-Falah University (Faridabad)
SBTE (Sri Nagar/Jammu)
By
GALGOTIA
Publications Pvt. Ltd.
5, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002
© Copyright by Galgotia Publications Pvt. Ltd.
8. COUPLINGS 417—429
8.1 Introduction 417
8.2 Types of Coupling 417
Exercise 429
PART-IV AUTOCAD
1. COMPUTER-AIDED DRAFTING 499—508
1.1 Introduction to Computer 499
1.2 Computer-Aided Drafting 499
1.3 Elements of a Computer 501
1.4 Hardware 501
1.5 Input Device 502
1.6 Processor Unit 504
1.7 CADd Software 506
1.8 AutoCAD 507
1.9 System Requirements for AutoCAD 2013 508
Geometrical Drawing
1
Chapter
1 Drawing Instruments
and Sheet Layout
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering drawing known as the language of engineers is widely used means of
communication among the designer, engineers, draftsmen and craftmen in the industry.
The translation of ideas into practice without the use of graphic language is really beyond
imagination. The word graphics means dealing with the expression of ideas by drawing
lines or curves on a surface.
Like other languages, drawing is also a language that can be learned and used like
other languages. Basically, engineering drawing is the graphic language of engineers. It
is a graphic representation of thinking, planning and language of every technical person
who uses to communicate his ideas clearly to other engineers.
Before starting manufacturing or construction work, product to be developed or plan of
housing society respectively is firstly drawn on a rough paper. The purpose of this drawing
is to define physical shape completely and accurately of particular object by means of
lines etc., regarding the object.
In the age of automation, engineering drawing has grown keeps and bounds. Without
the fundamental knowledge of technical drawing, a student would not be successful in an
industry. Engineering drawing has plenty of applications, especially in modern industries.
Application: Engineering drawing has plenty of applications for machines, automobiles,
aeronautics, chemical, marine, electronics, computer and in electrical engineering which
gives the correct shape and size along with the dimensional tolerances for understanding
of a particular component.
In civil and architecture, engineering drawing is used to draw the plan and elevation
of buildings, and structure work.
The application of engineering drawing in electrical, electronics, instrumentation
and computer science are many, e.g., to prepare electrical wiring drawing, printed circuit
board drawing, installation drawing, process drawing and pictorial drawing.
1.2 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
Drawing instruments are used to prepare drawings easily and accurately. A neat and
clean drawing is prepared by the help of good quality drawing instruments. The following
are the drawing instruments commonly used in the industry.
3
4 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Screw
ps
Stri
tom
Bot
tens
Bat
g
rkin
Wo e
Edg
available in different sizes in the market. As per IS 1444:1989 the sizes of drawing boards
are given in Table 1.1
1. B0 1500 × 1000 × 25
2. B1 1000 × 700 × 25
3. B2 700 × 500 × 15
4. B3 500 × 350 × 15
5. B4 350 × 250 × 15
A0
For the use in engineering colleges, B2 (700
× 500 × 15) size drawing board is recommended. A1
A5
1. A0 841 × 1189
2. A1 594 × 841
3. A2 420 × 594
4. A3 297 × 420
5. A4 210 × 297
6. A5 148 × 210
For the practice of engineering students, A2 (420 × 594) size drawing sheet is
recommended.
Drawing Board
Mini Drafter
Scale
90°
Parallel
Bar Linkage Head Graduated
Protractor
Drawing Sheet
Care of Instruments
• Zero of adjustable circular disc marking should coincide when its blade are in
horizontal and vertical positions.
• Fixed end should not move with the movement of the blades of mini drafter.
1.2.4 Tee-Square
The tee-square should be made of well seasoned hard wood, such as teak as shown in
Fig. 1.5.
Working edge
Blade
For hanging
on nail
Transparent plastic/wood edge
Head
It consists of two parts, stock and the blade which are joined together at a right angle
to each other by means of screws. The stock is placed along the working edge of the
drawing table, which is always on the left side of a student, and slides on it whenever
required. It is used to draw horizontal lines and parallel lines. The clear length of the
blade should be more than the drawing board length. It is also available in plastic material
in the market.
1.2.5 Set-Squares
Set-squares are used in combination for drawing all straight lines except the horizontal
lines which are usually drawn with T-square as shown in Fig. 1.6.
It is made of transparent sheet of celluloid or plastic material in various sizes. They
are available in the shape of triangle with one right angle corner. The set-square of 45º
triangle and 30º-60º triangle of 200 mm and 250 mm length are available in the market
for ordinary work. Two set-squares used simultaneously along with the tee-square produce
lines for making angles of 15º, 30º, 45º, 60º, 75º, 90º and 105º etc. A circle can be divided
in 6, 8, 12 and 24 parts by using set-squares. Hatching lines are also drawn by set squares.
Drawing Instruments and Sheet Layout 7
30º
45º
Drawing instruments are made of nickel, silver with a silvery lustre on the surface
and are corrosion resistant. The other parts like divider point, ruling pen, nibs and spring
parts are made of hard steel.
rotring
HB
(i)
6H
7H
8H
9H
HB
5H
6B
4B
2B
3H
4H
2H
7B
5B
3B
H
F
{
{
{
Very Soft Medium soft Very Hard
(ii)
Fig. 1.8 Different Grades of Pencils
1. Chisel edge pencil: The chisel edge pencil is used to draw straight lines. It is
used to obtain uniform thickness of line as shown in Fig. 1.9 (i).
2. Conical pointed pencil: The conical pointed pencil is used for general work e.g.:
lettering, dimensioning and drawing circles and arcs. Do not use a pencil less than
75 mm and cut the wood of pencil at the opposite end of grade marking as shown in
Fig. 1.9(ii).
HB
HB
12
25 12
30 to 40
1.4.3 Eraser
A soft colourless and good quality rubber is used for erasing or rubbing unnecessary lines
in the drawing. Frequent use of rubber should be avoided and rubbing should be dusted off
by dusting cloth as shown in Fig. 1.10(i).
Drawing Instruments and Sheet Layout 11
ser
Era
10
11
9
1
1.5
12 2 8
2.5
15
7
3
13
3.5
6
5
14 4
1.4.7 Duster
Duster is used for cleaning of drawing sheet as well as drawing instruments etc. Preferably
it should be a towel cloth or a handkerchief. The eraser crumbs formed after the use of
eraser should be removed with the help of duster.
MINI DRAFTER
B2-700 × 500 × 15
DRAWING BOARD
Cello tape
30 to 45 mm
Drawing Sheet-A2
30 to 45 mm
20 mm
20 mm
Title Block
20 mm
(ii)
Fig. 1.11 Layout of Drawing Sheet
92.5
15
NAME: STARTING DATE:
10
10
CLASS: COMPLETION DATE:
ROLL NO: CHECKED BY
10
SCALE:
10
SHEET NO.
20
TITLE
10
35 65
185
(i)
20 25 10
Name Date
10
Drawn By
7
Name of Institution Class
7
Roll No.
7
65
St. Date
7
Comp. Date
7
Scale
Title of Drawing Drawing No. .......................... 20
Symbol
(Ist or 3rd Angle)
25 105 55
(ii)
Name
Name of Institution
30
Class
Title of Drawing
Roll No.
Symbol
Date Time Taken
10
50 60 50
(iii)
Fig. 1.12 Title Block
16 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
297
1F
6 FOLD
594
5 FOLD
4 FOLD
3 FOLD
2 FOLD
297
TITLE BLOCK
TITLE
2 FOLD
1 FOLD
297
LENGTHWISE FOLDING
4 FOLD
594
297
TITLE BLOCK
CROSSWISE FOLDING
(ii)
Fig. 1.13
EXERCISE
18 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Chapter
2.1 LINES
Different types of lines are used for different purposes in engineering drawing as described
by S.P. 46-1988 which are known as an “ALPHABET OF LINES”. The following types of
lines should be used as given below in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
THICKNESS
GRADE OF
S. No. TYPES OF LINES DESCRIPTION OF LINE IN
PENCIL
MM
5. Cutting plane
0.6 H
line
6. Short break
0.6 H
line
7. Long break
0.4 2H
line
9. Dimension
0.4 2H
line
10. Extension
0.4 2H
line
19
20 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Detailed description and uses of various lines are given in table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Different Types of Lines
Types of Lines and Free Hand Sketching 21
(iii) Keep your eyes on the end point to which the line is to follow and sketch it with
short and very light strokes.
(iv) Finally darken the line in a single stroke of pencil in correct direction as in
Fig. 2.1.
START TRIAL
START MOVEMENT
KEEP EYE
HERE
END
S
IU
AD
R
(ii) (iii)
(i)
eter is called the minor axis. The ellipse is always symmetrical in shape about both of
these axes. Sketch one fourth of the ellipse by drawing arc as shown in Fig. 2.5(i), (ii) and
then complete the ellipse.
c c
a b a b
d d
(i) (ii)
Fig. 2.5 Sketching of Ellipses
100
TOP VIEW
Fig. 2.6 Sketching of Orthographic
26 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
2. Draw the rectangle by faint lines in which the view is to be sketched as in Fig. 2.6.
3. Sketch the centre lines and hidden lines of an object if required by faint or con-
struct lines.
4. Complete all the views of an object and rub the construction lines.
5. Dimensioning the object and add the notes where required and complete the
drawing.
(i) (ii)
(iii)
EXERCISE
1. Describe the various types of lines used in engineering drawing.
2. What do you mean by gradation of lines and gradation of pencils?
3. Define a section line with the help of neat sketches.
4. What do you mean by free hand sketching?
5. What are the uses of free hand sketching?
6. Which type of pencil and paper are required for free hand sketching?
7. Explain the methods of sketching of triangles and rectangles.
8. Explain the different steps taken for making an isometric sketch.
9. What are the important rules of free hand sketching?
28 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Chapter
3.1 LETTERING
Lettering is an important part of engineering drawing which provides the complete
information about size of an object and appearance required. Writing of titles, sub-titles,
dimensions and other relative details on drawing should be lettered with freehand. A good
practice of freehand lettering improves the quality of drawing and is also executed neatly,
uniformly and rapidly. The use of instruments for lettering consumes more time as
compared with freehand lettering. Both the vertical (up-right) and sloping (italic) letters
can be lettered freehand as well as by instruments. Capital letters should be used for all
purpose except where lower case letters are accepted in international usage for
abbreviations. A good practice of lettering is required which may be achieved by continuous
efforts. Normally two types of lettering are commonly used by engineers which are:
1. Single stroke letters
2. Double stroke letters.
But another important type of lettering is the gothic style of lettering which is commonly
used by draftsmen as well as the engineering students for writing title block and other
features. It may be performed with single stroke without lifting the pencil.
29
30 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
1.5 times their height and spacing in between two sentences is twice the height of letters
as shown in Fig. 3.2.
0123456789
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST UVWXYZ
0123456789
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
0123456789 (i)
ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
OPQRSTUVWXYZ
0123456789
(II)
Fig. 3.1
H to 1.5H H to 1.5H
LOVE IS HUMANITY
WORK IS WORSHIP
Fig. 3.2
Lettering and Methods of Dimensioning 31
ABC D E F G H I
4 2 3 4 2 1 3
1
1 3 3 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
1
2 1 1
2 2
3
K LM N O PQ R
3 3
1 1 2
2
4 2
2 2 2 1 2
1 1 1 1
1 1
2 3
2 3
3
3
ST U VW X YZ &
2 1 1
2 2
2
1 2 1 2 1
2 4 2
3 3 1 1 3
2 3
3 3
O I 23 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 3 1
1 4 1 2
2 1 1
1 1
1 2
1
2 3
3 3 2 2 4 3
2
3
2
2
Fig. 3.3
AB CDE F G H I J KLMN
O P QRS T UV WXY Z
0 1 2 3 4 5 67 8 9 Fig. 3.4
32 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
a b c de f g h i j k l mn o p q r s tu v wx y z
a b c de f g h i j k l mn o p q r s tu v wx y z
a b c de f g h i j k l mn o p q r s tu v wx y z
(i)
2 2 2
a a b c d e f g hi j kl m
1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 2
1 3
3 1 3 1 1 1 1
h
I 2 3 2 2 3
or 2 1 2 3
4
no r s t u v wx
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1
z
1 4
3 1 1 2 1 2
1
1 2
I 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 3
2 2 3 2
h 1 2
3
(ii)
Fig. 3.5
For writing the lower case letters, three horizontal lines are drawn and dividing the
desired height in the ratio 2 : 5, keeping the upper division 2 and the lower on 5. The
lower case letters are extensively used in architectural drawing and in map drawing etc.
The standard height for lower lettering and numerals are 3.5, 7, 10 and 20 mm according
to B.I.S.
AB C D E F G H I
4 1 2 4 2 1 2
1 2 1 1 1 1 3 1
1 3 3
3 3
2 2 2
5 3
3 2
NO P Q
2 3 1 2 3
2 1 4 1 2 2
1 2
3 2
2
1 1 2 1 1 4
3 3
S U V WX Y
1 1 1
1 2 4 2
2 2 1 2
1
1 2 1 2
3 3 3
2 3 3
O 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 1 3 3 1 1 2 1
1 2 1
1
1 1
2
2 2 3 4
2 2 2
3
Fig. 3.7
Note: M and W in 7:5 ratio.
34 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Leader line
f 15
Extension line
Dimension line
Arrow head
Fig. 3.8
NOT CROSS
L
L = 3W
Fig. 3.9
Fig. 3.10
10
Fig. 3.11
INCORRECT
CORRECT
Fig. 3.12
CORRECT
Fig. 3.13
Fig. 3.14
12. Dimension should be taken from visible outline instead of hidden lines as shown in
Fig. 3.15.
Lettering and Methods of Dimensioning 37
24
9
LEFT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW
Fig. 3.15
13. Avoid the crossing of dimension lines with extension lines as shown in Fig. 3.16.
EXTENSION LINE
DIMENSION LINE
Fig. 3.16
14. Production and inspection methods should not be specified on the drawing unless
they are essential.
(i) (ii)
f 32
32
f
(iii) (iv)
Fig. 3.17 Circles
3.11.2 Arcs
Arcs should be dimensioned by their radius which is shown preferably outside the line of
the object. It is denoted by “R” as shown in Fig. 3.18.
R5
25 R8
R
R8
6
R
3.11.3 Angles
Dimensions of angles and chords are expressed by degrees, on the arc swing from vertex
as shown in Fig. 3.19.
12
0º
30º
(i) (ii)
Fig. 3.19 Angles
Lettering and Methods of Dimensioning 39
90º
2.5
45º
f 15
(iii) (iv)
Fig. 3.19 Angles
3.11.4 Chamfers
Chamfers may be dimensioned by notes as shown in Fig. 3.20.
2 × 45º
f 20
3.11.5 Holes
The methods of dimensioning holes are shown in Fig. 3.21.
f 30 - 3 HOLES
EQUISPACED
3.11.6 Tapers
Dimensioning of tapered objects are shown in Fig. 3.22.
TAPE
R 1:5
f 20
f 50
40 f 50
40
(i) (ii)
f 20
f 50
40
40
(iii) (iv)
f 20
60
20
45
30
45
45
15 10
50 45
(i) (ii)
f 20
20 60
45 45
30 45
15 10
50 45
(i) (ii)
25 25
75
20
65
100
10
30
50
30
20
50
40
80
160
0, 0
1
Y
Table 3.2
3
1 2 3
X 20 20 40
2
Y 20 45 30
f 15 15 20
(i)
25
50
75
100
Fig. 3.29 Progressive Dimensioning
Note: Dimensioning of square, sphere and pitch circle are shown in Fig. 3.30.
SQ 20 SPHERE R 15
(ii)
(i)
PITCH CIRCLE
30º
60
º
º
60
6 HOLES f 12 ON 60 P.C.D
(iii)
(iv)
Fig. 3.30
Lettering and Methods of Dimensioning 45
2.5
12.5
horizontally.
12.5
20 x 3. Dimension ‘40’ is too close.
x
20
40
40 x
Dimensions should be placed outside view
(ii) 30 9 30 x 1. A key-way is shown with a dotted
line where the dimensions are
5
placed.
2. Leader line for the shaft diameter
is drawn horizontally touching
f-25 f 25 x the boundary line.
Dim, should be marked from
visible outlines
20 10 20 10
(iii) 1. Dimensions are given from the
5
R4 f 16 mid-line of the object.
2. Dimensions of holes are shown
f16 x inside the figure.
3. Dimensions are shown in vertical
16
16
line.
8
27 x 6x view.
15 x
Problem 1. Figs. 3.31(i) and (ii) show the pictorial and orthographic views of an object.
Complete the dimension of the given object.
Top
Side Front
ISOMETRIC VIEW
(I)
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 3.31
Lettering and Methods of Dimensioning 47
Top
15
12
36 15
42
12
60
84
Side
Front
(i)
12 12 36 12 12
42
12
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 3.32
48 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 2: Figs. 3.33(i) and (ii) show the isometric view and orthographic view of an
object. Complete the dimensioning of the given object.
Top
Side Front
ISOMETRIC VIEW
(i)
Fig. 3.33
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 3.33
Lettering and Methods of Dimensioning 49
Top
72
f
58
f
48
18
24
30
30
42
12
0
15
Side Front
ISOMETRIC VIEW
(i)
f 72
24
42
12
72
150
8
f5
48
48
30
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 3.34
50 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
EXERCISE
1. State the main requirements of lettering in engineering drawing.
2. Explain the sentence “a good style of lettering improves the drawing”.
3. What are the different styles of letters used in engineering drawing?
4. What are the differences between single stroke letters and double stroke letters?
5. Write free hand, in single stroke vertical capital letters in 3 mm, 5 mm and 8 mm.
6. What are the differences between free hand lettering and instrumental drawing?
7. Explain the rule of spacing between the letters.
8. Explain the necessity of dimensioning.
9. What are the principles of dimensioning?
10. What is leader line? Explain by a suitable sketch the following.
(i) Holes (ii) Angles (iii) Diameter (iv) Radius
11. What is the difference between aligned system and unidirectional system?
12. What do you mean by chain dimensioning and co-ordinate dimensioning?
Chapter
4
Geometrical Construction
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Geometry is the basis of all technical drawings. The knowledge of the principles of geometric
construction and its applications are essential to an engineers. An engineer, must know
how to draw various types of lines which can be a straight line, a circle, an arc of circle, a
circular curve etc. This chapter provides information as well as deals with the drawing of
polygons and noncircular curves like an ellipse, a parabola or a hyperbola.
4.2.2 Point
Point
A point is that which has position but has no magnitude. It is simply
represented by a small dot as shown in Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.2
4.2.3 Line
A line is that which has length but no thickness e.g., the boundary of a surface is a line.
(i) Straight Line: The shortest distance between two points is known as straight
line as shown Fig. 4.3.
(ii) Curved Line: A curved line is that which does not lie in straight direction as
shown in Fig. 4.4.
(iii) Parallel Lines: Parallel lines are those lines, which fall equal distance apart and
never meet to each other, if they are extended in any direction as shown in Fig. 4.5.
A B
A B
C D
Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5
4.2.4 Angle
An angle is formed between two intersecting lines, drawn from the same point as shown
in Fig. 4.6.
(i) Right Angle: A right angle is the inclination between two perpendicular lines or
an angle of 90º as shown in Fig. 4.7.
51
52 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
B
B B
90° 45°
O O A
A O A
(ii) Acute Angle: An angle which is less than 90º is known as an acute angle as
shown in Fig. 4.8.
(iii) Obtuse Angle: An angle which is greater than 90º then B
it is known as obtuse angle as shown in Fig. 4.9.
(iv) Reflex Angle: An angle which is greater than two right
angles then it is known as reflex angle as shown in 120°
Fig. 4.10.
(v) Complementary Angles: If the sum of two adjacent O A
angles is equal to one right angle, they are known as Fig. 4.9
complementary angles as shown in Fig. 4.11.
(vi) Supplementary Angles: If the sum of two adjacent angles is equal to two right
angles, they are known as supplementary angles as shown in Fig. 4.12.
B
C
A B C
60° 120°
60°
30°
O B O A
O A
4.3 POLYGON
A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four sides. If the sides and angles of a
polygon are equal, then it is known as a regular polygon and if they are unequal, then it
is known as an irregular polygon. The sum of external angles of a regular polygon is 360º
360º
and each external angle is . Where N is the number of sides.
N
Polygons are named according to the number of their sides and angles are given below:
(i) Regular Pentagon: A polygon having five equal sides is known as a regular
pentagon as shown in Fig. 4.13.
(ii) Regular Hexagon: A polygon having six equal sides is known as regular hexagon
as shown in Fig. 4.14.
Geometrical Construction 53
(iii) Regular Heptagon: A polygon having seven equal sides is known as regular
heptagon as shown in Fig. 4.15.
(iv) Regular Octagon: A polygon having eight equal sides is known as regular octagon
as shown in Fig. 4.16.
(v) Regular Nonagon: A polygon having nine equal sides is known as regular nonagon
as shown in Fig. 4.17.
(vi) Regular Decagon: A polygon having ten equal sides is known as regular decagon
as shown in Fig. 4.18.
(vii) Regular Undecagon: A polygon having eleven equal sides is known as regular
undecagon as shown in Fig. 4.19.
(viii) Regular Duodecagon: A polygon having twelve equal sides is known as regular
duodecagon as shown in Fig. 4.20.
DE
SI
DIAMETER
DIAMETER
T
OR
L
DIAGONAL SH
GO G
NA
DIA LON
E
SID
R2
90°
A E B
90°
C D
B
A P
R1
D
R
R
(i) With centre A and given radius R, draw arcs to cut
AB at M and AC at N.
(ii) With M and N as a centres and radius R, draw arcs A M B
R
intersecting each other at O.
(iii) With O as a centre and the same radius R, draw the Fig. 4.25
required tangent arc as shown in Fig. 4.25.
R
(ii) Draw a line EF parallel to and at a distance of R
from AC, meeting PQ at O. A T1 B
E
(iii) With O as a centre and R as a radius draw the Fig. 4.26
tangent arc as shown in Fig. 4.26.
OA
(i) Draw a line AB of a given length. E
=
C
R
(ii) Draw an isosceles triangle OAB with AB as base and O
base angles of 54º.
(iii) With O as centre and OA as a radius, draw a circle
passing through A and B.
54° 54°
(iv) With AB as radius, intersect the circle successively A B
at the points C, D and E. Join BC, CD, DE and EA to
get the required pentagon ABCDE as shown in Fig. 4.29
Fig. 4.29.
[Note: For the pentagon, angle subtended at the centre of the isosceles triangle = 360º/5
= 72º. Hence, the base angle = (180º – 72º)/2 = 54º.
IInd method
3 E D
(i) Draw a line AB equal to the given length. 1
(ii) From A, draw a line A1 and A2 making 60º and 120º
respectively with AB by help of mini drafter. 4
2
(iii) From B, draw a line B3 and B4 making 60º and 120º
respectively with AB by the help of mini drafter. F
O
C
(iv) From O the point of intersection of A1 and B3, draw
a line parallel to AB and intersecting A2 at F and B4
at C.
(v) From F, draw a line parallel to BC and intersecting A B
B3 at E. Fig. 4.31
(vi) From C, draw a line parallel to AF and intersecting A1 at D. Join the above division
marks to obtain the required hexagon ABCDEF as shown in Fig. 4.31.
(i) Vertex or Apex: The point of intersection of the axis and APEX
B
A A
B C
C D
D
C
D
4.12 ELLIPSE
Uses: Elliptical shape is used in the construction of arches, bridges, dams, elliptical gears
of textile machines and printing presses, ends of cylindrical tanks, top or bottom of man-
holes, glands, stuffing boxes, flanges of pipes, 3
etc. 2 R 4
where the radial lines cut the inner circle, draw horizontal lines. The intersection
thus obtained gives us points P1, P2 etc. of the ellipse.
(v) Draw a smooth curve through these points as shown in Fig. 4.41.
1/2 MINOR
(iii) Lay the Trammel across the two axes. The AXIS C TRAMMEL
point R always lies on the minor axis and
point Q always lies on the major axis.
P
TR
AM
A B
position of P.
(v) Repeat the procedure and mark a number
R
A B
O
3 3
(iii) Divide OA, OB, AE, AG, BF and BH, into any
2 2
number of equal parts, (say four) and name
1 2 2 1
the points as 1, 2, 3. 1 1
(iv) Join C with points 1, 2, 3 on AG and BH. E D F
120
(v) Join D with points 1, 2, 3 on AE and BF.
Fig. 4.44
Geometrical Construction 61
(vi) Join C and D with points 1, 2, 3 on OA and OB and produce them to cross the lines
from C and D, already drawn, in points 1′, 2′, 3.
(vii) Draw a smooth curve through these points as shown in Fig. 4.44.
4.13 PARABOLA
Parabola is used for suspension bridges, reflectors for parallel beams such as head lights
of automobiles, solar concentrators, including machine tool structures, etc. Path of a
thrown object missile and path of a jet of water issuing from vertical orifice are of parabolic
shape.
Problem 13. To draw the parabola using focus and directrix.
Solution. See Fig. 4.45
1. Draw the directrix as a vertical line and the axis as a horizontal line.
2. Mark the focus F on the axis 7¢
at a distance 40 mm from 6¢
the directrix.
5¢
3. Mark the vertex V at the M7
4¢ M6
mid-point of AF such that DIRECTRIX
M5
VF/AV = 1 to get the 3¢ M4
parabola. 2¢
M3
M2
4. Draw a vertical line from V 1¢
and mark C on it such that M1
VC = VF, then draw a line C
from A passing through C for
AXIS
convenient length. A
V 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
F
5. Draw a vertical line at any
distance and mark 1 on the B
axis and 1′ on the inclined N1
S
line AC. N2
6. Use the length 1 – 1′ as N3
radius, focus F as centre, N4
Problem 14. Draw a parabola given the base and the axis.
Solution. “Rectangle method” (I)
(i) Draw the base PQ. Draw the vertical axis AB at the mid-point A of PQ.
(ii) Construct a rectangle PQRS, as shown in Fig. 4.46(i).
(iii) Divide PA and PS into equal number of parts and mark 1, 2, 3 and 1′, 2′, 3′ so as to
cut the vertical lines through 1, 2, 3 at P1, P2, P3 respectively when 1′, 2′, 3′ are
joined with B.
(iv) Draw the curve through points P1, P2 and P3. Similarly, complete the other half of
the parabola as shown in Fig. 4.46(ii).
S B R S B R
P3
3¢ P2
2¢
P1
1¢
P A Q P 1 2 3 A Q
(i) (i)
Fig. 4.46
O
“Tangent” method (II)
(i) Draw the base PQ. Draw the vertical axis AB at 7 1¢
the mid-point A. 6 2¢
VF
i.e. e=
AV
3
Given that (e) = and VF = 65 mm
2
VF 2
∴ AV = 65 43.3 mm
e 3
To draw the hyperbola using focus and directrix
1. Draw the directrix as a vertical line and the axis as a horizontal line.
2. Mark the vertex V at a distance 43.3 mm from directrix and the focus F 65 mm
from the vertex V.
3. Draw a vertical line from V
4¢
and mark C on it such that M4
VC = VF, then draw a line
from A passing through C for 3¢
M3
convenient length.
4. Draw a vertical line at any 2¢
convenient distance and M2
mark 1 on the axis and 1′ on 1¢
the inclined line AC. B
M1
5. Use the length 1 – 1′ as C
radius, focus F as centre,
draw an arc to cut the line
1 – 1′.
6. Repeat this procedure by
drawing vertical lines 2 – 2′, V AXIS
A
3 – 3′ etc. 1 2 3 F 4
4.15 INVOLUTE
An involute is a spiral curve traced out by a point on a cord or thread as it unwinds from
the surface of a polygon or a circle. The involute of a circle is the basic curve of gear teeth
profile.
P3
Problem 16. Draw the involute of a
square of side 30 mm.
Solution. See Fig. 4.49
To draw the involute of a square
1. Draw square ABCD of side 30 mm.
R
2. With centre A and radius 30 mm,
90
20
draw an arc to get P1.
R1
3. With centre B and radius 60 mm, P2 B
C
draw an arc from P1 to get P1. 0
R6
4. With centre C and radius 90 mm,
A
draw an arc from P2 to get P3. D P4
R3
0
5. With centre D and radius 120 mm,
draw an arc from P3 to get P4 as P1
shown in Fig. 4.49. Fig. 4.49
Problem 17. Draw the curve traced out by an end of a thin wire unwound from a regular
hexagon of side 15 mm. Draw a tangent and normal to the curve at a point 80 mm from
the centre of the hexagon.
Solution. See Fig. 4.50.
P4 P5
G
N
R75
M
R6
0
0
R8
C H
P3 D
5
R4
B E R90
0
P6
R30
A
F
R15
P2 P1
Fig. 4.50
To draw the involute of a hexagon.
1. Draw a hexagon of side 15 mm.
2. With centres A, B, etc. and radius 15 mm, 30 mm, etc., draw arcs to get P1, P2, etc.
3. Thus, the involute of a hexagon is completed as shown in Fig. 4.50.
Geometrical Construction 65
IInd Method
1. Mark the point M on the curve at a distance 80 mm from the centre O of the
hexagon. Note that the part of the involute P5 – P6 has the centre F.
2. From F, draw a line passing through M to get the normal to the curve FN.
3. Draw a line through M perpendicular to FN to get the tangent to the curve GH.
Problem 18. (Fig. 4.51) To draw an involute of a given circle. Draw normal and tangent at
any point P on the involute.
Solution. See Fig. 4.51.
N
P9 T
P
T
P8 P10
P7
M
P11
6
P6 7
5
8
4
N
3 9
2 O 10
P5
11
P 12
1 Q
P1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
P4
P2
P3
Fig. 4.51
1. Draw a circle of a given diameter and divide it into 12 equal parts. Draw a line PQ
tangent to the circle at a point P.
2. Take PQ equal to circumference of the circle. Divide PQ into the 12 number of
equal parts.
3. Draw tangents at point 1, 2, 3 etc.. Mark 1 P1 = P 1′, 2 P2 = P 2′, 3 P3 = P 3′ etc.
4. Draw a smooth curve through the points P1, P2, P3 etc as shown in Fig. 4.51.
Spiral curve
Cycloid Trochoids
Epicycloid Epitrochoids
Hypocycloid Hypotrochoids
4.16.1 Cycloid
When a circle rolls without slip along a fixed straight line than a point on the circumference
of the circle traces a locus which is known as cycloid. A cycloid at curve is extensively
used in the design of gear tooth profile.
Problem 19. The diameter of a rolling circle is 40 mm. Draw a cycloid and draw tangent
and normal at any point on the curve.
Solution. See Fig. 4.52.
T
Cycloid
6¢ P6
7¢ 5¢ P7
f40
N P5
8¢ 4¢ P4 P8
R2
0
P3 T
M
0 3¢ P9
9¢
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12
P2 P10
10¢ 2¢
P1 P11
11¢ 1¢ P12
12¢ E
A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 B
125.6
Fig. 4.52
To draw the cycloid.
1. Draw a circle of a given diameter and divide it into 12 equal parts. Draw a line AB
equal to the circumference of the rolling circle at a point P.
2. Divide the circumference of the rolling circle AB into the 12 number of equal
parts and mark them by 1, 2, 3, ..., etc. Project these points on the centre line by
drawing perpendicular to AB and mark C1, C2, C3, ..., etc., respectively.
3. With centre C1, and radius equal to the rolling circle (20 mm) draw an arc to cut
the horizontal line through 1 at P1. Similarly with centre C2 and radius equal to
the rolling circle draw another arc to cut the horizontal line through 2 at P2. In
similar way we shall get P3, P4, ..., etc.
4. Draw a smooth curve through point P1, P2, P3, ..., etc. known as cycloid.
Geometrical Construction 67
4.16.2 Trochoid
Trochoid is a curve traced by a point fixed to a circle, inside or outside its circumference,
as the circle rolls without slipping along a straight line.
When the point is within the circle, the curve is called inferior trochoid and when the
point is out side the circle, it is known as superior trochoid.
Problem 20. A wheel of 50 mm diameter rolls over a horizontal table without slipping.
Trace the path of a point which is at a radius of 30 mm from the centre of the wheel, for
one complete revolution of the wheel (superior trochoid).
Solution. See Fig. 4.53.
Superior Trochoid
6¢ P6
7¢ 5¢ P5 P7
f50
P4 4¢ P8
8¢
0 3¢ P9
9¢ P3 C
1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12
2¢ P10
10¢ P2
B
A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11¢ P1 1¢ P11
12¢ P P12
pD = 157
Fig. 4.53
To draw the trochoid.
1. Draw the rolling circle of a given diameter (50 mm) with O as a centre.
2. At A, draw a horizontal line AB, called base line of length D and divide it into 12
equal parts as 1, 2, 3, ..., etc.
3. Draw a horizontal line through centre O. Also draw perpendicular line through 1,
2, 3, ..., etc., to cut the horizontal line at C1, C2, C3, ..., etc., respectively.
4. Let P be the point out side the rolling circle at 30 mm from centre O on the vertical
line. Now P is the starting point.
68 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 21. A wheel of 50 mm is diameter rolls over a horizontal table without slipping.
Trace the path of a point on one of the spokes 10 mm from the rim towards the centre of
the wheel for one complete revolution. (Inferior trochoid).
Solution. See Fig. 4.54.
f50
Inferior Trochoid
6¢ P6
7¢ 5¢ P5 P7
4¢ P4 P8
8¢
3¢ P3 P9
9¢ 0 C1
P2 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12
P10
10¢ P1 2¢ P11
11¢ 1¢ P12
12¢ P
B
A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pD = 157
Fig. 4.54
4.16.3 Spiral
If a line rotates in a plane about one of its ends and if at the same time, a point moves
along the line continuously in one direction, the curve traced out by the moving point is
called a spiral. The point about which the line rotates is called a pole. Other terms used
in spiral curves are:
Geometrical Construction 69
1. Radius Vector: Line joining any point on the curve with the pole is called radius
vector.
2. Vector Angle: It is the included angle between the lines, at any time.
3. Convolution: It is the curve traced out by a moving point for one complete
revolution of the line. If a curve reaches the final destination in two revolutions,
then it is called spiral of two conventional. A spiral may make any number of
convolutions before reaching the pole
P2 Archimedean Spiral
O3 P1 O1
P3
P10
P9
F
P11
N
P12 P16 P8
O4 O8
P4 O A B
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
P13 P15
P14
P7
P5
O5 P6 O7
O6
Fig. 4.55
70 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
4.16.4 Helix
Helix is defined as a curve generated by a point moving around and along the surface of
right circular cylinder or cone with a uniform angular velocity about the axis and with a
uniform linear velocity in the direction of the axis. Lead or pitch is the axial distance
moved by the generating point in one revolution.
Problem 23. Draw a helix of one convolution around a cone, diameter of base 50 mm and
height 80 mm and pitch 80 mm.
Solution. See Fig. 4.56.
1. Draw the top view of a cone, as a circle of diameter 50 mm. Divide the circle into
8 equal parts as 1, 2, 3, ..., etc.
2. Draw the front view of a cone, of base 50 mm and height 80 mm. Draw projectors
from top view, as shown in Fig. 4.56. Mark 1, 2, 3, ..., etc., on the above base of
the cone in front view.
3. Divide the pitch distance into 8 equal parts as 1, 2, 3, ..., etc.
4. Let P be the starting point. When it moves around through 30°, it should have
moved up through one division to a point P 1 , on the generator 1 obtained by
drawing a horizontal line through 1.
5. Project P 1 , down words to cut the top view of the generator 01 at P1. Similarly
obtain all other points and draw smooth curves through them in front view and top
view as shown in Fig. 4.56, respectively.
Problem 24. Draw a helix of one convolution around a cylinder, if the diameter of cylinder
is 40 mm and height of pitch is 70 mm.
Solution. See Fig. 4.57.
1. Draw the top view of a cylinder, as a circle of diameter 40 mm. Divide the top view
into 8 equal parts as 1, 2, 3, ..., etc.
2. Draw the front view of ‘cylinder’, of base 40 mm and height 70 mm (cylinder height
= pitch). Draw the projectors from top view to front view as shown in Fig. 4.57.
3. Divide the pitch in 8 equal parts as 1, 2, 3, ..., etc. and draw horizontal lines
through each point. Draw vertical projectors from 1, 2, 3, ... to intersect the
corresponding horizontal projector at P1 , P 2 , P 3 , ..., etc., passing through these
points.
4. Join all these points P1 , P 2 , P 3 , ..., etc., by a smooth helix curve.
Geometrical Construction 71
8″ P8′ ″
P′8
P′ 8′
7″ 7
P6′ P′7
6″ 7′
P′6
P5′ 6′
5″
P′5
5′
80
4″ P4′
P′4
70
4′
3″
P3′
3′
P′3
2″
P2′
2′
P′2
1″
P1′
1′
P P′1
8′ 7′ (1′) 6′ (2′) 5′ (3′) 4′
FRONT VIEW P
6
FRONT VIEW
6
7 5
7 5
P5
P6
P7 P4
8 4 8 4
P8
P1 P3
1 3
1 3
P2
2
2 φ 40
φ 50
TOP VIEW
TOP VIEW
EXERCISE
1. What do you meant by a conic section?
2. Draw a circle of dia 50 mm and divide it into 12 equal parts by using a compass.
3. Draw an arc of radius 25 mm touching two straight lines at right angles to each other.
4. Draw a regular pentagon of 40 mm side with an side keeping horizontal and locate its
centre.
5. Draw a pentagon of side 45 mm with one side vertical and mark its centre.
6. Construct a regular hexagon of side 30 mm when one side is vertical and locate its centre
only use compass.
7. Construct a regular polygon having seven sides given the length of its side 35 mm, by the
help of compass only.
8. Construct a regular octagon of side 30 mm and locate its centre by using compass only.
9. Construct an ellipse whose major and minor axis are 80 cm and 50 cm respectively. Locate
a point P on the ellipse having a distance of 35 cm from the centre and draw the tangent
and normal line to the curve.
10. The major and minor axes of an ellipse are 100 mm and 60 mm respectively. Find the foci
and draw the ellipse.
11. Construct an ellipse whose major axis is 70 mm and minor axis is 50 mm.
[January 2009, BTE New Delhi]
12. Construct a parabola when the distance of focus is 50 mm from the directrix. Draw tangent
and normal at any point of the curve. [January 2009, BTE New Delhi]
13. Draw a parabola given that the distance between the directrix and focus is 40 cm. Draw the
tangent and normal to the curve from a point lying on it, 50 cm distance from the focus.
14. A vertex of a hyperbola 60 mm from its focus. Draw the curve if the eccentricity is 5/2.
Draw a tangent and normal to the curve at any point on it.
Chapter
5
Scales
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In most of the cases, drawing of big object can not be drawn in full size scale because the
object may be too big. Similarly, the drawings of small object also cannot be prepared in
full size. Hence it is necessary to draw them with suitable scale as per the drawing sheet.
Therefore, scale may be defined as, “ratio of the linear dimension of an element of an
object as represented in the original drawing to the real linear dimension of the same
element of the object itself”. In other words, the proportion by which a dimension is either
reduced or increased in the drawing is known as scale. This scale is also known as
draftsman scale.
73
74 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
43 M
1 cm
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50
METERS
1
R.F =
600
10 cm
Fig. 5.1
(viii) Sub-divide the first main part into 10 sub-equal parts to represent meters (By
using geometrical construction method).
(ix) Number the sub-divisions i.e., meters to the left of zero.
(x) Write the main unit and sub-unit (meters) below the scale. Also mention R.F.
below the scale.
(xi) Indicate on the scale a distance of 43 meters.
Problem 2. Construct a plain scale of R.F. = 1 : 50,000 to show kilometers and hectometers
and long enough to measure upto 9 kilometers. Measure a distance of 5 kilometers and 6
hectometers on the scale.
1
Solution. R.F. = (Given)
50,000
Length of scale = R.F × maximum length of be measured
1
Length of scale = × 9 km
50000
1
= × 9 × 1000 × 100 cm
50000
= 18 cm
Draw a rectangle of 18 cm × 1 cm. Divide the rectangle into 9 equal parts, each part
representing 1 km. Mark zero at the end of the first main part and mark 1, 2, 3, ... 8 at the
end of subsequent main part towards right. Sub-divide the first part into 10 sub-divisions
each representing 1 hectometer. Number the sub-division to the left of zero.
Indicate on the scale, the given distance i.e., 5 kilometers and 6 hectometers as
shown in Fig. 5.2.
Scales 77
5 KM. 6 HM
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
HECTOMETERS KILOMETERS
1
R.F =
50,000
18 cm
Fig. 5.2
Problem 3. Construct a plain scale to show kilometers and hectometers when 2.5
centimeters are equal to 1 kilometer and long enough to measure upto 6 km. Find R.F.
and indicate distance 4 kilometers and 5 hectometers on the scale.
Solution. 2.5 cm = 1 km (Given)
2.5 cm 2.5 cm 1
R.F. = = =
1 km 1 ×1000 ×100 cm 40000
Let the maximum length to be measured be 6 km.
Length of the scale = R.F. × Maximum length to be measured.
1
Length of the scale = L = × 6 ×1000 ×100 = 15 cm.
40000
Draw a rectangle of size 15 cm × 1 cm as shown in Fig. 5.3. Divide the rectangle into
6 equal parts, each part representing 1 km. Mark zero, at the end of first main part. Then
mark 1, 2, ..., 5 at the end of first main parts towards right. Sub-divide the first main parts
into 10 equal parts and number them to the left of zero.
4 KM, 5 HM
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
HECTOMETERS KILOMETERS
1
R.F. =
40000
15 cm
Fig. 5.3
78 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
KILOMETERS
1
R.F. =
600,000
15 cm
Fig. 5.4
Draw a rectangle of size 15 cm × 1 cm as shown in Fig. 5.4. Divide the rectangle into
9 equal parts, each part representing 10 km. Mark zero at the end of first main part. Then
mark 10, 20, ..., 80 at the end of first main parts towards right. Subdivided the first-main
parts into 10 equal parts and number then to the left of zero.
Problem 5. The distance between New Delhi and Aligarh is 132 kms. An express train
covers the distance in 2 hours and 20 minutes. Construct a plain scale to measure time
upto a single minute and mark a distance covered in 35 minutes. Take R.F. of the scale
1
.
400, 000
1
Solution. R.F. = (Given)
400, 000
Length of an object on the drawing
where R.F. =
Actual length of the object
Scales 79
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50
MINUTES KILOMETERS
1
R.F. =
400,000
15 cm
Fig. 5.5
A B
10¢ 10
9¢ 9
8¢ 8
7¢ 7
6¢ 6
5¢ 5
4¢ 4
3¢ 3
2¢ 2
1¢ 1
C
0
Fig. 5.6
It is clear that triangle C11', C22', C33', CBA etc. are all similar.
1 1
Similarly C5 = CB, 55' = AB = 0.5AB
2 2
Similarly C4 = 0.4 CB, 44' = 0.4 AB
1
Thus, each horizontal line becomes progressively shorter in length by AB.
10
Problem 6. Construct a diagonal scale of R.F. 1 : 500 to show meters and decimeters, and
long enough to measure upto 70 meters. Measure a distance 53.4 meters on the scale.
Solution.
(i) R.F. = 1 : 500 (Given)
(ii) Length of the scale = L = R.F. × Maximum length to be measured
1
L= × 70 × 100 cm 14 cm
500
(iii) Draw a line AB of 14 cm length as shown in Fig. 5.7
(iv) Maximum length to be measured is 70 meters, therefore, divide the length of
scale into 7 equal parts.
(v) Using geometrical construction, and divide the main parts into 10 equal sub-
parts, each representing 1 decimeter.
(vi) Draw a line AC of 2 cm long, perpendicular to AB.
(vii) Divide AC into 10 equal parts and name the parts as 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., 10 from AC.
(viii) Draw horizontal lines from each part on AC to construct the diagonal.
(ix) Join C to the first sub-division from A on the main scale AB. Thus the first diagonal
line is drawn.
Scales 81
53.4 M
10 D
C
TER
5
IME
B
5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
10
DEC
A
METERS METERS
1
R.F =
500
14 cm
Fig. 5.7
(x) Similarly, draw the remaining diagonals parallel to the first diagonal into 10 equal
parts.
(xi) Complete the scale and show 53.4 meters on the diagonal scale.
1
Problem 7. Construct a diagonal scale of R.F. = to show kilometers, hectometers,
50,000
decameters, and long enough to measure upto 6 km. Measure a distance of 4 km, 6 hm,
4 dam on the scale.
Solution.
R.F. = 1/50000 or 1 : 50000 (Given)
Length of the scale = R.F. × Maximum length to be measured.
1 1
× 6 km = = × 6 × 1000 × 100 cm = 12 cm
50000 50000
Draw a rectangle of 12 × 2 cm as shown in Fig. 5.8. Divide the rectangle into 6 equal
parts, each part representing 1 kilometer and follow the same method to draw the scale
in problem 6.
4 KM, 6 HM, 4 DAM
10
C D
ER
5
T
ME
5 B
10 0 1 2 3 4 5
CA
A
HECTOMETERS KILOMETER S
DE
1
R.F. =
50000
12 cm
Fig. 5.8
82 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 8: Construct a diagonal scale to shown centimeters, decimeters and meters and
long enough to measure upto 8 meters. Measure a distance 5 m , 6 dm and 3 cm on the
scale and take R.F. = 1 : 100.
Solution.
1
R.F. = 1 : 100 or R.F. = (Given)
100
Length of scale = R.F. × Maximum length to be measured
1 1
Length of scale = ×8m = × 8 × 100 cm = 8 cm
100 100
Draw a rectangle of 8 × 2 cm as shown in Fig. 5.9. Divide the rectangle into 8 equal
parts, each part representing 1 meter and follows the same method to draw the scale as
problem 6.
5 M, 6 DM and 3 CM
10 D
C
RS
5
ETE
B
TIM
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A
CEN
DECIMETERS METERS
1
R.F. =
100
8 cm
Fig. 5.9
Solution: 28 cm = 40 km
28 cm 7 cm 1 cm
1 cm = 40 km = 10 km = 1.43 km
1 cm 1 cm
R.F = 1.43 km = 1.43 1000 100 cm
1
R.F. =
143000
Scales 83
17 KM, 7 HM
10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
HECTOMETERS KILOMETERS
R.F. = 1 143000
14 cm
Fig. 5.10
Problem 10: The distance between two station is 240 km and its is represented on a
map by a line 12 cm long. Find R.F. Draw a scale to measure 300 km. Show a distance of
267 km on the scale. (December 2004, B.T.E. New Delhi)
Solution: Calculate the R.F.
Length of an object on the drawing
R.F. =
Actual length of the object
12 cm 1 cm
= =
240 km 20 km
1
= cm
20 ×1000 ×100
1
R.F. =
20,00,000
84 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
In the above problem, maximum length to be measured is given 300 km. Therefore,
calculate the length of the scale.
Length of the scale = R.F. × Maximum length to be measure.
1
= × 300 × 1000 × 100
2000000
= 15 cm
Now draw a line AB of length 15 cm, and divide it into three equal parts, and also sub-
divide the main part into 10 equal sub-parts, each part representing 1 hrs as shown in
Fig. 5.11. Draw a line AC of suitable length which is perpendicular to AB and divide AC
into 10 equal parts respectively. Then complete the scale and show 267 km on the scale
as shown in Fig. 5.11.
267 KM
C
10
S
5
ER
ET
A B
0
10 50 0 100 200
OM
KILOMETERS KILOMETERS
KIL
R.F. = 1 2000000
15 cm
Fig. 5.11
Problem 11: A line of 20 cm long on a map represents a distance of 400 meters. Find the
representative fraction of the map. Draw a diagonal scale so as to measure upto a single
meter and long enough to measure a distance of 400 meters. Measure and mark distance
of 356 meters and 108 meters on the scale. (January 2009, B.T.E. New Delhi)
Solution: Calculate the R.F.
Length of an object on the drawing
R.F. =
Actual length of the object
20 cm = 400 meters
20 cm 1 cm
1 cm = =
400 metres 20 metres
1 cm 1 cm 1
R.F. = = =
20 metres 20 ×100 cm 2000
1
R.F. =
2000
Scales 85
108 M
10
ER
5
ET
M
METERS 1
R.F =
2000 METERS
20 cm
Fig. 5.12
Problem 12: Construct a diagonal scale to read meters, decimeters and centimeters for
1
a R.F. of and long enough to measure upto 5 meters. Show on it a length of 2.34
50
meters, 3.67 meters and 4.44 meters. (January 2009, B.T.E New Delhi)
Solution:
1
R.F. = (Given)
50
Length of scale = R.F. × Maximum length to be measured.
1
= ×5m
50
1
= × 5 × 100 = 10 cm.
50
Draw a rectangle of 10 × 2 cm as shown in Fig. 4.13. Divide the rectangle into 5 equal
parts, each part representing 1 meter and follows the same method to draw the scale as
in problem 6.
86 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
4.4 M
3.67 M
2.89 M
10
S
ER
5
ET
IM
NT
10 5 0 1 2 3 4
CE
DECIMETERS
RF =
1 METERS
50
10 cm
Fig. 5.13
80º 90º
C
70º
60º
50º
40º
30º
20º
10º
A B D
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
n units
Fig. 5.15
Problem 13: Construct a vernier scale to read meters, decimeters and centimeters and
long enough to measure up to 4 m. R.F. of the scale is 1/20. Mark on your scale a distance
of 2.28 m.
Solution: See Fig. 5.16
(i) Least Count = Smallest distance to be measured = 1 cm (given) = 0.01 m
(ii) L = R.F. × Maximum distance to be measured = (1/20) × 4 m = 20 cm
(iii) Draw a line of 20 cm length. Complete the rectangle of 20 cm × 1 cm. Divide this
into 4 equal parts each representing 1 meter.
(iv) Sub-divide each part into 10 main scale divisions. Hence, 1 m.s.d. = 1 m/10 = 0.1
m = 1 dm.
(v) Take 11 divisions on main scale. Divide into 10 equal parts on the vernier scale.
Hence 1 v.s.d. = 11 m.s.d/10 = 11 × 1 dm/10 = 0.11 m = 1.1 dm = 11 cm.
(vi) Mark 0, 55, 110 towards left from 0 on the vernier scale. The units of main divisions
is meters, sub-divisions is decimeters and vernier divisions is centimeters.
2.28 m
A B
0.88 m 1.4 m
CENTIMETERS
110 55 0
10 5 0 1 2 3
DECIMETERS METERS
KILOMETERS
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50
5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
MILES
Fig. 5.17
8
7
6
E
AL
5
SC
8
4
N
7
AI
6
M
3 E
5 AL
4 SC
2
3 T RIC
1 2 ME
1 ISO
0
45º
30º
Fig. 5.18
EXERCISE
1. What do you mean by draftsman scale? Give the classification of scales?
2. What do you mean by plain scale?
3. What do you mean by R.F.?
1
4. Construct a plain scale of R.F. to read kilometers and Hectometers, and long enough
50000
to measure a distance of 4 km and 7 hm on the scale.
5. Construct a scale of 1 : 1000 to show meters and long enough to measure upto 100 meters.
Measure a distance of 63 m on the scale.
6. What is the difference between plain scale and diagonal scale.
7. Construct a diagonal scale to read km having spaces of 110 km and long enough to read upto
1
100 km. R.F. = Indicate a distance of 537 km on the scale.
4000000
8. Draw a vernier scale of meters when 1 cm represents 2.5 meters. Find the R.F. of this scale and
shown a distance of 35.2 meters on this scale. (January 2009, B.T.E. New Delhi)
Chapter
6
Projection of Points
.
V.P
e
bl
ea
P.
ov
H. P.
H.
M
P.
V.
xed
Fi
Fig. 6.1
89
90 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
In engineering drawing, two principal planes are used to get the projection of an
object that is vertical plane and horizontal plane, the vertical plane denoted by (V.P.) and
horizontal plane denoted by (H.P.) as shown in Fig. 6.1. They intersect each other at right
angles known as axis of the plane. The vertical plane of projection is always infront of the
observer. The projection on vertical plane is known as front view or elevation. The other
plane is the horizontal plane of projection is known as the (H.P.) The projection on the
H.P. is called the top view or plan. The view obtained by viewing object form right side is
called right side view or right end view. A plane perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P. is
called profile plane (P.P).
The right side view is always on the right to the front view. If the object is viewed from
left on profile plane then the view is known as left side view or left end view. Fig 6.2 shows
projection by folding the top and right side planes in line with the front plane.
V.P. P.P
RIGHT HAND
FRONT VIEW
SIDE VIEW
TOP VIEW
H.P.
Fig. 6.2
Observe in Fig. 6.3 when the plane of projection are extended beyond the line of
intersection. They form four quardants or dihedral angles on reference planes (V.P. &
H.P.) namely:
1. Ist quadrant 2. IInd quadrant
3. IIIrd quadrant 4. IVth quadrant
The four angles formed by the crossing of the two principal planes, are called the
dihedral angles and are numbered as shown Fig. 6.3.
V.P.
II ND I ST
QUADRANT QUADRANT
Y REFRENCE LINE
2
1
H.P. H.P.
4
3
III RD IV TH
QUADRANT QUADRANT
V.P.
Note: The standard practice of rotation of planes is to keep the V.P. fixed and horizontal
plane is rotated in clockwise direction to bring it in vertical plane.
• The figure obtained in Ist quadrant is known as Ist angle projection.
• The figure obtained in IInd quadrant is known as IInd angle projection.
• The figure obtained in IIIrd quadrant is known as IIIrd angle projection.
• The figure obtained in IVth quadrant is known as IVth angle projection.
P . P
V.P
P P
Fig. 6.4
92 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
.
V.P
p¢ y
Ist Quadrant
a P
b
p
x P.
H.
V.P.
p¢
a
X Y
b
H.P.
.
V.P
b
P Y
p¢
IInd Quadrant
a
p
.
.P
H
/
V.P. H.P.
p¢
b
a
X Y
Y
.
.P
p
H
a
P.
p¢
V.
P b
IIIrd Quadrant
H.P.
p
b
X Y
a
p¢
V.P.
.
.P
H
p
p¢
P
b
X
P.
IVth Quadrant
V.
X Y
p¢
/
V.P. H.P.
Problem 1. Draw the projection of a point P, 20 mm infront of the vertical plane and 15
mm above the horizontal plane.
Solution. See Fig. 6.9 (i & ii).
.
V.P
Y
p¢
P
15
20
p
P.
H.
X
V.P.
p¢
15
X Y
20
H.P.
Problem 2. A point Q is 20 mm above H.P. and 25 mm infront of V.P. Draw its projection.
Solution. See Fig. 6.10 (i & ii).
Problem 3. Draw the front view and top view of a point Q which is touching H.P. and 20
mm from V.P.
Solution. See Fig. 6.11(i & ii).
Problem 4. A point P is 30 mm behind the vertical plane and 25 mm above the horizontal
plane. Draw its projection.
Solution. See Fig. 6.12(i & ii).
.
V.P
30
P
p¢
Y
25
P.
H.
p
X
V.P./H.P.
p¢
30
25
X Y
Problem 5. A point Q is 30 mm behind the V.P. and 20 mm below the H.P. Draw its
projection.
Solution. See Fig. 6.13 (i & ii).
Y
q
.
.P
H
20
q¢
Q
30
X
P.
V.
H.P.
q
30
X Y
20
q¢
V.P.
Problem 6. A point P is 20 mm below H.P. and lies in third quadrant. Its shortest distance
from XY is 40 mm. Draw its top view and front view.
Solution. See Fig. 6.14 (i & ii).
.
.P
H
p
20
p¢
P
40
P.
V.
X
H.P.
p
40
X Y
20
p¢
V.P.
Problem 7. A point P is 35 mm below the H.P. and 25 mm infront of the V.P. Draw its
projection.
Solution. See Fig. 6.15 (i & ii).
.
.P
H
35
X p¢
P
25
P.
V.
X Y
25
35
p¢
V.P./H.P.
Problem 8. A point P is 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm infront of the V.P. Another point
Q is 30 mm below the H.P. and 50 mm behind the V.P. Draw the projections of these points
taking the distance between the ends projectors as 70 mm.
Solution. See Fig. 6.16.
q¢
p¢
50
20
X Y
30
30
p q
70
Fig. 6.16
EXERCISE
1. Define the terms point.
2. Name the two principal planes of projection.
3. Draw the projections of a point Q when it is
(a) 15 mm above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P.
(b) 30 mm above the H.P. and 15 mm infront of the V.P.
(c) 25 mm above the H.P. and 15 mm behind the V.P.
(d) 35 mm below the H.P. and 20 mm behind the V.P.
(e) 30 mm below the H.P. and 30 mm behind the V.P.
(f) in the V.P. and 25 mm above the H.P.
(g) in the H.P. and 25 mm behind the V.P.
104 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
4. State the position of the following points with respect to the planes of projections, as shown
in Fig. 6.17.
t¢
r u, u¢
q¢
50
25
35
30
s
X q Y
20
25
25
p¢
40
40
r¢ s¢
p t
Fig. 6.17
5. A point P is in H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P. Another point Q is also in H.P. and behind V.P.
The distance between their end projectors is 50 mm. Draw its projections when the line
joining their planes makes as angle of 45° with reference line.
Chapter
7
Projection of Lines
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A straight line is the shortest distance between the two given points. The projections
of a straight line are obtained by joining the two end points. A line may project either
in true length (TL), for shortened depending on its relationship to the principal plane
on which the view is projected as shown in Fig. 7.1.
(TL)
A B
Fig. 7.1
In first angle projection, a line is assumed to be placed in first quadrant. The projection
of the straight line in the above positions are discussed in this chapter.
7.3 LINE PARALLEL TO ONE OR BOTH THE PLANE (H.P. & V.P.)
Case I: Line parallel to the vertical plane (V.P.): Consider a line PQ, which is inclined
to the horizontal plane and parallel to the vertical plane as shown in Fig. 7.2(i). Its front
view p′, q′, equal to its true length (TL). The top view projected onto horizontal plane is
also a line and will be in reduced length as shown in Fig. 7.2(ii).
105
106 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
.
V.P
q¢
Y
Q
p¢ q q
P.
H.
P
X p
V.P.
q¢
p¢ q
FRONT VIEW
X Y
p q
TOP VIEW
H.P.
Case II: Line parallel to the horizontal plane (H.P.): Consider a line PQ which is inclined
to vertical plane and parallel to the horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 7.3(i). Its top view p,
q is projected onto the horizontal plane which is inclined at an angle of θ to the vertical
plane, will be equal to its true length (TL). The front view projected onto vertical plane is
also a line and will be in reduced length as shown in Fig. 7.3(ii).
.
V.P
q¢ Y
Q
q
p¢
p
q
P.
H.
V.P.
p¢ q¢
FRONT VIEW
X Y
p
q
TOP VIEW q
H.P.
Case III: Line parallel to horizontal plane and vertical plane (H.P. & V.P.): Consider a
line PQ which is parallel to both the reference planes as shown in Fig. 7.4(i). Its front view
is projected onto vertical plane which is a line having true length. Its top view is also in
true length and parallel to reference line XY which is projected onto horizontal plane as
shown in Fig. 7.4(ii).
.
V.P
q¢ Y
Q
p¢
P.
P H.
q
X
p
V.P.
p¢ q¢
FRONT VIEW
X Y
p TOP VIEW q
H.P.
7.4 LINE CONTAINED BY ONE OR BOTH THE PLANE (H.P. & V.P.)
Case I: Line contained by horizontal plane (H.P.): Consider a line PQ contained by
horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 7.5(i). Its top view is projected onto horizontal plane
which is a line having true length (TL). The front view is projected onto the reference line
XY. Since the line is inclined to vertical plane, the front view will be in reduced length as
shown in Fig. 7.5(ii).
.
V.P
q¢
Q
p¢
P.
H.
P
V.P.
p¢ FRONT VIEW q¢
X Y
TOP VIEW q
H.P.
Case II: Line contained by vertical plane (V.P.): Consider a line PQ contained by
vertical plane as shown in Fig. 7.6(i). Its front view is projected onto vertical plane
which is a line having true length (TL). The top view is projected onto the reference
line XY. Since the line is inclined to horizontal plane, the top view will be of reduced
length as shown in Fig. 7.6(ii).
q¢
.
V.P Y
Q
p¢
P.
H.
V.P.
q¢
p¢
FRONT VIEW
X Y
p TOP VIEW q
H.P.
Case III: Line contained by horizontal plane and vertical plane (H.P. & V.P.): Consider
a line PQ contained by both the planes as shown in Fig. 7.7(i). Its front view and top
view are projected onto the reference line XY which is a line having true length as
shown in Fig. 7.7(ii).
.
V.P
P.
P H.
V.P.
p¢ FRONT VIEW q¢
X Y
p q
TOP VIEW
H.P.
.
V.P
p¢
P Y
q¢
Q
P.
H.
p, (q)
V.P
p¢
q¢
FRONT VIEW
X Y
p, (q)
TOP VIEW
H.P
Case II: Line perpendicular to vertical plane (V.P.): Consider a line PQ perpendicular to
vertical plane and parallel to horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 7.9(i). Its top view is projected
onto horizontal plane which is a line having true length (TL). The front view is projected
onto vertical plane which is a point. The invisible point P in the front view is represented
within bracket as (p′) as shown in Fig. 7.9(ii)
V.P
q¢
¢)
(p
P
p
P
Q H.
X q
V.P
(p¢) q¢
FRONT VIEW
X Y
q
TOP VIEW H.P
7.6 LINE INCLINED TO ONE REFERENCE PLANE AND PARALLEL TO THE OTHER
Case I: Line inclined to HP and parallel to the (V.P.): The projection of a line PQ is
drawn in two stages. In first stage, the line PQ is parallel to horizontal plane and vertical
plane. Its front view p′ q′ is projected onto the vertical plane and the top view pq, is
projected onto the horizontal plane. Both pq1 and p′ q1′ will be parallel to reference XY.
as shown in Fig. 7.10(i).
P
V.
q¢
Y
q¢1
p¢ Q1
q q1
q
X P
P
p H.
In second stage, the line PQ is turned about the end P at an angle of θ with the
horizontal plane. Thus, the tilted position of the line is PQ while remaining parallel to the
vertical plane. The point q′, on the vertical plane will be moved along an arc to q′. The arc
is drawn with p′ as a centre.
Front view on the vertical plane makes an angle θ with reference line XY. The position
of the top view is changed in the position as shown in Fig. 7.10(ii).
V. P
q¢
p¢
q¢1
q FRONT VIEW
X Y
p q q1
TOP VIEW
H. P
Case II: Line inclined to V.P. and parallel to the H.P.: The projection of a line PQ is also
drawn in two stages which are discussed below:
In first stage, the line PQ1 is parallel to both the reference planes. Its front view P ′q ′1 is
projected onto the vertical plane and the top view pq, is projected onto the horizontal
plane. Both p′q ′1 and pq1 are parallel to reference line XY. In second stage, the line PQ1 is
turned about the end P at an angle of θ with the vertical plane. So, the tilted position of
the line is PQ while remaining parallel to the horizontal plane. The point q will move
along an arc to q′. The arc is described with centre p and radius pq. Top view pq onto the
horizontal plane makes an angle θ with reference line XY. The position of the front view
is changed in position as shown in Fig. 7.11(i & ii).
.
V.P
q¢1
q¢
Y
p¢ Q1
P Q
q1
q
X p q H.P.
V. P
p¢ q¢ q1
FRONT VIEW
X Y
p q¢1
q
TOP VIEW H. P
q¢
q¢ 1
V.P. Y
a
Q
q
p¢
X
P q1
H.P.
Keeping the end p fixed, drawn an arc of radius pq so that the end q moves to a
position q1. Therefore, the line PQ is inclined to vertical plane. The line pq1 is the new top
view. Draw a horizontal line through the point q′1 will lie on it through projector q1. Thus
the line p′q′1 is the new front view and inclined at an angle α to the reference line XY as
shown in Fig. 7.12(ii).
V.P.
q¢1 q¢
p¢ q a
X Y
FRONT VIEW
p q
q1
TOP VIEW H.P.
Case II: Consider a line PQ which is kept inclined to vertical plane at an angle θ and
parallel to horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 7.13(i). Its front view p′ q′ is parallel to the
reference line XY and the top view pq is inclined at an angle θ to the reference line.
Keeping the end p′ fixed, drawn an arc of radius p′ q′ so that the end q′ moves to q1.
Therefore, the line PQ is inclined to the horizontal plane.
.
V.P
q¢ 1
q¢
Y
p¢ a Q
p
q
q
q1
p
P.
H.
X
The point q1′ will lie on the projector through q1. The line pq1 is the new top view
where as p′ q′1 is the new front view. The new top view is inclined at angle α to the
reference line XY as shown in Fig. 7.13(ii).
V.P.
q¢ q¢1
p¢
FRONT VIEW
X p Y
a
q
q q1
TOP VIEW
H.P.
.
V.P
p¢ P 50
q¢ Q
15
p, q P.
20 H.
X
V.P.
p¢
50
q¢
15
FRONT VIEW
X Y
20
p(q)
TOP VIEW
H.P.
Problem 2. A line PQ is 50 mm long has its end P 25 mm above H.P and 30 mm infront of
V.P. The line is perpendicular to V.P. and parallel to H.P. Draw its projection.
Solution. The projections obtained are drawn with reference line XY as shown in
Fig. 7.15(i). Draw the top view pq is a line having true length. Its top view pq is 30 mm
below the XY line and the front view (p′ ) q′ is 25 mm above the reference line. The front
view is a point, the end q′ is visible and p′ is invisible. The invisible end p′ is enclosed
in as shown in Fig. 7.15(ii).
.
V.P
p¢,q¢
Y
25
30 p
Q
X 50
P.
q H.
(p¢) q¢ V.P.
25
FRONT VIEW
X Y
30
p
50
H.P. q
TOP VIEW
Problem 3. Draw the projection of a line PQ 70 mm long parallel to both the reference
planes and laying 20 mm above H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P.
Solution. The projections obtained are drawn with reference line XY as shown in
Fig. 7.16(i).
.
V.P
25
q¢ Q
Y
20
70
P.
q H.
P
p¢
p
X
The front view p′q′ and top view p, q are lines having true length and also parallel to
XY line. It front view p′ is 20 mm above reference line and top view p is 25 mm below
reference line as shown in Fig. 7.16(ii).
V.P.
70
p¢ q¢
20
FRONT VIEW
X Y
25
p q
Problem 4. Line PQ is parallel to V.P. and inclined at an angle of 30º to H.P. and measures
50 mm in top view. Its end P is 15 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of the V.P. Draw
its projection.
Solution. The projections obtained are drawn with reference to the XY line as shown
in Fig. 7.17(i). The front view p′q′ is a line inclined at an angle of 30º to reference line
having true length. Top view pq is parallel to reference line and smaller then true length.
Its front view p′ is 15 mm above reference line and top view p is 20 mm below the
reference line as shown in Fig. 7.17(ii).
.
V.P
q¢
Y
Q
30°
p¢ q
20 P.
P H.
50
15
p
X
V.P.
q¢
p¢ 30°
FRONT VIEW
15
X Y
20
p q
50
Problem 5. Draw the front view and top view of a line PQ 60 mm long, inclined to V.P. at
an angle of 30º towards left and parallel to H.P. The end Q is 20 mm from H.P. and 15 mm
from V.P.
Solution. The projections obtained are drawn with reference line XY as shown in
Fig. 7.18(i). The top view pq is a line inclined at an angle of 30º to XY from q and having
a length of 60 mm. Front view p′q′ is parallel to XY and smaller than true length. Its
front view p′q′ is 15 mm below the reference line and top view q is 20 mm above the
reference line as shown in Fig. 7.18(ii).
Y
20
.
.P
H
Q
15
60 q
° q¢
30
P.
V.
p p¢
X
H.P.
p 60
30°
q
20
FRONT VIEW
X Y
15
p¢ q¢
TOP VIEW
V.P.
Problem 6. The front view of a 60 mm long line PQ measures 45 mm. The line is parallel
to the H.P. and 20 mm above the H.P. with one of its ends in the V.P. Draw the projections
of the line and determine its inclination with the V.P.
Solution. The projections obtained are drawn with reference to the XY lines as shown in
Fig. 7.19(i). The front view p′q′ is a line parallel to XY line and equal to 45 mm. Top view pq
is inclined to XY line is 60 mm long, having true length. Its end p′ is 20 mm above
reference line as shown in Fig. 7.19(ii).
.
V.P
q¢
45 Q Y
p¢
P q
P.
H.
20
60
p
V.P.
45
p¢ q¢
20
FRONT VIEW
X p Y
60
q
TOP VIEW H.P.
Problem 7. A line PQ is 50 mm long, is in the H.P. and makes an angle of 45º with the
V.P. Its end P is 20 mm infront of the V.P. Draw its projection.
Solution. The projection obtained are drawn with reference to the XY lines as shown
in Fig. 7.20(i). The front view p′q′ is a line parallel to the XY line smaller then true length.
Its top pq is a line inclined at an angle of 45º to the reference line having true length.
Its end P is 20 mm below the reference line as shown in Fig. 7.20(ii).
V.P
q¢ H.
P
Q
45°
p¢ 50
20 P
V.P.
p¢ q¢
X Y
20
FRONT VIEW
p
45°
50
Top view
q
Problem 8. Draw the projection of a 70 mm long line PQ. Its end p is 20 mm above H.P.
and 15 mm in front of the V.P. The line is parallel to V.P. and inclined to H.P. at 30º.
Solution. The projections obtained are drawn with reference line XY as shown in
Fig. 7.21(i). The front view p′q′ is a line inclined at an angle of 30º to the reference line
having true length of 70 mm and top view pq is parallel to XY line is smaller in length.
Its front view p′ is 20 mm above XY line and top view p is 15 mm below XY line as shown
in Fig. 7.21(ii).
.
V.P
q¢
Q
Y
70
°
p¢ 30
q
P.
H.
P
20
15
p
X
V.P.
q¢
70
p¢ 30°
20
FRONT VIEW
X Y
15
p q
TOP VIEW
H.P.
Problem 9. Draw the projection of a 70 mm long line PQ. Its end p is 15 mm below H.P.
and 20 mm behind V.P. The line is parallel to H.P. and inclined to V.P. at an angle of 30º.
Solution. The projections obtained are drawn with reference line XY as shown in
Fig. 7.22(i). The top view pq is a line inclined at an angle of 30º to reference line having
true length. Front view p′q′ is parallel to the reference line and smaller than true length
is in third quadrant. Its top view p is 20 mm above reference line XY and front view
p′ is 15 mm below the reference line as shown in Fig. 7.22(ii).
Y
20
.
.P
H
p¢
15
°
30
P
p
70
P.
V.
q¢
Q q
X
H.P.
q
70
30° p
20
TOP VIEW
X Y
15
q¢ p¢
FRONT VIEW
V.P.
Problem 10. A line AB 120 mm long is inclined at 45° to H.P. and 30° to the V.P. Its mid
point C is in V.P. and 20 mm above H.P. The end A is in the 3rd quadrant and B is in the
Ist- quadrant. Draw the projections of the line AB. (Jan 2009, B.T.E. New Delhi)
b¢ b¢1 Locus of b¢
60
Locus of a a2 a
c¢ f = 45° b¢2
a¢2
20
a1 b1
Y
c f = 30°
Locus of a¢
a¢1 a¢ 60 Locus of b
b b2
Fig. 7.23
128 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
EXERCISE
1. A line PQ has its end P 20 mm above H.P. and 25 mm infront of V.P. The other end Q is 45
above H.P. and 40 mm infront of V.P. The distance between end projectors is 60 mm. Draw
its projection. Also find (TL), true inclinations of line with H.P. & V.P.
2. The length of the top view of a straight line parallel to H.P. and inclined at an angle of 30º to
the V.P. is 60 mm. one end A of the straight line is 20 mm above the H.P. and 15 mm infront
of the V.P. Draw its projection.
3. A line PQ has one of its end 60 mm above H.P. and 20 mm infront of V.P. The other end is 15
mm above H.P. and 45 mm infront of V.P. The front view of the line is 70 mm long. Draw the
projections of line.
4. A straight line PQ has point P 40 mm above H.P. and 30 mm in front of V.P. The front view
and top view of the straight line measure 90 mm and 80 mm respectively. Draw the projec-
tions if the front view of the line make 45º with XY. Find out the length of the line and its
inclination with H.P. and V.P.
5. The end P of a line PQ 100 mm long is 15 mm in front of V.P. and 25 mm above H.P. The end
Q is 30 mm in front of V.P. and 40 mm above H.P. Draw the projections trace and find
inclinations of the line with the H.P. and V.P.
6. The view from the front of a line PQ 160 mm measures 140 mm and its view from above
measures 120 mm. The mid-point of the line PQ is 70 mm from both the planes. Draw the
projections of the line PQ.
7. The length of the plan of a straight line PQ is 50 mm and the length of elevation is 70 mm.
The plan PQ is inclined at 30º to XY line. Draw the projections of the line, assuming point
P to be situated on H.P. and 20 mm infront of V.P. Also find the true length and true
inclinations with H.P. & V.P.
8. A line PQ is 60 mm long makes an angle of 30º with the V.P. and lies in a plane perpendicu-
lar to both H.P. and V.P. Its end P is in the H.P. and Q is in the V.P. Draw the projections
and show its traces.
9. A line PQ 70 mm long has its and P in both H.P. and V.P. the line is kept inclined at 45º to
H.P. and 30º to V.P. Draw its projections.
Chapter
8
Projection of Plane
8.1 INTRODUCTION
A plane has only two dimensions, i.e. length and breadth with negligible thickness. A
plane has no boundary and it extends to infinity in all direction. A plane may be of any
shape such as, square rectangle, circle, pentagon, hexagon etc.
129
130 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
V.P.
.
V.T
V.T.
NO H.T.
P.
P.
H.
H.
H.
T
a¢ b¢
b¢
V.P. B
NO VT
a¢
A
o¢1 d¢ c¢
c¢
C
FRONT VIEW
d¢
D
X Y
Y
b(c)
HT
H .P. HT
a(d) b(c)
a(d) TOP VIEW
X
Fig. 8.3 Fig. 8.4
Projection of Plane 131
(d¢)a¢
VT b¢(c¢)
.
V.P b¢(c¢) C
B FRONT VIEW
VT
a¢(d¢)
D A X Y
d c
c NO HT
b
P.
H.
a b
d a TOP VIEW
X
Fig. 8.5 Fig. 8.6
b¢(a¢) A B
VT
c¢(d¢) C
D
HT b P.
a
(c) H.
(d)
X
Fig. 8.7
132 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
The projection of plane on V.P. is b′c′ and on H.P. is ab respectively. Both the views
are lines perpendicular to the reference line. The front view b′c′ and top view ab
coincides with V.T and H.T. The projections and trace obtained are drawn with the
reference line as shown in Fig. 8.8.
X1
a¢¢ b¢¢
(a¢)b¢
VT
(d¢)c¢ c¢¢
d¢¢
X Y
(d)a
HT
(c)b
y1
Fig. 8.8
b¢
. B
V.P a¢
A
VT
c¢
C
d¢
D
Y
HT
f b(c)
a(d)
P.
H.
X
Fig. 8.9
Projection of Plane 133
The front view a′b′c′d′ is projected on V.P. is smaller than the true shape. The
top view is projected on H.P., is a line ab inclined at an angle of φ to the reference
line.
Its V.T. is perpendicular to the reference line whereas its H.T. is inclined at the
same angle φ to the reference line when produced.
The projections and traces obtained are drawn with the reference line as shown
in Fig. 8.10.
a¢ b¢
VT
C B
b¢(c¢)
d¢ c¢ .
V.P
VT
X Y
D
(d¢)a¢ A
a(d)
f
Y
c P.
b H.
HT q
d
a
HT
X
b(c)
The top view abcd is projected on H.P. smaller than the true shape. The front view
is projected on V.P. is a line a′b′ inclined at an angle θ to the reference line. Its H.T.
is perpendicular to the reference line whereas its V.T. is inclined at the same angle
θ to the reference line when produced. The projections and traced obtained are drawn
with the reference line as shown in Fig. 8.12.
134 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
b¢(c¢)
VT
a¢(d¢)
X Y
d c
HT
a b
Fig. 8.12
Problem 1. Show the following planes by means of their traces in first quadrant.
(i) Perpendicular to the H.P. and the V.P.
(ii) Parallel to V.P. and 25 mm away from the V.P.
(iii) Perpendicular to H.P. and inclined at an angle of 45° to V.P.
Solution: See Fig. 8.13
V.P. NO V.T.
X Y
H.P.
45°
25
HP INCLINED TO V.P.
AT AN ANGLE 45°
H.T.
H.T. PARALLEL TO XY
Fig. 8.13
Projection of Plane 135
Problem 2. A square plane of side 40 mm has its surface parallel to V.P. and perpendicular
to H.P. Draw its projections when one of the side is inclined at an angle of 30° to H.P.
Solution: See Fig. 8.14
d¢
40
a¢
c¢
b¢
X Y
a (b) d c
TOP VIEW
Fig. 8.14
c¢(d¢) b¢(a¢)
FRONT VIEW
VP VT
X Y
HP
d a
c b
TOP VIEW
NO HT
Fig. 8.15
136 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
V.T.
30
t
d¢ a¢
FRONT VIEW
VP
X Y
HP
c(d) f = 30°
H.
T.
40
b(a)
TOP VIEW
Fig. 8.16
Problem 5. A pentagonal plate of side 30 mm is placed with one side on H.P. and the
surface inclined at 45° to H.P. perpendicular to V.P. Draw its projections and obtain the
traces.
Solution: See Fig. 8.17.
When a plane is placed with its surface inclined 45° to H.P. and perpendicular to
V.P. Draw the top view which will have the true shape. Project the front view which will
be a line parallel to reference line. Now, reproduce the front view tilted to the given
angle 45° to H.P. and project the top view of the plane which will be smaller than the
true shape.
c¢1
b¢1
d¢1
X d e¢1 Y
d1
e e1
c1
30
a1
a
b b1
Fig. 8.17
Projection of Plane 137
e¢1
d¢1
(f1¢ )
c¢1
(g¢1)
b¢1
45°
a¢ b¢ c¢ d¢ e¢ a¢1 (h¢1)
X (h¢) (g¢) (f¢) Y
g g1
h
f h1 f1
e
a e1
a1
f
b d d1
b1
c c1
Fig. 8.18
(ii) In the second stage, the front view is tilted so as to make the required angle
with the principal plane (H.P. in the present case). Project top view from the
straightline front view in second stage. The top view will be smaller in size.
(iii) In the third stage, the position of top view of second stage is tilted at an angle
which is given to be making with the V.P. There is only change in the position
of top view but its shape and size will not be affected. Project the final front view
and top view.
Case 2 When the plane is inclined to V.P. and an edge is parallel to the V.P. and inclined
to the H.P.
(i) In the initial stage, the plane is assumed parallel to the V.P. and its projections
are drawn.
(ii) In the second stage, the top view is tilted so as to make the required angle with
the principal plane V.P. The top view will be a straight line and front view will
be smaller in size.
(iii) In the third stage, the position of front view of second stage is tilted at an angle
which is given to the making with the H.P. There is only change in the position
of top view but its shape and size will not be affected. Project the final front view
and top view.
If a plane is required to rest on one edge/side, the edge/side is drawn perpendicular
to XY line in the initial state. Similarly, if a plane is required to rest on corner, the
corner is arranged on one side while drawing true shape.
Case I When the plane is inclined to H.P. and an edge is parallel to the H.P. and
inclined to the V.P.
Problem 7. A regular pentagonal plate, of 20 mm sides, rests on H.P. on one of its sides
such that it is inclined to the H.P. at 40º and the side of pentagon on which it rests,
inclined at 45º to the V.P. Draw the projections of the plate.
Solution: See Fig. 8.19.
(i) In the first stage, assume the plane is parallel to H.P. The top view abcde will
be the true shape and front view (a′b′ – e′c′ – d′) will be a straight line. Note that
one side of pentagon ab is perpendicular to V.P.
(ii) In the second stage the front view (a′b′ – e′c′ – d′) is tilted at 40º with XY. Draw
projectors vertically downward front view and horizontally from first stage top
view, intersection of two gives points a1, b1, c1 d1 and e1 a1 b1 c1 d1 e is top view
in IInd stage and smaller in size.
(iii) In the IIIrd stage, the position of top view is tilted at 45º to XY line. The side
a2b2 is inclined at 45º. Automatically all the sides will be inclined at 45º.
Complete the final front view by projecting vertically upward from the top view
and horizontally front view (a′2b′2 – e′2c′2 – d2) as shown in Fig. 8.19.
Projection of Plane 139
d¢ d¢2
¢
V.P.
,b
a¢, b¢ e¢, c¢ 40° a¢2 b¢2
a¢
d¢
X Y
H.P. 45°
e e2
e1 d2
a1
a
a2
45°
d d1
c2
c c1
TOP VIEW
Fig. 8.19
Problem 8. A circular disc of 36 mm diameter resting in the H.P. on its rim and inclined
at 45º to the H.P. Draw its projections when diameter (BD) is inclined to V.P. at 30º.
Solution: See Fig. 8.20.
c¢ c¢2
TILTED
FRONT VIEW
d¢2 b¢2
b¢1, d¢
d d1 d2 c2
a1
a c1
c b2
a2
TILTED
TOP VIEW
b b1
TOP VIEW
Fig. 8.20
140 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
(i) Assume the plane is parallel to H.P. Draw top view and front view. Divide the
circle in top view into 8 equal parts for the purpose of obtaining points in the
final projections. This completes first stage.
(ii) In second state, the front view (a′ – b′d′ – c′) is tilted at 45º angle and draw top
view using horizontal and vertical projectors as explained previously.
(iii) In third stage, the top view (IInd stage) is tilted at 30º angle to XY line. Complete
the final front view using horizontal projectors from IInd stage front view
(a′2 – b′2d′2 – c′2) and vertical projection from tilted top view.
EXERCISE
1. A square plane ABCD of side 45 mm is perpendicular to H.P. and parallel to V.P. Draw
its projections and locate its traces.
2. A rectangular plane ABCD of edges AB = 30 mm and BC = 40 mm is placed such that the
edge AB is:
(i) Perpendicular to H.P. and parallel to V.P.
(ii) Parallel to H.P. and perpendicular to V.P.
Draw its projections and traces.
3. A square ABCD of 40 mm side has its end 10 mm above H.P. and 20 mm infront of V.P.
All the sides of the square are equally inclined to H.P. and parallel to V.P. Draw its
projections and locate its traces.
4. A regular hexagonal plate of 30 mm side, is resting on one of its sides/edges in H.P. making
an angle of 45º to H.P. and perpendicular to V.P. Its corner nearest to V.P. is 20 mm away
from the V.P. Draw its projections and locate its traces.
5. A square plate, each side 40 mm has its one corner on V.P. surface of the plate makes
an angle of 45º with V.P. and it is perpendicular to H.P. Draw its projections and locate
its traces.
Chapter
9
Projection of Solids
9.1 INTRODUCTION
A solid is a three dimensional object, specified by its length, breadth and thickness. It is
bounded by planes or curved surfaces. The simplest method of representing the solid is
drawing at least two orthographic views—one is front view, showing length and thickness
(height) and the other view is known as top view, showing length and breadth only.
Sometimes, additional view such as side view may be drawn for complete description of
the object for clarity.
9.3 POLYHEDRA
A polyhedron is defined as, a solid which is bounded by plane surfaces or faces. The
boundary lines of the faces of a solid are called edges. It may be regular or irregular. The
polyhedra are of the following types:
9.3.1.1 Tetrahedron
Appex
A tetrahedron is bounded by four equal, equilateral triangular O
faces as shown in Fig. 9.1. It has four faces, six equal edges and Edge
four vertices.
Face
141
142 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
D Top face
A C
B
d
a c
Base
b
Fig. 9.2
9.3.1.3 Octahedron
An octahedron is bounded by eight equal equilateral triangles as shown in Fig. 9.3. It has
twelve edges and six vertices.
o2
A C
B
o1
Fig. 9.3
9.3.1.4 Dodecahedron
A dodecahedron is bounded twelve equal faces, each one being a regular pentagon as
shown in Fig. 9.4. It has thirty equal edges and twenty vertices.
Fig. 9.4
9.3.2 Prism
A prism is a solid plain surfaces, having two equal and similar faces parallel to each
other which, are called the ends and the other faces are parallelograms. The lower end of
a prism is called the bottom face and the upper one is called the top face. The axis of a
prism is the imaginary straight line joining the centroids of its ends. A prism is named
after the shape of its ends, such as a triangular prism, a square prism, a rectangular
prism, a pentagonal prism, a hexagonal prism etc. as shown in Fig. 9.5.
Projection of Solids 143
Top face C
C B
Longer edge D B
A
A
Axis
Face R
R Q
S Q
Bottom face
P P
(i) Triangular prism (ii) Square prism
D C E D
F C
E B
A B
S R T
S
U R
T Q
P Q
P
(iii) Pentagonal prism (iv) Hexagonal prism
Fig. 9.5
9.3.3 Pyramids
A pyramid is a solid, contained by plane figures, having a base and a number of triangular
faces meeting at a point, called the apex or vertex. A pyramid is named after the shape of
its base such as, a triangular pyramid, a square pyramid, a rectangular pyramid, a
pentagonal pyramid, hexagonal pyramid etc., as shown in Fig. 9.6.
144 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Vertex Vertex
o O
Slant edges
Axis
Axis
Triangular
face
A C
A
C
Base
B B
(i) Triangular pyramid (ii) Square pyramid
O
O
E
F
E D D
A
A C
C
B
B
(iii) Pentagonal pyramid (iv) Hexagonal pyramid
Fig. 9.6
9.4.1 Cone
A cone is a solid, obtained by the revolution of a right angled triangle, about one of its
perpendicular sides which remains fixed.
It has a circular base and an apex or vertex. The line joining the centre of the base
with the apex is called axis as shown in Fig. 9.7(i).
9.4.2 Cylinder
A cylinder is a solid, obtained by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its sides which
remains fixed. It has two circular faces. The lower end of a cylinder is called the bottom
face and the upper one is called the top face as shown in Fig. 9.7(ii).
The axis of the cylinder is the side about which the rectangle revolves i.e., the line
joining the centres of the ends of the cylinder is its axis.
9.4.3 Sphere
A sphere is a solid, obtained by the revolution of a semi-circular solid about its diameter,
which remains fixed. The mid-point of the diameter is the centre of sphere as shown in
Fig. 9.7(iii).
Top face
Apex
Axis
Generator
Axis Generator
Base
Base
Fig. 9.7
9.5.1 Frustum
When a solid is cut by a cutting plane parallel to the base, after removing the top portion
is called the frustum. For example, if a conical pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to its
146 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
base and the top portion is removed, the remaining bottom portion is called the frustum of
a conical pyramid as shown in Fig. 9.8.
CUT SURFACE PARALLEL TO THE BASE
AXIS
BASE
9.5.2 Truncated
When a solid such as prism, cylinder, pyramid and cone is cut by a cutting plane inclined
to the base top portion is removed, the remaining bottom portion is called the truncated
solid as shown in Fig. 9.9.
CUT SURFACE INCLINED TO THE BASE
AXIS
BASE
Fig. 9.9
a¢(d¢) b¢(c¢)
p¢(s¢) q¢(r¢)
A
20
FRONT VIEW
X Y
10
d (s) c (r)
R
Q
P
(i)
F
a (p) b (q)
40
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.10
148 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 2. Project the top view and front view of a square prism of 40 mm side and 60 mm
height, having its axis vertical and its face infront of and parallel to the V.P. as shown in
Fig. 9.11 (i).
Solution. A pictorial view of a square prism is shown in Fig. 9.11 (i) where ABCD is the
top face, PQRS is the base and four rectangular faces are bounded by the vertical edges
AP, BQ, CR and DS.
1. Prism rests with its base on H.P. Hence the top face ABCD is parallel to H.P. Also
edges BC is perpendicular to V.P. Therefore, draw the top view abcd, as a square of
side 40 mm with edge bc perpendicular to XY.
2. The base PQRS is hidden by ABCD. Therefore, in the top view mark the four cor-
ners of the base as (p), (q), (r), (s) i.e. (p) and a coincide, (q) and b coincide etc.
3. Draw the projector from the top view.
4. Look at the prism from the front. The base PQRS is above XY-axis and marks in
front view p', q', r', s'.
5. Height 60 mm is seen in the front view. Hence, draw a horizontal line 60 mm above
p', r', to cut the projectors draw from a, b, c, d at a', b', c' and d' respectively.
6. Now complete front view of a square prism as shown in Fig. 9.11 (ii).
a¢(d¢) b¢(c¢)
C Top Face
B
60
p¢ (s¢) q¢(r¢)
R FRON VIEW
S d (s) c (r)
Q
40
(i)
F a (p) b (q)
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.11
Projection of Solids 149
Problem 3: A triangular prism, side of base 40 mm and height 60 mm, is resting on its
base on the H.P. One side of the base is parallel to V.P and its opposite corner is nearer to
V.P as shown in Fig. 9.12(i). Draw its projections.
Solution: 1. Look at the pictorial view. Since the prism rests with its base on H.P; as
shown in Fig. 9.12(i).
2. Look at the prism from top. Edge AB is parallel to V.P.
3. Draw the top view of Δabc, which is an equilateral triangle of 40 mm side below
XY-axis, having side ab parallel to XY and corner c nearer to XY.
4. Base PQR is hidden by the top face ABC. So in the top view mark (p), (q), (r) i.e. (p)
and a coincide, (q) and b coincide etc.
5. Draw the projectors from top view.
6. Look from the front, base PQR is on H.P. so mark p′, q′, r′ on XY as shown in
Fig. 9.12(ii).
7. Height 60 mm is seen in the front view. Draw a horizontal line at a height of
60 mm long above reference line. It cuts the projectors from a, b and c at a', b', c′
respectively.
8. Now complete the front view of the triangular prism as shown in Fig. 9.12(ii).
B a¢ c¢ b¢
C
A
60
Q
R
P F X
p¢ r¢ q¢
Y
(i)
FRONT VIEW
c(r)
a (p) b(q)
40
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.12
150 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 4: Draw the projections of a pentagonal prism of base side 30 mm and axis
length 70 mm resting on H.P. One of its base with a side of base parallel to V.P. as shown
in Fig. 9.13(i).
Solution. 1. Look at the pictorial view. ABCDE is the top face and PQRST is base. Since
the prism rests with its base on H.P. The view gives true size of the end face as shown in
Fig. 9.13(i).
2. Look the prism from the top. The face ABCDE is parallel to H.P. its base is a penta-
gon with a side DE (ST) parallel to XY.
3. Draw the top view abcd and e (a pentagon of side 30 mm). Base is hidden and its
top view is marked as (p), (q), (r), (s), (t).
4. Look from the front and draw the front view of the base p', q', r', s' and t' on XY line.
5. Height 70 mm is seen in the front view. Draw the horizontal line on XY and mark
the front view of the top face as a', b', c', d', e'.
6. Now complete front view of a pentagonal prism as shown in Fig. 9.13(ii).
a¢ e¢ b¢ d¢ c¢
D
C
70
E
B
X Y
p¢ t¢ q¢ s¢ r¢
FRONT VIEW
S
R
) d(
e (t s)
T
Q
P
(i) F a (p) c (r)
b (q)
30
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.13
Projection of Solids 151
D
E
60
C
F
B
A
S u¢ p¢(t¢) q¢(s¢) r¢
T
15
FRONT VIEW
R
x Y
U
10
Q e (t) d (s)
(i)
f (u) c (r)
a (p) b (q)
30
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.14
152 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
a¢ b¢(d¢) c¢
60
D
A C
X Y
p¢ q¢(s¢) (r¢)
B FRONT VIEW
d(s)
P R
a (p) c(r)
(i)
b(q)
f 40
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.15
Projection of Solids 153
Problem 7. Draw the projections of a square pyramid, side of base 40 mm and axis is
60 mm long as shown in Fig. 9.16 (i). The pyramid is 15 mm above H.P and 20 mm in front
of V.P, with its axis vertical and two sides of its base parallel to V.P.
Solution: See Fig. 9.16(ii).
o¢
60
o
a¢(d¢) b¢(c¢)
FRONT VIEW
15
C
X Y
B 20
D
d c
(i)
o
40
a b
40
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.16
154 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 8. A pentagonal pyramid base 30 mm edge and axis 50 mm long, has its base on
the H.P. and one edge of the base parallel to the V.P. as shown in Fig. 9.17(i). Draw its
projection.
Solution. 1. Look at the pictorial view. Base ABCDE, apex O and slant edge are OA, OB ...
etc.
2. Draw the pentagon prism abcde of side 30 mm with ab parallel to XY.
3. Draw the perpendicular bisectors of any two sides of the pentagon to intersect at o,
the top view of the apex and join oa, ob, etc.
4. Mark a', b', c', d', e' the front view of the base on XY. Mark o' front view of the apex
50 mm above XY. Join o', e' etc. to represent front view of the slant edge.
5. Now complete the top view and front view of a pentagonal pyramid as shown in
Fig. 9.17(ii).
o¢
50
X Y
e¢ a¢ d¢ b¢ c¢
FRONT VIEW
D C
a b
E B
o c
e
A
30
d
(i)
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.17
Projection of Solids 155
60
F E
X Y
a¢ b¢(f¢) o¢ c¢(e¢) d¢
FRONT VIEW
15
A D f e
B C
(i) a d
o
30
b c
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.18
Problem 10. A cone, base 30 mm diameter, axis 50 mm long, when resting with its base
on H.P as shown in Fig. 9.19(i). Draw its projection.
Solution. See Fig. 9.19(ii).
o¢
O
50
D X Y
a¢ b¢(d¢)
FRONT VIEW
d
A C
B a c
o
(i)
b
f 30
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 9.19
156 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
EXERCISE
1. What do you understand by projection of solids?
2. Name the various types of regular polyhedra.
3. Draw the top and front view of a cube of 35 mm side resting with one of its square faces on
H.P., such that one of its vertical face is parallel and 15 mm infront of V.P.
4. A pentagonal pyramid side of base 25 mm and height 50 mm rests on its base on H.P. such
that one of its base edge is perpendicular to the V.P. Draw its projections and develop its
Lateral Surface.
5. A pentagonal prism, side of base 30 mm and axis 70 mm, lies on one of its triangular face in
H.P. with its axis perpendicular to the V.P. Draw its projections of one end face of the prism
be 10 mm in front of V.P.
6. A pentagonal plate of side 30 mm is placed with one side one H.P. and the surface inclined
at 50º to H.P. perpendicular to V.P. Draw its projection.
7. A right circular cone, diameter of base 40 mm and height 70 mm, lies on H.P. and its axis
parallel to V.P. Draw the projection of the cone.
8. A hexagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and axis 70 mm is resting on H.P. on one of its
sides with its base parallel to and 15 mm infront of V.P. Draw its projections.
Chapter
10
Section of Solids
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Section views, commonly known as sections are used to show the interior details of an
object that are too complicated to be shown clearly by regular views using hidden lines.
The main aim of sectioning is to show the interior details of complicated machine
parts. In order to achieve this, the object is supposed to be cut by a plane and is lying
between the observer and the section plane is removed to bring out the interior details of
the object clearly. The exposed surface of the solid is known as the section and the cut-
ting plane as section plane.
The sections are generally shown by hatching lines, i.e. by drawing thin parallel lines
inclined to the main outline or axis of the views, usually at an angle of 45º. The gap
between two hatching lines is 2 mm.
10.2 TERMINOLOGY
o
(i) Section: The surface obtained by cutting
the object by a section plane is known as
section.
(ii) Section views: The projection of the section
A A¢
of an object is known as sectional view. The
cut portion shown on H.P is known as q¢ p¢
s¢ r¢
sectional top view and that on V.P as
sectional front view. t¢ u¢
157
158 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
(v) Apparent section: The projection of a section on the principal plane to which the
section plane is perpendicular is a straight line coinciding with the face of the
section plane on it whereas its projection on the principal plane to which it is
inclined is apparent section as shown in Fig. 10.2.
p
a¢ (d¢) b¢ 3¢ c¢
(4¢)
2¢ Y1
20
4¢
(5¢)
3¢
1¢ 60º 5¢ 2¢
s
X (d1¢) b 1¢ c 1¢ Y
30º
d(d1)
5 X1
4
c(c1)
1¢
a(a1)
1 3 Apparent shape
2 b(b1)
Fig. 10.2
a¢(d¢) b¢(c¢)
20
A A¢
e¢(h¢) f ¢(g¢)
60
D
A H C
20
G X Y
E
B FRONT VIEW
h g
40
40
(i)
e f
40
Fig. 10.3
160 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 2. A hexagonal pyramid, side of base 30 mm and height 60 mm, with its axis
vertical and two sides of its base parallel to V.P. is cut by a horizontal plane which passes
through its axis, 35 mm below its vertex as shown in Fig. 10.4(i). Draw sectional top view
and front view.
Solution.
1. Draw the section plane to XY and passing through the axis at 35 mm below the
vertex o'.
2. Name the points p', q', r', s' etc where the section plane cuts the visible edges o'a',
o'b' and o'c' respectively.
3. Show the remaining part of the pyramid a', b', c', (d' ), (e' ), f '.
4. Project the section points on corresponding edges in the top view i.e., mark p on
oa, q on ob... etc.
5. Join p, q, r, s, t, u by these lines and hatch this area and complete the sectional top
view as shown in Fig. 10.4(ii).
o¢
35
A A¢
60
U T u¢ p¢ q¢ r¢
P S
25
25
Q R
E
f¢ (e¢) b¢ (d¢) c¢
F X Y
a¢ FRONT VIEW
O D e d
A
t s
30 C
B f c
u r
(i) p q
a b
30
Fig. 10.4
Section of Solids 161
Problem 3. A cone of 40 mm diameter and 60 mm height with its axis vertical is cut by a
horizontal plane, 30 mm below its vertex as shown in Fig. 10.5(i). Draw its front view and
sectional top view.
Solution.
1. Fig. 10.5(i) shows the pictorial view of a cone cut and the upper portion removed.
The sectional top view is observed in the direction A.
2. Draw the section plane XY passing through the axis at 30 mm below the vertex o'.
3. Name the points p', q', r', s' where the section plane cuts the visible edges o'a' and
o'c' respectively.
4. Show the remaining parts of the cone a', b', c', d'.
5. Project the section point on corresponding edges in top view i.e., mark p, q, r, s.
6. Draw the circle and hatch this area and complete the sectional top view as shown
in Fig. 10.5(ii).
o¢
30
A A¢
p¢ s¢(q¢) r¢
60
O
a¢ b¢(d¢) c¢
30
FRONT VIEW
Q X Y
d
P R
q
30
D S
A C a p r c
O o
A B s
(i)
f 40
Fig. 10.5
162 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
a¢ e¢ b¢ f¢ c¢
A B
E O
60
D C
F
g¢ d¢ h¢
SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW
60
G b
A H
12
a o c
(i)
12
e f
A d A
f 40
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 10.6
Section of Solids 163
60
D
B
E
X Y
g¢ f¢
60
G c b
20
d e
A A
20
(i)
a
35
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 10.7
2. Draw section plane at 60º to XY and passing through a point on the axis 20 mm
from its top end. Name the section points p', r', q' s' and t' in front view.
3. Project the section points on the corresponding edges in the top view and draw the
cut surface. Then complete the sectional top view as shown in Fig. 10.8.
A
a¢ (d¢) b¢ 3¢ c¢d
(4¢)
2¢
20
(5¢)
60
60º
1¢
X Y
a1¢ (d1¢ ) b1¢ c1¢
A
d(d1)
5
c(c1)
x
(a1)a
1
3 AF
2 b (b1)
Problem 7. A pentagonal pyramid, side of base 35 mm and height 60 mm, rests with its
base on H.P. and an edge of its base is parallel to V.P. A section plane perpendicular to V.P.
and inclined at 45º to H.P. passes through the axis at a point 40 mm above the base. Draw
the sectional top view.
Solution. See Fig. 10.9.
Section of Solids 165
O¢
A
r¢
s¢
q¢ u¢
t¢
p¢
40
A
45º
X Y
a¢ (e)¢ b¢ (d)¢ c¢
FRONT VIEW
e d
t
s
r u
a p c
b
SECTIONAL TOP VIEW
Fig. 10.9
a¢ p¢ (d¢) q¢ b¢ c¢
60
p¢¢
d(d1) q¢¢
A
(s)p
c(c1)
r¢¢
a(a1)
35
(r)q b(b1)
A
TOP VIEW
Fig. 10.10
EXERCISE
1. Define different types of section planes.
2. A cube of 55 mm side rests with a face on H.P. Such that one of its vertical face is inclined
at 30º to V.P. A section plane parallel to V.P. cuts the cube at a distance of 12 mm from the
vertical edge. Draw its top and sectional front views.
3. A cylinder of 30 mm diameter and 60 mm length is lying with its axis at an angle of 45º to the
V.P. It is cut by a horizontal sectional plane V.T. at a distance 12 mm infront of the axis.
Draw the true sectional plan of the cylinder. (January 2009, B.T.E. New Delhi)
4. A cylinder of base diameter 50 mm and height 60 mm rests on its base on H.P. It is cut by a
plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 45º to H.P. The cutting plane meets the axis at
a distance 15 mm from top to the base. Draw the sectional top view and true shape of
section.
5. A right circular cone diameter of base 60 mm and height 80 mm, has its base in the H.P. and
it is cut by an inclined plane cutting the axis at an angle of 45º at a point 30 mm below the
vertex. Draw the top view, front view and find the true shape of section.
Chapter
11
Intersection of Solids
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Intersection occurs frequently in the design world. Therefore, a deep knowledge of it is
must for designers and engineers.
The intersecting surfaces may be two plane surfaces or two curved surfaces of solids.
The lateral surface of every solid taken as a whole is a curved surface. This surface may
be made of only curved surface as in case of cylinders, cones etc. or of plane surface as in
case of prisms, pyramids etc. In the former case the problem is said to be “intersection of
surfaces” and in the latter case, it is known as interpenetration of solids.
When one solid penetrates the other, it is known as interpenetration of solids.
In both the above cases the surfaces of the solids come in contact with another, the
former is known as “the curve of intersection of surfaces” and the later “the curve of
interpenetration”.
It may be curved, straight or combination of curved and straight lines that occurs
when geometrical surfaces such as cylinders, cones, prisms etc. intersect each other. In
many engineering components such as different shapes of containers; tanks, machine
casting, boiler shells, pipe joints etc, interpenetration of one part into another part may
appear, hence the knowledge in intersection of their surface is required in order to
fabricate those parts. The methods presented in this chapter are reorganized procedure
for finding the more complicated lines of intersecting created by intersection of geometrical
surface.
167
168 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
f 40
B10 A10 10
11
A9, 11 9
A8, 12 12
B1, 7 A1, 7 8
f 40
70
1
7
6
5 2
3
B4 A4 4
7¢
8¢-6¢
9¢-5¢
10¢-4¢
f 40
11¢-3¢
12¢-2¢
1¢
80
TOP VIEW
Fig. 11.1 (ii)
Intersection of Solids 169
Method Ist
Line Method
1. Draw the top, front and left side views of the vertical cylinder.
2. Draw the left side view of the horizontal cylinder as a circle of diameter 40 mm
such that its centre is at the mid-point of the axis of the vertical cylinder. Divide
the circle into 12 equal parts and mark point 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
3. Project these points on circle in the top view as 1', 2', 3' ... etc.
4. Transfer these points 1', 2', 3' ... from top view to front view by projectors so as to
cut the corresponding points projected from the left side view.
5. Join all the intersecting points and draw a smooth curve as shown in
Fig. 11.1(ii)
Method IInd
Cutting Plane Method
Assume a series of horizontal section planes, passing through the generators of the hori-
zontal cylinder to cut both the cylinders. For all the horizontal section planes, the sec-
tional top view of the vertical cylinder will always be circle of 50 mm diameter. The cut-
ting planes passing through the lines 2-12 as shown in Fig. 11.2. Points at which circle
and rectangles intersect each other, will lie on the curve of intersection. P2, P12 are two
such points at which the sides of the rectangle cut the circle. Other cutting plane may be
3-11, 4-10, 5-9 etc. and corresponding intersecting points are p3 and p11, p4 and p10, p5 and
p9 etc. Join all the intersecting points and draw a smooth curve. Another intersecting
curve on right side may be completed similarly.
12
p12 2′
3
12
11 4
10 1
2 p p3
2
9 3
p4
8
4 Curve of
Intersection
7 5
6
Fig. 11.2
170 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
b¢3
b¢m
a¢3 b¢2
b¢1
a¢m
3 a¢2 a¢ b¢n
1 b¢8¢
2 4
a¢8¢ b¢7
5
1 6 a1n
a¢7
8
7
Fig. 11.3(i)
10
x1
1¢¢ 5¢¢
5¢ 1¢ a¢1 b¢1
6¢ 8¢ a¢8 b¢8
q¢ 8¢¢ 6¢¢
a¢n b¢n
7¢ q¢¢
a¢7 b¢7 n¢¢ 7¢¢
1
a1 b1
2 8 a2 a8 b8 b2
am an bn bm
3 7
a3 a7 b7 b3
4 6
p(q)
5
f 50 TOP VIEW
y1
Solution. 1. Draw the front, top and side views of the prism in the given position.
e¢ 1¢ e¢ e¢¢
1¢¢
f¢ 4¢ f¢
3¢¢ 40
g¢
3¢ g¢ g¢¢
4
f f
50
e 1 3 e
g a c g
h h
2
b
80
TOP VIEW
Fig. 11.4 (ii)
2. The faces of the vertical prism are seen as lines in the top. Hence locate the
points of intersection in the top view as shown in Fig. 11.4 (ii) e.g. line
h – h intersects the line ab at 2.
3. Project all these points in front view on the corresponding lines such as point 2 is
projected to 2' on h'h' where 2' coincides with 4'.
4. Join these points by straight lines, which will be the line of intersection. Thus,
the lines 1' 2' and 2' 3' are lines of intersection.
5. Complete the intersection of the square prism as shown in Fig. 11.4 (ii).
Problem 4: A square prism, side of base 50 mm and height 70 mm stands with its base on
H.P and two of its rectangular faces are equally inclined to V.P. It is completely penetrated
by a horizontal square prism side of base 35 mm and axis 70 mm long, such that the axis
of the two prisms intersect each other at right angle. The two rectangular faces of the
horizontal prism are equally inclined to H.P. and its axis is parallel to V.P. Draw the
projection of the prisms showing the lines of intersection.
Intersection of Solids 173
q¢ 2¢ 6¢ q¢¢
q 1¢
(q1¢¢)
70
(r¢) (r1¢¢)
r1¢ (p1¢¢)
(s1¢¢)
s¢ s1 ¢
4¢ 8¢ s¢¢
(b1¢) (d1¢)
a¢ a 1¢ d1¢¢ a² a 1² b 1²
FRONT VIEW
d (d1)
3 SIDE VIEW
7
r
r1
2 (4) (8) 6
(s) q
a (a1) a (a1) q1 (s1)
p p1
1 5
b (b1)
TOP VIEW
Fig. 11.5
Problem 5. A cone of base 50 mm diameter and axis 80 mm long rests with its base on
H.P. It is completely penetrated by a horizontal cylinder of 35 mm diameter such that both
the axis intersect each other at right angles. The axes
of the cylinder is parallel to V.P. and 20 mm above the
base of the cone as shown in Fig. 11.6(i). Draw the
projections of the solid.
Solution: 1. Draw the top view, front view and side view
of given cone.
2. On the axis of the cone in the side view mark o''
at 20 mm above the base of the cone to represent
the axis of the horizontal cylinder. With o'' as
centre and 35 mm as diameter draw a circle to
represent the cylinder. Project the corresponding
front and top views of the cylinder and name the
(i)
generators as shown in Fig. 11.6(ii).
Fig. 11.6
174 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
0¢
f 35
1¢ a¢1 p¢1 a¢ 1¢1 (1²1 )1²1
12²
80
(12¢)2¢ 2²
b¢1 b¢ 2¢1(12¢1) n²
c¢1 p¢4 q¢4 c¢ 11²
(10¢)4¢ 4²
d¢1 p¢10 d¢ 4¢1(10¢1) 10²
(8¢)6¢ (5²1)
6¢1(8¢1)
20
7¢ 6²
q¢1 7¢1 8² 7²
10 101
p12 q12 121(81)
(8) 12
p1 q1 11(71)
(7) 1
p2 q2 21(61)
(6) 2
4
p4 q4 41
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 11.6
Problem 6. A cone base 50 mm diameter axis 80 mm long, is resting on its base on the
H.P. It is completely penetrated by a cylinder of 40 mm dia, 90 mm long, the axis of
which is parallel to both the reference planes and intersects the axis of the cone. Draw
the projections of the solids showing the curves of intersection. Using the cutting plane
method.
Solution. 1. Draw the front view, top view and side view of the solids in the given
position.
2. Divide the circle in side view into 12 equal parts. Project these division points
in the front view and top view.
3. In Fig. 11.7, assume a horizontal cutting plane passing through points 2 and 12.
The section of the cylinder is a rectangle of width 2–12 while that of the cone is
a circle of diameter ee. These two sections intersect at point P2 and P12.
4. Mark the points a1 and b1, in the side view. Project these points in the front
view a' and b' and in the top view a and b on the corresponding lines.
f 50
a b
TOP VIEW
f 40
P2 P12 12 2
a¢ a1
b¢ b1
G L
Fig. 11.7
176 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
5. Similarly, obtain other points in the front view and top view, and draw the re-
quired curves through them. In the front view the back curve will coincide with
the front curve and obtain the similar curves on the left hand side of the axis of
the cone as shown in Fig. 11.7.
Problem 7: A cone penetrates a cylinder at right angle. The horizontal cone of base
60 mm diameter, axis 90 mm is penetrates by the vertical cylinder 50 mm diameter as
shown in Fig. 11.8(i). Draw the projections showing curves of intersection when the
vertex of cone reaches 60 mm byond the axis of the cylinder.
Solution: 1. Draw the front view and top view in the given position.
2. Draw the semi circle in the front view and top view and divide it in 12 equal
parts.
3. Project the point 1, 2, 3 etc. on the base of cone and join with the vertex point o'
and o in the front view and top view respectively.
10
f 50
11, 9
12, 8
60
1¢ 0
7, 1
90
6, 2 2¢
3¢
5, 3 4¢
4 TOP VIEW
60
7
8, 6
9, 5
(i)
10, 4 0¢
4²
11, 3 3²
2²
12, 2 1²
1²
FRONT VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 11.8
Intersection of Solids 177
4. Locate the points of intersection of generators and circle in top view. These
points are 1', 2', 3' etc.
5. Transfer these points 1', 2', 3' etc from top view to front view by projector so as to
cut the corresponding points projected from the half circle at 1'', 2'', 3'' etc and
draw similar points on the other side.
6. Join all the intersecting points and draw the smooth cone as shown in
Fig. 11.8(ii).
Problem 8. A vertical hexagonal duct, side 30 mm and height 80 mm is intersected by
a square branch duct 32 mm side at a distance 15 mm above the base whose axis in
inclined at an angle 60º to V.P. All the faces of the square branch duct are equally
inclined to the V.P. Draw the projections of the ducts showing lines of intersection.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view and front view of hexagonal duct in the given position.
2. Draw the centre line of the branch square duct at a distance 15 mm from the
base at an angle of 60º to V.P.
4¢
32
p¢4
4¢, 3¢
2¢
80
p¢1
p¢3 60º
p¢2
15
FRONT VIEW
1
p1
2
32
4 p2 p4
p3
3
30
TOP VIEW
Fig. 11.9
178 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
3. Draw the line 2' – 4' at right angle to the centre line.
4. Project the points 1', 2', 3', 4' from the front view and top view as points 1, 2, 3, 4
respectively.
5. Locate the points of intersection in top view. Points P1 and P3 are obtained when
the edge of vertical duct intersects lines through points 1 and 3 respectively.
Similarly locate the point P2 and P4.
6. Project the point P1, P2, P3, P4 in the front view to find exact corresponding position
where point P'3 coincides with P'1.
7. Draw lines joining P'4P'1 and P'1 P2'. These lines represent lines of intersection as
shown in Fig 11.9.
EXERCISE
1. Define the terms intersection of solid.
2. A square prism, base 50 mm side is resting vertically on the ground, having a face inclined
at 30º to the V.P. It is completely penetrated by a horizontal square prism, base 35 mm side,
the faces of which are equally inclined to the V.P. The axes of the two prisms are parallel to
the V.P. and bisect each other at right angles. Draw the projections of the solids showing
the lines of intersection.
3. A vertical square prism, side of base 30 mm and height 75 mm, is resting on ground on its
base with all faces equally inclined to V.P. It is penetrated by a horizontal square prism,
side of base 20 mm and height 80 mm so that their axes are 5 mm apart. The faces of the
horizontal prism are also equally inclined to the V.P. and the axis of horizontal prism is
parallel to the V.P. Draw the projection and show the line of intersection.
4. A cylinder of diameter 50 mm intersects into a cylinder of diameter 80 mm. Draw the front
view and top view of the solid, showing the curve of intersection when their axis intersect
each other at 60º.
5. A right circular cone, diameter of base 50 mm and height 70 mm is penetrated by a cylinder
of 25 mm diameter. Draw the front view, top view and curve of intersection.
Chapter
12
Development of Surfaces
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In engineering practice, the study of development of surfaces finds a wide practical
application in industries, such as packing, shiping, air-conditioning, fabrication etc.
Development of surfaces means unrolling of surface into a single plane. Development
is defined as a layout of the complete surface of an object. For example, cans, funnels,
cake pans, furnace, pipe, elbow, duct, chimneys, hoppers, boxes, buckets and process
vessels etc., are made from sheet metal is cut so that when folded, it takes the shape
of an object.
In industrial drawing, the development must be shown to furnish the necessary
information for making a pattern to facilitate the cutting of required shape from sheet
metal. Many manufactured items can be made by rolling, folding or pressing. These
operations require the use of development of surface. In this chapter, we will study the
development, and its engineering applications.
179
180 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Fold Lines
E
K
A
K K
B D
C
K
Fold Lines
E Fold Lines
A B C D Y Y
Fig. 12.1
Cylinder
Unroll
CIRCUMFERENCE PLUS
SEAM ALLOWANCE
HEIGHT
CIRCUMFERENCE
DEVELOPMENT LINES
FRONT VIEW DEVELOPMENT
D
C A
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.2(ii)
CIRCUMFERENCE PLUS
SEAM ALLOWANCE
C C C
D
B
D
A H2
A A
H
B
A
TOP VIEW CIRCUMFERENCE
D DEVELOPMENT
A
C A
B
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.2(iii)
182 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
0 1
A 2
1 2 3 4 5 7
0 11 6 A
10 9 8 7
FRONT VIEW
8
X Y
9
3
2 4
10
5
1
11
0 6
0
DEVELOPMENT
11 7
10 8
9
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.3
Problem 1: To develop a right cylinder of base diameter 50 mm and height 100 mm.
Solution:
1. Draw the front view and top view of a cylinder.
2. Draw a strech out line 1-1 equal to πD = 157 mm in line with front view. This is
equal to the circumference of the cylinder.
3. Draw the perpendiculars from point 1, 1 to cut the horizontal line projecting
from front view at a A, A.
4. Complete the development as shown in Fig. 12.4. In this the top and bottom
bases are omitted.
184 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
A A
100
1 1
f 50 pD = 3.14 × 50 = 157
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.4
7¢ Y
f g h
6¢
5¢ e i
4¢ d j
3¢ k
c
60
2¢ b l
1¢ 30º m
a
25
FRONT VIEW 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1
10 pD
11 9
12 8
DEVELOPMENT
1 7
2 6
3 5
4
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.5
Fold Lines
Fig. 12.6
Problem 3: Draw the development of the lateral surface of a right square prism of edge
of base 25 mm and axis 50 mm long.
Solution:
1. Draw the top view and front view of a square prism and name the corners.
2. Develop the lateral surface of the prism consisting of four equal rectangles of
size 50 mm × 25 mm respectively in square.
186 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
3. On the line A1–A1 set off four equal divisions AB, BC, CD and DA etc which are
equal to the length of the base edge 25 mm.
4. Project the perpendicular at A, B, C etc and cut off their heights equal to the
height of the prism.
5. Complete the four rectangles which gives the required development of the lat-
eral surface of the prism as shown in Fig. 12.7.
a¢(d¢) b¢(c¢) A B C D A
50
(d¢1)a¢1 (c¢1)b¢1 A1 B1 C1 D1 A1
FRONT VIEW
DEVELOPMENT
SQ 25
d(d1) c(c1)
a(a1) b(b1)
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.7
Problem 4: Develop the lateral surface of a right regular hexagonal prism of 25 mm
base edge and 60 mm height.
Solution: See Fig. 12.8.
d¢ e¢ f¢ a¢ A B C D E F A
c¢ b¢
60
r¢ q¢
p¢ p q r s t u p
s¢ t¢ u¢
FRONT VIEW 150
e f
DEVELOPMENT
t
u
d s p a
r q
c b
25
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.8
Development of Surfaces 187
45º
a¢ b¢ 3¢(4¢) c¢ A B 3 C D 4 E F A
10
2 5
2¢, 5¢
50
1¢(6¢) 6 1
1
u¢ t¢ s¢
p¢ q¢ r¢ P Q R S T U P
FRONT VIEW
e
t 4 150
f u s d DEVELOPMENT
p r c
a
q
3
b 25
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.9
4¢ 4
3
3¢
5
60
5¢
2
2¢
1¢
1 1
30º
a¢ e¢ b¢ d¢ c¢ 1 2 3 4 5 1
FRONT VIEW
125
d
e 3 DEVELOPMENT
2
4 c
1
a
5 45º
25 b
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.10
DH
1
2 1 True length 3
FRONT VIEW
AD
DF 10
2
True 1
length
4 10
2
3
20
40
30
2.3 TOP VIEW 1.4 1r
DEVELOPMENT
Fig. 12.11
Development of Surfaces 189
Problem 7: Draw the development of the lateral surface of a square pyramid. Side of
base 30 mm and height 60 mm, resting with its base on H.P. and an edge of the base
parallel to vertical plane.
Solution:
o¢
o
60
TL
A A
30 B D
FRONT VIEW C
d c
DEVELOPMENT
o
30
a1
a b
(a)
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.12
1. Draw the top view and front view of the square pyramid.
2. To draw its development true length of the slant edge is required.
Rule: If the top view of a slant edge of a pyramid is parallel to XY, then the front
view of that edge will give its true length and vice-versa. Hence, in both the
views, the projections of none of the slant edges is parallel to XY. Hence its true
length cannot be measured directly either from the top view or front view.
Therefore, to obtain the true length of a slant edge (say OA) make oa parallel to
XY : i.e. with o as centre and oa as radius draw an arc to cut the horizontal from
o at a. Now o'a', will be the true length of the slant edge OA.
3. With o as centre and o'a'1 as radius draw an arc, this arc step off the divisions
AB, BC and DA.
4. Complete the triangles OAB, OBC, OCD and ODA which gives the development
of lateral surface of a pyramid as shown in Fig. 12.12.
190 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 8: Draw the development of a square pyramid base 30 mm and height 65 mm.
[B.TE New Delhi, January 2009]
Solution: See Fig. 12.13.
o¢
O
65
A
d¢ c¢
D
a¢ b¢
FRONT VIEW B
C
DEVELOPMENT
d c
a b
SQ 30
TOP VIEW
Fig 12.13
Problem 9: A cone of base 50 mm and height 65 mm rests with its base on H.P. Draw
its development.
Solution:
1. Draw top view and front view of a cone.
2. Divide the circle into twelve equal parts and project then in front view as 1', 2',
3' etc.
3. Join these points 1', 2', 3'. with vertex 0.
4. Measure the slant height L from the front view. Take any point O' as centre and
radius equal to L. Draw an angle θ = 180º D/L.
5. Divide the arc by divider or angle θ in twelve equal parts 01, 02, 03 etc to get the
required development of the lateral surfaces of the curve as shown in
Fig. 12.14.
0¢ 12
o 11
q
10
9
L
L
8
65
6
1 5
2 4
1¢ 2¢ 3¢ 4¢ 5¢ 6¢ 7¢ 3
12¢ 11¢ 10¢ 9¢ 8¢
FRONT VIEW DEVELOPMENT
10
11 9
12 8
1 7
2 6
3 5
4
f-50
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.14
192 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 10: A cone of base 40 mm diameter and height 60 mm rests with its base on
H.P. A section plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined at 30º to H.P. bisects the axis of
the cone. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the truncated cone.
Solution: See Fig. 12.15.
H
1
8
G
7
o
6
0¢
F
q
5
4
E
3
2
5¢
4¢ 4¢
L
D
60
3¢
3¢ 6¢
2¢
2¢
1¢ 7¢ C
8¢
1¢
B
30º
A
a e
b d
c
f-40
TOP VIEW
Fig. 12.15
Development of Surfaces 193
Problem 11: Develope the lateral surface of a funnel as shown in Fig. 12.16.
Solution: The object consists of two parts:
(i) Frustum of a cone
(ii) A right cylinder as shown in Fig. 12.17.
3 4
2
f60
5
1
0
6
4 5 6 7 8
3 9
2 10
40
PART-A 1 11
41
0 12
41
40
PART-B
39
39
f12 54º
f24 D
Angle θ = × 180º
0 L
24
= × 180º = 54º
DEVELOPMENT OF PART-B 80
Fig. 12.16
2 3
1
4
0
5
Since, distance around developed section pLq/180º
6
3
43
4 2
Circumference of base circle – cone = pD
7
0
6
30
148º
0
43
10
D
Angle θ = × 180º
11
L
60
= × 180º = 148º
73
12
30
DEVELOPMENT OF PART-A
(a)
Fig. 12.17 Development of Funnel
194 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
EXERCISE
1. Define the terms development.
2. Define different methods of development.
3. Draw the development of the lateral surface of right square prism of edge of base 40 mm
and axis 70 mm long.
4. A frustum of a square pyramid has its top 15 mm, bottom 30 mm and height 30 mm. It is
resting on ground with two sides of bottom parallel to V.P. Draw its development.
5. A cube of 40 mm edge stands on one of its face on H.P. with a vertical face making 45º to
V.P. A horizontal hole of 25 mm diameter is drilled centrally through the cube i.e. the
hole passes through the opposite vertical edges of the cube. Obtain the development of
the lateral surface of the cube with the hole.
6. Draw the development of a cylinder whose diameter is 35 mm and height 65 mm.
7. Draw the development of a hexagonal prism of base 25 mm and axis 65 mm long, rest,
with its base on H.P. such that one of its rectangular face is parallel to V.P. It is cut by
a plane perpendicular to V.P., inclined at 30º to H.P. and passing through the right corner
of the top face of the prism.
8. A cone of diameter 50 mm and height 70 mm rests an H.P. on its base. It is cut by a
section plane inclined at 30º to the base at a distance 40 mm from the H.P. Draw the
development of the truncated cone.
9. A right regular triangular pyramid side of base 40 mm and axis 65 mm long is lying on H.P.
on one of its triangular slant faces such that the axis is parallel to the V.P. A vertical
cutting plane, parallel to the V.P. cuts the pyramid and is at a distance of 10 mm from the
axis. Draw its sectional front view, top view and develop its lateral surface.
[BTE, New Delhi, January 2009]
Chapter
13
Orthographic Projection
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In technical drawings, the engineer is always concerned with the task of describing the
shape of a solid on a sheet of paper, in order to represent the exact size of an object. It is
possible by converting the three-dimensional object into two-dimensional projection which
is known as orthographic projection. This chapter deals with orthographic projection and
there fundamentals employed in engineering drawing.
13.2 PROJECTION
If straight lines are drawn from various points on the contour of an object to meet a plane,
the figure obtained on the plane is called the projection of an object and object is said to be
projected on the plane.
Definition: Projection is defined as the image produced by mapping a geometric
representation of an object on a plane of projection. Different views of an object are drawn
by taking projections on orthogonal planes. A drawing of an object should consist of five
things viz.:
1. Object 2. Projector 3. Plane of projection
4. Observer’s eye. 5. Station point
13.3 METHODS OF PROJECTION
The following methods of projection are commonly used in engineering practice.
1. Orthographic projection 2. Isometric projections
3. Oblique projections 4. Perspective projections
Isometric projections, oblique projections and perspective projections are known as
pictorial views.
195
196 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
P.P
V.P
H.P
PLANES OF PROJECTION
Fig. 13.1
Imagine that the views of the object are projected to the front, top and side of the
transparent planes. Two different principal planes are used to get the projections of an
object—the vertical plane (V.P.) and horizontal plane (H.P.) These planes intersect each
other at right angles and the line of intersection is called axis of the planes. The projection
on the vertical plane is called elevation or front view and the projection on horizontal plane
is called plan or top view. The plane perpendicular to both horizontal and vertical is called
profile plane (P.P.). The projection obtained on profile plane is called side view as shown in
Fig. 13.2. The principles of orthographic projection can be applied in four different angles;
first; second, third and fourth angle projection.
.
V.P
P.P.
P.
H.
V.P. P.P.
TOP VIEW
H.P.
Rotation of Planes: The standard practice of rotation of planes is to keep the vertical
plane fixed and horizontal plane is rotated in clockwise direction to bring it in vertical
plane.
P.P
V.P T
P
H.
H.P
2 F
1
3 4
S
V.P (i)
Fig. 13.3 (i)
198 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
V.P
IInd Ist
quadrant quadrant
FRONT VIEW
X Y
H.P H.P REFERENCE LINE
TOP VIEW
IIIrd IVth
quadrant quadrant
V.P
(ii)
Fig. 13.3
First angle projection is commonly used in India, Europe and most of the world.
This method of projection is recommended by the “Bureau of Indian Standards” from
1991. The first angle projection symbol is shown in Fig. 13.4.
Fig. 13.4
V.P
IInd Ist
Quadrant
Quadrant
TOP VIEW
X Y
H.P H.P REFERENCE LINE
IIIrd IVth
Quadrant Quadrant FRONT VIEW
V.P
Fig. 13.5
Fig. 13.6
40
40
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 13.7
10
FRONT VIEW
f 40
f 10 f 25
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.8
Orthographic Projection 201
(i)
7 7
90º
25
7
FRONT VIEW
45º
45º
28
12 7 12 7 12
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 13.9
202 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
3 6
1
4
(i)
BOTTOM VIEW
4 3 6
RIGHT SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW LEFT SIDE VIEW REAR SIDE VIEW
TOP VIEW
(ii)
Fig. 13.10
Orthographic Projection 203
A B A
FRONT VIEW L.H.S.V
D
TOP VIEW
C
TITLE BLOCK
(i)
C
TOP VIEW
D
A B A
FRONT VIEW R.H.S.V
C
TITLE BLOCK
(ii)
Fig. 13.11
204 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 1. Fig. 13.12(i) shows an isometric view of an object. Draw the following views:
(Use Ist angle projection).
1. Front view 2. R.H. Side view 3. Top view
20
15
10
15
40
20
F
10 20 10
20
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.12 (ii)
Orthographic Projection 205
Problem 2. Fig. 13.13(i) shows the isometric view of an object. Draw the following views:
(Use Ist angle projection method).
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. R.H. Side view
25 SQ
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.13 (ii)
206 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 3. Fig. 13.14(i) shows an object. Draw the following view: (Use Ist angle projection).
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. R.H. Side view
15
20
10
10
35
40
F
Fig. 13.14 (i)
35 50
10
TOP VIEW
Problem 4. Fig. 13.15(i) shows an isometric block of an object. Draw the following views:
50
20
60
20
F
Fig. 13.15 (i)
20 20 60
TOP VIEW
Problem 5. Fig. 13.16(i) shows a square turncated prism. Draw the following views.
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. R.H. Side view
50
25
25
SQ
25
FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW
Problem 6. Fig. 13.17(i) shows the isometric view of an object. Draw the following views.
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. L.H. Side view
30
50
30
20
60
15
30 30 F
15
25
30 30
90
TOP VIEW
Problem 7. Fig. 13.18(i) shows an isometric block of an object. Draw the following views:
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. L.H. Side view
12 13 15
FRONT VIEW
L.H. SIDE VIEW
40 30
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.18 (ii)
Orthographic Projection 211
Problem 8. Fig. 13.19(i) shows a pictorial view of an object. Draw the following views:
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. L.H. Side view
20
40
20
40
20
20
70
20 F
10
FRONT VIEW
L.H. SIDE VIEW
10
20
10
20 50
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.19 (ii)
212 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 9. Fig. 13.20(i) shows an isometric view of a block. Draw the following views:
(Use Ist angle projection).
1. Front 2. Top 3. Left side view
45
5
20
90º
30
0
12
30
F
45
90º
25
20
30 30 45
5 5
120
TOP VIEW
Problem 10. Fig. 13.21(i) shows the pictorical view of a block. Draw the following views:
(Use Ist angle projection).
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. Side view
2
f7
8
f5 48
18
24
12
30
30
42
15 0
15
42
12
150
72
FRONT VIEW L.H. SIDE VIEW
8
f5
18
48
30
TOP VIEW
Problem 11. Fig. 13.22 show (i) an isometric view of a block. Draw the following of views:
(Use Ist angle projection).
1. Frant view 2. Top view 3. L.H. Side view
40
16
12
20
R
20
60
f 16
15
R 20
f 16 40
R6
15
F
20
R6
15
60
40 R6
R 20
15
f 16
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.22 (ii)
Orthographic Projection 215
Problem 12. Fig. 13.23(i) shows the pictorial view of an object. Draw the following views:
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. Side view
7
f8
26
20
14
33
7
7
7
26
40
F
Fig. 13.23 (i)
f8
33
20
7 26 7
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.23 (ii)
216 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 13. Fig. 13.24(i) shows a T-bracket. Draw the following views: (Use 1st angle
projection).
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. Right side view
8
20
14
8
20
4
5
50
4
20 8 20
TOP VIEW
Problem 14. Fig. 13.25(i) shows an isometric object. Draw the following views: (Use 3rd
angle projection method):
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. Right side view
12
40
10
10
25
55 30
10 25 10
TOP VIEW
40
10
55 30
Problem 15. Fig. 13.26(i) shows the isometric view of an object. Draw to scale full, size in
the following views:
1. Front view 2. Top view
6
f 7, 2 holes
10
25
5
25
f6
10
15 5
25
F 20
2
10
7
25
5
10
25 15 25
FRONT VIEW
20
f6
45
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.26 (ii)
Orthographic Projection 219
Problem 16. Fig. 13.27(i) shows the pictorial view of a machine block. Draw the following
views to a suitable scale for given dimensions.
1. Front elevation in the direction of arrow
2. Side view from left side
3. Top View
(B.T.E. New Delhi, 2004)
36
24
24
24
90
24
50
48
2
R1
0
R3
36
30
12
5
14
72
50 F
72
50
30
f24
TOP VIEW
R12
FRONT VIEW
72
36
12
48
90
Orthographic Projection 221
Problem 17. Fig. 13.28(i) shows the pictorial view of an object. Draw the following views
in scale full size:
1. Front view through – A
2. Top view
3. Right side view (B.T.E. New Delhi, Dec. 2004)
32 8
8
8
f 10
8
R4
38
31
R4
16
R 12
R4
15
6
80
32
R4
Fig. 13.28 (i)
Solution. See Fig. 13.28(ii).
32
R 25 8 8
f 10
8
31
16
15
R 12
38
8
R4
32
R4
80
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.28 (ii)
222 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 18. Fig. 13.29(i) shows the pictorial view of an object. Draw to scale, full size the
following views:
1. Front view looking in the direction of draw – X
2. Left side view
3. Top view (B.T.E. New Delhi, Dec. 2003)
20
46
18
7
27
11
14
70
34
94
X
Fig. 13.29 (i)
Solution. See Fig. 13.29(ii).
46
20
18
27
11
70
94 14
7
10
14
10
7
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.29 (ii)
Orthographic Projection 223
Problem 19. Fig. 13.30(i) shows the pictorial view of an object. Draw the following views:
1. Front view 2. Top view 3. Right side view (B.T.E. New Delhi, Dec. 2007)
50
R 22 16
16
12
25 16
f 22
R8
25
12
62
R 16 18
3
R9 25 12
6
12
85
18
F
R8
62
f 22
25 18
R 16
12
50 R9 FRONT VIEW
85
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.30 (ii)
224 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 20. Fig. 13.31(i) shows an object. Draw the following views:
1. Front view 2. Right hand side view 3. Top view.
10
40 20
f 25
f 15
THROUGH HOLE
65
30
50
R25
10
0
f2
F
Fig. 13.31 (i)
Solution. See Fig. 13.31(ii).
10 20
40 FRONT VIEW
R.H. SIDE VIEW 50
R 25
f 20
TOP VIEW
Fig. 13.31 (ii)
Orthographic Projection 225
EXERCISE
1. For the isometric view shown in Fig. 13.32, draw the following views in scale full size:
(a) Front view looking in the direction of arrow shown
(b) Top view
(c) Left side view (B.T.E. New Delhi, January 2009)
f 88
11 f 62
4
2 HOLES f28 32
24
52
24
2 HOLES
f 22
7 38
100
25
32 95
0
2 33
15
10
0
38
Fig. 13.32
2. An ‘ISOMETRIC’ view of Bevel is given in Fig. 13.33. Draw to full size the following orthographic
views, in first angle projection, looking from ‘Arrow A’
(a) Front view
(b) Top view (B.T.E., New Delhi, January 2009)
6
48
45°
72
R
6
12
R6 R
24
24
19 48
2
24
A
96
Fig. 13.33
226 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
3. The pictorial view of different types of objects are shown in Fig. 13.34 (1 to 15). Draw the
elevation, plan and side view. Using first angle projection.
50
52 26 f
18 80
36
30
22
64
60
18
15
20
15
22
10 14 18
36
30 40
(1) (2)
16 68
30
54
76
12
46
50
6
23
38
30
18
14
22
10
30
16
f14
86
54 24
48
(3) (4)
50
57 19
19
50
44
25
12
12 11
7 3
57
63
(5) (6)
Orthographic Projection 227
12
38
57
12
38
19
19
25
25
63
25
z
10 24
1
63 25
57
(7) (8)
50
50
40
50
12
7
25
70
12
90 20
25
15
0
38
20
50
25
(9) (10)
228 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
0
f4
16
30
20
5
55
60
28
15
20
20
10
30
28
40
96
50
(11)
20
5
R1
8
6
15
70
45
40
50
10
60
30
10
R 20
90
50
(12)
Orthographic Projection 229
35
55
6
4
70
19
0
35 f2 2
f1
f 30
60
f 14
10
48
8
8
15
7
18 8
70 18
50
30
(13) (14)
17
44
7
60
22 46
6
7
2
15 f2
13
12
(15)
230 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Chapter
14
Isometric Projection
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In engineering drawing, orthographic projection of a solid is best for showing the details
of an object when a solid is resting in its simple position, the front view or top view taken
separately, gives an incomplete idea of the object. Even, sometimes an experienced
engineer gets puzzled when studying the orthographic projection of complicated parts. To
avoid this confusion, a pictorial projection is the best method to show the object in one
view only. Basically, pictorial projection represents three dimensional shape of an object
and represents real things in one view only, which indicates length, breadth and height
of the object. Therefore, the object is easily visualized from a pictorial projection than
from its orthographic projection.
The pictorial projection may be divided as:
1. Oblique projection (Fig. 14.1(i))
2. Perspective projection (Fig. 14.1(ii))
3. Axonometric projection.
In this chapter you will learn about the axonometric projections, which are com-
monly used in industries.
45º
Fig. 14.1
231
232 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Isometric Isometric
projection view
g
b
ORTE NED
FORESH
30
a
FO
RE
SH
30
OR
TE
NE
D
30
Fig. 14.2
Isometric Projection 233
g b
14.2.3 Isometric
In isometric, all the three faces are making equal angles with the plane of projection
as shown in Fig. 14.3. It is a type of pictorial projection which is taken from the Greek
word. ISO means equal METRON means measure. So, isometric means equal measure.
Isometric are further divided into two types:
1. Isometric projection
2. Isometric view
120º
120º
120º 120º
120º 120º
30º 30º
Fig. 14.3
234 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
y1
y2
a b d c
90º L1
f¢1 g¢1 g1 f1
x y
b¢ f¢
c¢1 90º
e¢1
a¢ c¢ b¢1 h¢1 c1 b1 h1 e1
e¢ g¢
x1
G L a¢1 d¢1 d1 a1
d¢ h¢
G1 x2
Fig. 14.4
e 120º a
b h 120º
g d
c
Fig. 14.5
Isometric Projection 235
N Q M
n m
120º
O 30º 30º
o
0º
12
12
0º
30º 30º
R r
Fig. 14.6
The rhombus MONP represents the isometric projection of the top square face of the
cube, in which MN is the length of the diagonal. The rhombus shows isometric projection
of the square face (NYMX) of cube where MN is true length of the diagonal of square.
Let
MNP = 30º
and MNX = 45º
NP NP 2
In triangle NQP, = =
NQ NP cos 30º 3
NX NX 2
In triangle NQX, =
NQ NX cos 45º 1
NP 2 1 2
∴ = ×
NX 3 2 3
Isometric length 2 9
= 0. 816 approx.
True length 3 11
Therefore, isometric lengths are 0.816 or 81.6% of the true length as stated earlier.
236 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
9
)
M 8
(C
LE
S CA 7
L A
L
FU
6
5 10
9 LE
SCA
8
4
T RIC
7 ME
3 ISO
6
5
2
4
3
1 45º
2 30º
0 1 D
B
Fig. 14.7
2. Mark ba, be and bc the length, breadth and height of the object along the axis
ba, be and bc respectively.
3. Through a, draw a line ad parallel to bc and through c, draw a line cd parallel to ba
intersecting each other at a point d. Now through point e, draw a line ef parallel to bc
and through c, draw a line cf parallel to be, which intersect each other at a point f.
Similarly, through d draw a line dg parallel to be and through f draw a line fg parallel
to ba, intersecting at g. Now complete the rectangular block.
g
h
d
c
e
30º 30º
p b q
BOX METHOD
Fig. 14.8
f¢ a¢ e¢ b¢ d¢ c¢
R
D
s e d r D
C C
E E
S
O Q O¢
f c B
O B
F F
A A
P
p a b q
Fig. 14.9
f30
P O O
C B
P N
a¢ b¢
D A
M N
30º 30º
M
(i) (ii)
C B
P a¢ N
b¢
D A
30º 30º
M
(iii)
Fig. 14.10
240 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
(i)
(ii) (iii)
Fig. 14.11
1 2
ISO RAD
3
D1
D1
R1
R1
ISO RAD
Fig. 14.12
Assume a vertical section through the centre of the sphere, which, will be a circle
of diameter D1. The isometric projection of this circle is shown in Fig. 14.12 by ellipse
1 and 2 drawn in two different vertical positions around the same centre O.
The length of the major axes in each case is equal to given diameter and its dis-
tance from the point of contact, to the centre point O is equal to the isometric radius of
the sphere.
The ellipse 3 is the isometric projection of the circle assuming the section to be
horizontal through the centre of the sphere. In this also, the length of the major axis is
equal to the diameter D1, of the sphere.
Thus, draw a smooth curve touching the outer most points on the ellipses which will
be a circle of radius R1 with centre O. It is the required isometric projection of the sphere.
242 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
O1
O1
R2
R
C1
R1
R2 C2
C2 O2
30º 30º
O2
C B
P a¢ b¢
N
D A
30º 30º
M
ELEVATION o¢
b¢
c¢
p¢ a¢1 b¢1 n¢
d¢ a¢
PLAN m¢
(i) (ii) ISOMETRIC VIEW
Fig. 14.14
Isometric Projection 243
3. Fig. 14.15 shows a method of drawing isometric view of cylinder when its axis is
horizontal.
a¢
m¢
N
o¢
A
b¢
B M
a¢
O b¢
D
Fig. 14.15
R
a¢
A
o¢
R b¢
B
a¢ M
D
b¢
O
Fig. 14.16
244 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 1. Fig. 14.17(i) shows the three views of an object. Draw its isometric view.
38 25 50 25
38
12
25
9
12 12 32 32
63
19
25
PLAN
Problem 2. Fig. 14.18 (i) shows orthographic views of an object. Draw its isometric
view. Use full scale. All dimentions are in mm.
18
25
R
R 10
48
110
R 10 R6
55
18
32 18
35
18
FRONT VIEW 85
18
32 L.H. SIDE VIEW
f12, 4 HOLES
18
R5
18 110 18
TOP VIEW
14.18(i)
Solution. See Fig. 14.18 (ii).
Fig. 14.18(ii)
246 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 3. Fig. 14.19(i) shows three views of an object. Draw its isometric view.
100
55
25
20
40 65 70 40
200
160
60º
80
90
TOP VIEW
Fig. 14.19 (i)
Problem 4. Fig. 14.20(i) shows three views of an object. Draw its isometric view.
12 12
12
38
12
44 38 44 50
19 24
TOP VIEW
Problem 5. Fig. 14.21(i) shows three views of an object. Draw its isometric view.
44
12 12
100 44
12
20
35 30
PLAN
Problem 6. Fig 14.22(i) shows the orthographic views of an object. Draw its isometric
view.
12 12 36 12 12
42
12
ELEVATION L.H. SIDE VIEW
15
12
15
PLAN
Problem 7. Fig. 14.23(i) shows the three views of an object. Draw isometric view.
45
13
32
58
23
12
13
32 7 32 7
92
L.H. SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
15 10 45
46
12
77
TOP VIEW
Fig. 14.22 (i)
Problem 8. Fig. 14.24(i) shows the orthographic view of an object. Draw its isometric
view.
25
44
12
70 FRONT VIEW
140
TOP VIEW
Problem 9. Draw the isometric view of an object whose three views are shown in
Fig. 14.25(i).
R 21
42
60
27
12
12 18 12 12
FRONT VIEW
R.H. SIDE VIEW
12
12
42
12
66
TOP VIEW
Fig. 14.25
Solution: See Fig. 14.25(ii).
Problem 10. Draw the isometric view of an object whose views are shown in Fig. 14.26(i).
22 4 R 15 R 19
40
9
52 9 33
75
TOP VIEW
EXERCISE
1. What do you mean by pictorical drawing?
2. What are the various methods of pictorical projection?
3. What is the difference between Isometric view and Isometric projection?
4. The front view of an object is shown in Fig. 14.27. Draw the isometric projection of the object.
(B.T.E. New Delhi, Jan. 2009)
SQ 50
5
R2
10
60
40
SQ 65
SQ 80
Fig. 14.27
5. Fig. 14.28 (i–xviii) shows three views of an object, draw its isometric view.
12
25
50
26
12
127 76
25 PLAN 25
Fig. 14.28 (i)
Isometric Projection 255
24
48
FRONT VIEW 63
TOP VIEW
25 54
TOP VIEW
10
20
10
25 15 15 25
TOP VIEW
15
25
40
30 20
25
10
15
15
10
30
20
10
10
40
PLAN
100
30
15
50 40 30
10
40
10
PLAN
35
15
30
10 16 SQ 16 16 10
TOP VIEW
15
SQ 16
40
7
45
FRONT VIEW R.H. SIDE VIEW
TOP VIEW
10
40
10
10
40
70
R.H. SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 14.28 (xvi)
Chapter
15 Conversion of Isometric
View Into Orthographic View
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Orthographic view is best to show the details of interior construction, while isometric
view represents real things by one view only. In engineering drawing, the conversion of
isometric view into orthographic view is very important for engineers to get a grasp over
the subject. For this purpose, a sound knowledge of principle of projection and some
imagination is necessary for drawing orthographic view from the isometric view.
An isometric view should be drawn according to the principles of isometric view, which
shows the object as it appear to the observer from one direction only. It does not represent
its real shape of its surface. Hidden parts also are not shown by dotted lines. All these
have to be imagined. Generally the direction from which the object is to be viewed is
indicated by means of arrows. If there is no arrow, the direction for front view may be
decided which gives the most prominent view of the object.
The following points should be remembered when converting isometric view into
orthographic views:
1. Any two of the three overall dimensions (viz length, breadth and height) should
be seen as points.
2. A hidden part of a symmetrical object should be assumed to be similar to the
corresponding visible parts.
3. All the holes, grooves etc. should be assumed to be drilled or cut right through.
4. Suitable radii should be assumed for small curves of fillets etc.
5. An object in its isometric view may sometimes be shown with a portion cut and
removed to clarify its interior details while preparing its orthographic view,
such object should be assumed as a whole.
263
264 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Step III. Draw the different rectangles of the view, keeping suitable space between them.
Step IV. Mark centres for circles in the view. If there is any cylinder or hole seen as
rectangles, draw only one centre line, but if the circle is visible, draw more
than one centre lines intersecting each other at right angles.
Step V. (i) Draw a circle of required diameter in the front view and in the top view.
(ii) Draw other straight lines in the front view and project them in the side view
as well as the in top view.
(iii) Rub the faint line (if required) after
completion of required view of an
object.
Step VI. Give the dimensions, the scale and
print the title along with the other
required particulars such as notes.
(i) First draw an extension line.
(ii) Draw dimension lines and insert the
dimensions of an object as per the
rule.
ISOMETRIC VIEW
Step VII. Check the drawing sheet carefully and
Fig. 15.1 (i)
see that it should be complete in all
respects, as shown in Fig. 15.1
1
2
3
4
TOP VIEW
Problem 1. Draw the following views of an object shown pictorically in Fig. 15.2(i): (1)
Front view (2), Top view (3) Side view.
15
12
15
42
12
12
36
84
12
ISOMETRIC VIEW
Fig. 15.2 (i)
Solution. See Fig. 15.2(ii).
TOP VIEW
Fig. 15.2 (ii)
266 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 2. Draw the following views of the block shown pictorically in Fig. 15.3 (i): (1)
Elevation (2), Plan (3) Side view.
Isometric
PLAN
Fig. 15.3 (ii)
Conversion of Isometric View Into Orthographic View 267
Problem 3. Fig. 15.4(i) shows the isometric view of an object. Draw (1) Front view (2)
Top view, and (3) Side view.
15 70
20
45
15
20
25
80
Isometric View
TOP VIEW
Problem 4. Draw the front view, top view and side view of an object as shown in Fig. 15.5(i).
42
30
12
12
50 90
12
30
TOP VIEW
Problem 5. Fig. 15.6(i) shows the isometric view of an object. Draw (1) Front view (2) Top
view (3) Side view.
30
96
6
f9
4
f6
18
40
21
f24
TOP VIEW
25
20
20
25
60
80
87
25
0
20
10
7
12
0 15
100
80
157 120
25 87 25 45 25
25
70
25
TOP VIEW
Fig. 15.7 (ii)
Conversion of Isometric View Into Orthographic View 271
EXERCISE
1. Fig. 15.8 (1 to 20) shows isometric views of different objects. Draw orthographic views of each
object such as, [Use Ist angle projection].
(i) Front-view (ii) Top view, and
(iii) Side view.
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
13 14
15 16
17 18
19 20
Chapter
16
Sectional Views
16.1 INTRODUCTION
In orthographic projection, the interior details of an object, which are not visible to observer
from outside are shown by hidden lines. But some of the machine parts have the
complicated interior details and they do not give the clear idea about the internal shape
of an object. Too many hidden lines also confuse the observer. To avoid these confusions,
the views are made in section and it is imagined that the object is being cut through or
sectioned by a plane. The part of the object between the cutting plane and the observer is
assumed to be removed and the remaining view of the object then obtained is called the
sectional view. Therefore, section is defined as the view obtained after cutting the object
in order to show the inner details by an imaginary cutting plane is called a sectional
view. The imaginary plane is called a cutting plane or a section plane. The cutting plane
is taken parallel to the plane on which the view is projected and the section view is drawn
by removing the nearer portion of the object. The sectional view of the object is represented
by the thin lines, and these lines are known as sectional lines or hatching lines. These
hatching lines are drawn parallel to each other at an angle of 45º to the out lines of the
object as shown in Fig. 16.1.
Cutting plane
(i)
Fig. 16.1
273
274 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Sectional view
INTERNAL DETAILS
ELEVATION
PLAN
(ii)
Fig. 16.1
The hidden portion of the object behind the section is generally omitted and not shown
by hidden lines unless it is very essential for clarity.
From the above discussion it is clear that orthographic views are used for simple
objects and sectional views are used for complicated object. These sectional views play
very important role in engineering drawing because they help in manufacturing and
explaining the construction of complicated machine parts.
These section lines are evenly spaced and should be about 2 mm to 3 mm apart
depending upon the size of drawing. For some assembly drawings, the sectional lines are
used to indicate the difference in material as shown in Fig. 16.2.
Sectional Views 275
Fig. 16.2
8 to 10 mm 2 to 3 mm
Fig. 16.3
in full section. The projected view of the full sectioned surface along with the remaining
half part to show clearly interior shape of the object is known as full sectional view as
shown in Fig. 16.4. This type of section is used for both detail and assembly drawings. In
the full sections, the observer views the object in the direction of arrow and the resulting
full sectional front view is obtained. It is not necessary to draw all the views of an object in
sectional views.
A B
Top B
FRONT VIEW
Fr
on
t
DE FRONT
SI HALF SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
Section A – A
FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.7
The position of the offset plane is always shown by a cutting plane line in the view in
which it is seen edge wise. The offset in the cutting plane are at 90º and also note the
direction of arrows.
16.4.5 Revolved Section
It is obtained by passing a cutting plane through some part of structure machine at right
angles to the axis of the object. It is used to show the cross-sectional shape of the object such
as arms, spokes, structural section etc. as shown in Fig. 16.8.
(ii)
A B
Fig. 16.10
Sectional Views 279
2
f7
8
f5
48
12
24
30
12
75
75
30
Fig. 16.11
Solution. See Fig. 16.12.
f 72
24
6
12
150 72
30
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.12
280 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
A
R 16
A
45
75
0
f6
f 45
Fig. 16.13
f 45
f 32
45 SIDE VIEW
75
Fig. 16.14
Sectional Views 281
20
0
R3
X
R15
30
Y
35
10
15
20
R30 R10
X
Fig. 16.15
Solution. See Fig. 16.16.
R 30
20 Y
R 10
R 15
10
x X
R 30
35 20
Y
PLAN
45
15
6
42
90º
6
20
12
17
72 16
42
Fig. 16.17
Solution. See in Fig. 16.18.
6 28 6
90º
42
20
12
72
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.18
Sectional Views 283
Problem 5. Draw the full sectional front view, top view and side view of the object as
shown in Fig. 16.19.
f3
f 30
f 20
R 35
40
15
25
50
35 35
130
Fig. 16.19
R 35 40
15
35
130 L.H. SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
f 20
25
50
S
P
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.20
284 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
0
f7
0
f4
50
50
70
f24
15
30
10
12
0
15
80
Fig. 16.21
TOP VIEW
f 70
f40
50
70
50
f24
15
Problem 7. Fig. 16.23 shows the pictorial view of an object. Draw to scale full size
the following views:
1. Full sectional front view. 2. Top view 3. R.H. Side view.
TOP
F 10 × 6 deep
15 Y
20
10
X 25
60
60
FRONT
SIDE
Fig. 16.23
60 60
10 25
X Y
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.24
286 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
80
64
f2
4
f4
8
16
f8 8
0
R24 48
F
Fig. 16.25
16
f 80
64
FULL SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW
R.H. SIDE VIEW
80
R 24
f 24
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.26
Sectional Views 287
5
35
P
5
25
5
.5
R3
10
37
7 5
13
5
R7 P 15
29
15
5 F
Fig. 16.27
10
5
5 15 15 5 29
12
29
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.28
288 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 10. Fig. 16.29 shows the pictorial view of a machine block. Draw the
following views to a suitable scale.
(i) Full Sectional front view at B – B
(ii) Top view
(iii) Left hand side view. (B.T.E. New Delhi, December 2005)
52 B
A
f 20 R20
28
8
12 8
22
42
106
34
8
68
17
B
Fig. 16.29
42
12 8
106 34 17
FULL SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW L.H. SIDE VIEW
AT - BB
68
8
A A
22
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.30
Sectional Views 289
Problem 11. Fig. 16.31 shows the isometric view of a model. Draw to scale full size,
the following views:
(i) Front view looking in the direction of arrow – X
(ii) Sectional side view at – YY
(iii) Top view. (B.T.E. New Delhi, December 2003)
0 20
f5
Y
24
21
38
54
32
30
9 9
8
22
16
60 90
Y
Fig. 16.31
Solution. See Fig. 16.32.
Y 20
24
21
38
54
9 9
32
8
Y 16
FRONT VIEW 30
60
f 50 50
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.32
290 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 12. Fig. 16.33 shows pictorial view of an object. Draw the following views
in scale full size:
(a) Front view through–A.A
(b) Top view through–B
(c) Left side view through–C.
B
f 64
A
0 36
10
12
36
12
24
42
12
C
24
A
Fig. 16.33
12
100
L.H. SIDE VIEW
FULL SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW
AT - X - X
R 21 R 32
f 24 R 18
12
A A
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.34
Sectional Views 291
R 20
f 20
40
20 10
15
40
40
8
20
12
60
60
Front
Fig. 16.35
Solution. See Fig. 16.36.
10 20 10
f 20 R 20
40
20
15
8
20 60
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.36
292 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 14. Fig. 16.37 shows an isometric view of an object. Draw the following
views:
1. Front view (full section)
2. Top view
3. Side view.
f 20, deep 20 mm
15
30 10
35
40
20
20
25
40
25
Fig. 16.37
40
60
f 20 M 10 30
15
a
40
a¢
20
10
25 15
TOP VIEW
Fig. 16.38
Sectional Views 293
EXERCISE
1. What is the necessity of sectional views?
2. What is a cutting plane?
3. What are the different types of sections?
4. What are the important rules of sectioning?
5. How section lines should be drawn?
6. Fig. 16.39 shows an object. Draw the following views:
(i) Sectional front view (ii) Top view.
5
f3
15
40
20
3
54
60
20
10 20 15
20
30
30
40
50
30
F
Fig. 16.39
7. Fig. 16.40 shows an object. Draw the following views:
(i) Sectional front view (ii) Side view (iii) Top view.
8
8
R1
2
14
24
8
20
24
f12
8
3 HOLE 25 12
60
Fig. 16.40
294 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
8. Draw the full sectional elevation and Top view of the object shown in Fig. 16.41.
Fig. 16.41
9. Draw the full sectional elevation, plan and side view of the object shown in Fig. 16.42.
13
32
25
R-
10
R-15
20
20 24
10
25
25
20
Fig. 16.42
Sectional Views 295
10. Fig. 16.43 shows an object. Draw sectional elevation, top view and side view in full scale.
50
f1
8
36
22
64
15
10 14
30 50
Fig. 16.43
11. For the pictorial view shown in Fig. 16.44, draw to full scale, the following views:
(a) Top view (b) Sectional front view at A-A. (B.T.E. New Delhi, Jan. 2009)
Fig. 16.44
296 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Chapter
Sometimes the three views of an object are given. In one or more ways some projection
lines may be found missing, in that case, these missing lines are drawn by comparing
the projection of the other views. Therefore, it is defined as the lines which are added in
the given orthographic view in order to complete the drawing of an object are known as
missing lines.
At this stage we can take the help of isometric sketch. Try to get a combined picture
of the object in the mind and add missing lines on the drawing. Simple problems are easy
visualize and there is no need of drawing isometric view. Following procedure can be
adopted in order to identify missing lines of various object:
Step I: Draw the given orthographic views of the object with missing lines.
Step II: Draw the given orthographic views, firstly visualize an object and prepare
rough pictorial view.
Step III: Now from this rough pictorial view draw the orthographic view and compare
it with the given orthographic view.
Step IV: Read carefully each line in each view and draw the required missing lines
on the given orthographic view.
297
298 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
40
10
15
R.H. SIDE VIEW 150
FRONT VIEW
25
TOP VIEW
(i) (ii)
Fig. 17.1
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.2
Missing Lines, Missing Views and Identification of Surfaces 299
90°
25
5
FRONT VIEW L. H. SIDE VIEW
25
5 5 15
60
TOP VIEW
(i)
Fig. 17.3
300 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.4
15 30
60 L.H. SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
25
TOP VIEW
Missing Lines, Missing Views and Identification of Surfaces 301
30
5
15
45º
15
60
25
Fig. 17.5
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.6
302 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
50
20
15
FRONT VIEW
20
20
20
30 30
100
TOP VIEW
(i)
Fig. 17.7
Missing Lines, Missing Views and Identification of Surfaces 303
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.8
Problem 5. Fig. 17.9 shows the incomplete orthographic projections of an object. Draw
the missing view.
10
15
5
15
30
30
FRONT VIEW
10
15
TOP VIEW
(i)
304 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
10
30
10
15
30
15
15
5
25
(ii)
Fig. 17.9
SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.10
Missing Lines, Missing Views and Identification of Surfaces 305
10 10 10
25
10
30 25
Fig. 17.11
10 10 10
25
10
30 25
TOP VIEW
(i)
306 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
(ii)
Fig. 17.12
E F B
A C G
A
D
G C F D
PLAN
Fig. 17.13
Missing Lines, Missing Views and Identification of Surfaces 307
Problem 7. Fig. 17.14 shows the pictorial view of an object in which the various sur-
faces are marked by different alphabets. Identify and mark the various surfaces from
the pictorial view to orthographic views.
D
E B
C
F
G I
H
Fig. 17.14
PLAN
C
B
E G F G H G I
Fig. 17.15
308 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 8. Fig. 17.16 shows the orthographic projection of an object in which different
surfaces are marked by alphabets such as A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H. Draw its isometric
view.
20 25
20
B
20
G E H F
25 40 65
D
20
40
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.16
Solution. See Fig. 17.17.
B C
E
H
F
G
Fig. 17.17
Missing Lines, Missing Views and Identification of Surfaces 309
Problem 9. Fig. 17.18 shows the pictorial view of an object in which the various surfaces
are marked by different alphabets. Identify and mark the various surfaces from the
pictorial view to orthographic views.
20 25
25
C
12
20
12
E
D I
F
25
H
50 G 25
25
Fig. 17.18
Solution. See Fig. 17.19.
C
A
G F E H
C B
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.19
310 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 10. Fig. 17.20 Shows the pictorial view of an object in which the various
surfaces are marked by different alphabets. Identify and mark the various surfaces
from the pictorial view to orthographic views.
Fig. 17.20
Solution. See Fig 17.21.
B
D
G
F
E
A
D
C
H
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.21
Missing Lines, Missing Views and Identification of Surfaces 311
Problem 11. Fig. 17.22 shows the orthographic projection of an object in which different
surfaces are marked by alphabets such as A, B, C and D. Draw its isometric view.
B D
FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.22
Solution. See Fig. 17.23.
42
A D
B C
18 21
18
21
Fig. 17.23
312 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 12. Fig. 17.24 shows the isometric projection of an object in which various
surfaces are marked by different alphabets. Identify and mark the various surfaces
from the isometric projection to orthographic projection in IIIrd angle projection.
TOP VIEW
30 F
15
50
C
E
B
A
D
50
15 10
20
DE
15 SI
FRO
NT
Fig. 17.24
B
E
TOP VIEW
C
E
B
D
A
Fig. 17.25
Missing Lines, Missing Views and Identification of Surfaces 313
Problem 13. Fig. 17.26 shows the pictoral view of an object in which various surfaces
are marked by different alphabets. Identify and mark the various surfaces from the
figure to orthographic projection.
TOP VIEW
30
A
15
15
E
50
B
D
60
T
RN
FO
50
SIDE VIEW
Fig. 17.26
Solution. See Fig. 17.27.
C E A
TOP VIEW
C A
D B
Problem 14. Fig. 17.28 shows the orthographic projection of an object in which different
surfaces are marked by alphabets such as A, B, C, D, E and F. Draw its isometric view.
B A
30
D
C
10
15
40
55
F E
10
30 10
TOP VIEW
Fig. 17.28
A
D
SIDE
FRONT
Fig. 17.29
Missing Lines, Missing Views and Identification of Surfaces 315
Problem 15. Fig. 17.30 shows the orthographic projection of an object in which various
surfaces are marked by A, B, C, D and E. Draw its isometric view.
C D E
20 20
TOP VIEW
10
20
C A
20
10
40 70
Fig. 17.30
10
D
20
C
10
20
B
40 30
20
Fig. 17.31
316 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 16. Fig. 17.32 shows an isometric view of an object in which various surfaces
are marked by A, B, C, D, E, F and G. Draw its orthographic projection of an object in
III angle projection.
Fig. 17.32
Solution. See Fig. 17.33.
25 25
G
30
E
20
TOP VIEW
25 30
30
B
10
20
D A
10
50 50
EXERCISE
1. What do you mean by missing lines?
2. What is the need of missing lines and missing views in the drawing?
3. Two views of an object is given in Fig. 17.34. Draw the missing top view and also draw the
isometric view of the object. (B.T.E. New Delhi, Jan. 2009)
5 15 25
30
5
12
30°
45 30
Fig. 17.34
4. Fig. 17.35 (1 to 6) shows the incomplete orthographic projection of an object. Draw the
missing line and complete the orthographic projection.
1 2 3
5 6
Fig. 17.35
7. Fig. 17.36 and 17.37 show the pictorial view of an object in which different surfaces are
marked by different alphabets. Draw the orthographic projects and identify the different
surfaces?
Fig. 17.36
Fig. 17.37
Chapter
18
Symbols and Conventions
18.1 INTRODUCTION
In engineering field, the preliminary knowledge of various types of symbols used by
engineers is very important from subject point of view. Sometimes, for complicated
drawing it is not convenient to show the actual details of various objects on drawing.
In order to overcome this problem and for saving the time, we use the shorthand
notation. The shorthand notations are used to represent the actual object by the
engineers, which are known as symbols. Almost in all engineering projects including
electrical, civil and mechanical, we use the symbols according to requirements.
The electrical components consist of items such as fans, motors, generators, lighting,
fixtures, various types of switches, cooling devices, and electronic appliances for every
day comfort and convenience. This introductory chapter meets the requirement of the
students in that we have described mechanical, electronics, electrical and civil
engineering symbols and conventions as regards to fitting are discussed in detail.
18.2 CIVIL ENGINEERING SANITARY FITTING SYMBOLS
The civil engineering symbols are generally not drawn according to scale. However, the
symbol should be drawn in a proportionate size to give better representation.
According to Indian Standard, the different types of civil engineering symbols are
given in Tables 18.1 to 18.6.
1. Plaster 4. Marble
319
320 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
4. Glass.
9. Earth
11. Concrete.
Sluice Valve or
4. Stop Valve 11. Vent Outlet
Coupling Bushing
Globe
Stop cock valve Gate valve
Plug
Lock nut
Flange
Bushing
Stop cock Globe valve Coupling Reducer Check valve
Gate
Union Cross valve
4. Revolving Door
DOUBLE JOINT
SINGLE JOINT
SEAM JOINT
HEM JOINT
CUP JOINT
WIRE JOINT
CAP JOINT
Fig. 18.1
1. Positive 9. Aerial
C C
58. Watt meter 67. Limit Switch L.S.
PC
C C
RYB
Symbols and Conventions 331
ANODE
CATHODE
332 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Table 18.8
ANODE
CATHODE
POSITIVE ELECTRODE
NEGATIVE ELECTRODE
Reverse
Table 18.9
P P
G G G
FET I. C. Transistor K H K H
Mosfet
Tetrode Tetrode
P. Channel N. Channel Triode Tetrode
A
A
Y=AB
B B
Or gate
Remeostate
Antenna Fixed Adjustable
Antenna Loop Ferrite Rod Fuse Resistor Resistor
General Antenna
Conductors Japped
Conductor Variable Light Sensitive
Joints Resistor
Photo Tube not Joined Resistor Resistor
T
High Voltage
Iron Core
Tapped Variable Inductor Air Core Dust Core
Inductor Inductor (Chock) Transformer Inductor
Varia Meter
Link Variable
Three Circuit Iron Core Shielded Antenna Coil
Coupling Coupling
Tuner Transformer
Transformer
– +
+ –
Core
334 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Part-II
Mechanical
Engineering Drawing
335
Chapter
1 Detailed and
Assembly Drawing
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Before manufacturing an object, drawings are prepared which have complete information
related to the object such as, dimensions, surface finish etc. These drawings are very
important part in manufacturing of a product or machine parts. They are commonly
used by the mechanical engineers and are known as detailed and assembly drawing.
In this chapter, we shall deal with the study of detailed and assembly drawing by the
helps of different types of wooden joints.
Tenon Bridle
Fig. 1.1
337
338 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Tenon
Bridle
Fig. 1.2
(i) Simple (ii) Blind (iii) Double mortise (iv) Haunched mortise
and tenon and tenon
Fig. 1.7 Types of mortise and tenon joints
Detailed and Assembly Drawing 343
(i) Common or through devetail (ii) Lapped devetail (iii) Lapped secret devetail
40
40
1 20
40
40 20
20
40
10
80
40 40
Fig. 1.11
Solution. See Fig. 1.12.
FRONT VIEW
A B
TOP VIEW
Fig. 1.12
Detailed and Assembly Drawing 345
Problem 2. Fig 1.13 shows the detail drawing of a mortise and tenon joint. Assembly
the parts and draw the following views:
(i) Front view (ii) Top view
40 40
40
40
40
40
10
20
120
10
40 40
Fig. 1.13
FRONT VIEW
D
C
TOP VIEW
Fig. 1.14
346 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 3. Fig. 1.15 shows detail drawing of a corner bridle joint. Assemble the parts
and draw the following views:
(i) Front view (ii) Side view
45
30
30
B A A
B
A
F
15
30
15 60
C
D
C D
F
Fig. 1.15 Corner Bridle Joint (detail drawing)
A B A A
B
A
C D C
D
Problem 4: Assembly drawing of a Dovetail Bridle joint is shown in Fig. 1.17. Draw the
detailed drawing of the joint.
(i) Front view
(ii) Top view
(iii) Side view
15
60
15
15
C E A
40
40
H
H E
40
G F
G
H
F C
F
H
TOP VIEW
D E B A B
F
FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
H TOP VIEW
TOP VIEW
Fig. 1.18 Devetail Bridle Joint (detail drawing)
348 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
0
13
40
C
20
30
20
D 40
50
30
40
Fig. 1.19
Problem 2. Fig. 1.20 shows the details of a cross Halving joint. Draw the assembly drawing of
the joint and draw the following views:
(i) Front view
(ii) Top view
(iii) Side view
40
0
13
40
50
30
50
30
20
40
40
Fig. 1.20
Detailed and Assembly Drawing 349
Problem 3. Fig. 1.21 shows the corner Halving joint. Draw the assembly drawing of the joint
and draw the following views:
(i) Front view
(ii) Side view
40
0
10
40
20 C
30
20
30
Fig. 1.21
Problem 4. Fig. 1.22 shows the Dovetailed Halving joint. Draw the assembly drawing of the
joint and draw the following views:
(i) Front view
(ii) Top view
Fig. 1.22
350 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Chapter
2
Screw Threads
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Different parts of steel structure, various types of machines and other engineering
products are joined together by fastening. Then screw threads are used for connecting
two or more different parts together. A threaded piece consists of a cylindrical rod along
with a projection, or thread in form of a helix. The threads are formed by cutting helical
grooves on a cylindrical surface. The threaded rod is called screw.
It is an operating element of temporary fastening. It is used on bolts, nuts, screws
etc. Threads are generally cut on lathe machine, whereas small size screw threads
are cut by means of a die.
Applications. The main uses of threads are in steel structure, various types of machines
and other engineering products such as in the construction of all types of buildings.
MAJOR DIA
MINOR DIA
PITCH DIA
AXIS
Fig. 2.1
351
352 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Fig. 2.2
Angle of Flanks
Slope thread 0.5 P
NOMINAL DIA
MAJOR DIA
MINOR DIA
PITCH DIA
Axis
P
Pitch
Crest Depth of
thread
Root
EXTERNAL THREAD INTERNAL THREAD
Fig. 2.3
2.4.4 Pitch
It is the distance measured parallel to the axis between corresponding points of adjacent
thread forms.
2.4.5 Crest
It is the top surface which connects adjacent flanks of the threads.
2.4.6 Root
It is the innermost part of a thread.
2.4.7 Lead
It is the distance between two corresponding points on the same thread. Lead is equal
to the pitch in case of single start threads, it is twice the pitch in double start and so
on.
2.4.8 Flank
The surface between the crest and the roots of a thread is known as flank.
2.4.11 Apex
The sharp corner the triangle opposite to its base.
2.4.12 Axis
The axis of the pitch cylinder of a screw thread.
Fig. 2.5
P L
Fig. 2.6
Fig. 2.7
Screw Threads 355
0.167 d
r = 0.1373 P
P
d = 0.96P
0.64P
55º 55º r
Fig. 2.8
2 × P = 0.18 P (approx)
0.236D
r=
11
P P
D = 1.136P
0.664P
47.5º
r
0.236D
Fig. 2.9
D
8
P
60º
D
d
D = 0.86P d = 0.649P
D
8
Fig. 2.10
D
INTERNAL
8
D = 0.86P d = 0.54P
D
d
60º
D D
P
8 4
60º
D
d
D = 0.86P D = 0.61p
D
6
EXTERNAL
Fig. 2.11
Fig. 2.12
Screw Threads 357
29º
Fig. 2.13
Fig. 2.14
P P
D=P
45º
0.125D
Fig. 2.15
358 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
0.125D
D = 0.866P
60º 60º
0.125D
(i)
P P
0.125D
D = 0.866P
60º 60º
0.125D
(ii)
Fig. 2.16
EXERCISE
1. What do you mean by screw thread? Explain with figure.
2. Define the terms relating to screw threads, major diameter, pitch diameter and threaded
angle.
3. What do you understand by single and double start threads.
4. With the help of neat sketch explain the difference between left hand and right hand
threads.
5. Which form of screw threads is adopted by B.I.S? Explain with the help of neat sketch.
Chapter
3
Locknuts and Locking Devices
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of a locking device is to prevent the loosening of mating components
which may be operating in the condition of varying stress, temperature of vibration, as
in a railroad, track joint or in an automobile engine, which may cause serious accidents.
In order to counter this tendency of a nut to unscrew locking arrangements is use.
Lock nut
Lock nut
0.75 D
h=D
0.75 D
0.5 to 0.7 D
D D D
Fig. 3.1
359
360 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
1.5 D
30º
0.125 D
0.3D
0.4D
1.25D
0.8D
1.5D
FRONT VIEW
5D
0.2
0.25 D
CASTLE NUT
TOP VIEW
Fig. 3.2
Locknuts and Locking Devices 361
30º
TOP VIEW
0.3D
D
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 3.3
TOP VIEW
D
0.25 D
D
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 3.4
362 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
0.8 D
0.8 D
D D
(i) (ii)
Fig. 3.5
TOP VIEW
D
0.25 D
D
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 3.6
0.5D D
D
D
Fig. 3.7
0.1D
0.2D
set
screw
D
1.5 D
FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW
Fig. 3.8
364 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Spring washer
Fig. 3.9
EXERCISE
1. What do you understand by locking device?
2. For what purpose we use locking devices?
3. Write the short notes on the following:
(i) Locking nut
(ii) Sawn nut
(iii) Pin nut
(iv) Spring washer
Chapter
4
Threaded Fasteners
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Fastening devices are very important in the manufactured products such as, in the
machines, fabrication and in the construction of buildings.
Threaded fasteners are widely used for fastening or joining of two elements temporarily
by means of screw threads. These are used in pairs for their action. The important
types of screw threads are bolts and nuts, studs, screws etc. A threaded fastener is a
cylindrical bar having a screw thread on one end and having a head at the other. The
bolt passes through holes in two parts and is rotated into a nut at the other end. The
bolt head, usually hexagonal form, is used to rotate the bolt by a wrench. Fig 4.1 shows
a hexagonal bolt with nut.
Bolt head Nut
Shank
Fig. 4.1
4.2 NUTS
A device used with a bolt and capscrew to join two parts together temporarily is known
as nut. A nut has internal threads. It is expressed in terms of diameter of the threaded
hole in the nut into which a bolt, or capscrew is fitted. These are available in two
styles: square and hexagonal. In addition to the plain form usually associated with
bolts, several special purpose styles are available. The top corners of a nut is chamfered
at an angle of 30º to 45º.
365
366 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
(i)
D
C3
R
C3
45º
0.64 P
D
Fig. 4.2
C4
R2
D
C2
C6
A/F C1
C3
C5
C
30º A/
R2
(i) (ii)
1.75D
30º
D
D
F
A/
1.5 D + 3
(iii) (iv)
Fig. 4.3
368 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
2.2 D
D
D
0.25 D
Flange nut
Fig. 4.4
A/F 0.25 D
0.25 D
0.5 D
D
Cap nut
Fig. 4.5
Threaded Fasteners 369
1.25 D to 1.5 D
0.5 D
D
Dome nut
D
Fig. 4.6
D 0.2 D
Capston nut
0.2 D
Fig. 4.7
370 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
1.2 D
0.4 D
D
1.5 D
2.2 D
D
0.2 D
Wing nut
Fig. 4.8
4.4 BOLTS
A bolt is a cylindrical piece of metal, having a head on one end. Bolts are commonly
made of mild steel and medium carbon steel. Thread on the other end, passed through
clearance holes in two parts and draws them together by means of a nut screwed on
the threaded end. The shape of the head depends upon the purpose for which the bolt is
required. Bolts are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. The square and hexagonal
heads are the two most important design. The bolts are available as ready to use elements
in the market and depending upon method of manufacture. Bolts are commonly made
of mild steel and medium carban steel. They are either black, semifinished or finished.
Applications: Fabrication work, machine element, wood working, civil construction
work etc.
end surface at an angle of 30º. A hexagonal head bolt has wide applications in engineering
works, as shown in Fig. 4.9 and 4.10.
1.5 D 0.7 D to 0.8 D
Runout of
thread
Bolt length
Thread length
D to 1.25 D
Dome end
45º
Alternative end
Minor diameter
(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.9
R R = 1.5D
C1
30º 30º
C5
0.7D
C4
C2
C3 R1
D = Major dia
of thread
STAGE - 1 STAGE - 2
Fig. 4.10
Proportion of the hexagonal bolt:
Width across flates = S = 1.5D + 3 mm
Thickness of head = TH = 0.7D to 0.8D
Angle of chamfer = 30º
Radius of chamfer arc = R = 1.5D
Length of the bolt = L = 4D to 6D
372 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
SQ. NECK
.75 D
A/F
.75 D
SQ. 1.5 D + 3
(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.11
A square head bolt may be drawn by the following proportions:
Width across flats = S = 1.5D + 3 mm
Thickness of head = TN = 0.7D to 0.8D
Angle of chamfer = 30º
Radius of the chamfer arc = R = 2D
Length of bolt = L = 4D to 6D
Length of threaded portion L0 = 2D + 6 mm (For length upto 150 mm)
= 2D + 12 mm (For length over 150 mm)
where, D = nominal diameter of bolt
Threaded Fasteners 373
.75 D .75 D
4.5.4 Round Cup Head Bolt
It is just like a cheese headed bolt having .75 D
D
bolt. It is provided with square neck to
prevent rotation of the bolt. These bolts (i) (ii)
are easy to manufacture and mostly used Fig. 4.12
in tank construction and locomotive parts
etc. as shown in Fig. 4.13.
D
SQ. NECK
.75 D
.75 D
SUNG
(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.13
374 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
D D
0.2D
0.2D
0.75D
0.2D
0.2D
1.5 D 1.5 D
(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.14
D
0.75 D
to D
R=D
(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.15
Threaded Fasteners 375
1.5 D
0.8 D
f2D D
2D
1.5 D to 1.75 D
0.4 D
D
D f 2D
(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.16
Sulphur
4.6.2 Loop Bolt
2.0 D
It is a simple form of foundation bolt which can
be quickly forged from mild steel bar by forming
an eye at the bottom as shown in Fig. 4.18. Fig. 4.17
376 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
7D
1.5D
Fig. 4.18
D
0.8D
Washer
7D
Sulphur
Cement
concrete
D
Plate
D/8
0.7D
1.5D
2D
Fig. 4.19
Threaded Fasteners 377
0.8D
2.5D
10D D
2D
Fig. 4.20
D/4
D D
5D
Key
Bolt
Concrete
1.5D 0.6 D
Fig. 4.21
378 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
0.8D D
Concrete
1.3D
Thick of washer
0.30
0.8D
Cotter
D/4
D
0.5 D 1.2 D
3D
Fig. 4.22
a
Washer
Core dia
R
dc
AC
d
Depth of thread
L0
TH L OD
Fig. 4.23
Threaded Fasteners 379
where,
Hex — Hexagonal
M — Metric threads
N — Nut of some shape
L0 = Threaded portion of shank = 2.5 d + 5 mm
L = Length of shank 4 d to 6 d [If not given then assume]
TH = Thickness of head = 0.7 d to 0.8 d
R = Radius of chamfer = 1.2 d
O.D = Outer dia of washer = 2 d + 3 mm
S = Distance across the flats to flat = 1.5 d + 1 mm or 3 mm.
AC = Distance across the corner = 2 d
dc = Core dia = 0.85 d
TN = Thickness of nut = 0.8 d to d
TW = Thickness of washer = 0.15 d
α = Angle of chamfer = 30º
R1 = 0.5 A/F or S
where, A/F or S = 1.5 d + 3 mm
Problem 1. Draw the front view, top view and side view of a hexagonal nut, bolt with
washer of the following specification:
Hex — M20 × 140 N
Solution. See Fig. 4.24.
TH Length of bolt
Chamfer
R1 30º
d 60º
E
R1
A B C
AC
R C R1
dc
1
R
d
TN
30º
S L0
STAGE I
Fig. 4.24
380 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
TOP VIEW
STAGE II
Fig. 4.24
Problem 2. Draw the front view and side view of a square nut and bolt of the following
specification: Sq — M20 × 140 N
Solution. See Fig. 4.25.
30º A/C
R
A/F A/F dc
D
R1
45º
R
A/F
R=
R1
45º
F
0.7 to R R = .5 × A/C A/
.75 D Thread length
R. SIDE VIEW Lenght of bolt L. SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
STAGE - 1
30º
30º chamfer
Major DIA D
Depth of thread
4.8 SCREWS
There are different types of screws used in engineering drawing are as follows:
(i) Hexagonal head (ii) Counter shank (iii) Square head (iv) Round head (v) Fillister head
Fig. 4.26
D/4
0.8D
0.8D
0.7D
0.2D
D/3
0.1D
0.4D
D D D D D
(i) Round head (ii) Cheese head (iii) counter shank (iv) Round or (v) Fillister
cup head head
Fig. 4.27
382 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
0.2 D
D/3
D/3
L
D
R=
D/2
D
D/2 0.6D
90°
(i) Flat end (ii) Cone end (iii) Dogend (iv) Cup end (v) Oval end
Fig. 4.28
4.9 STUDS
A stud is a rod threaded on each end and plain in the middle. The fastener passes
through a clearance hole in one piece and screws tightly into a tapped hole in the
other. A nut then draws the parts together. The stud is used when through bolts are
not suitable for parts that must be removed frequently. Studs are commonly used for
screwing of engine cylinder cover to a cylinder casting, stop valve etc. various types of
studs are as follows:
When the two parts are to be disconnected, the nut is screwed off and upper part is
removed, the stud remains in its position in the tapped hole, hence the threads are
not damaged. The studs have one or two collars.
2D D 2D
1.62 D D 1.62 D
1.5D
1.4D 2D 1.4D
Second part
First part
Fig. 4.32
384 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
4.10 WASHER
A washer is a circular plate having a hole in its centre. The size of washer depends
upon the diameter of the bolt. Fig. 4.33 shows various types of washers. A washer is
placed below the nut to give a smooth bearing surfaces. The force taken by the nut
spreads over a large area of the washer. Washer also prevents the nut from cutting
into the metal and this also allows the nut to be tightened to a greater extent. The
various types of washers are as follows:
(iii) Lock washer external tooth (iv) Serrated lock washer internal tooth (v) Counter sunk toothed lock washer
(vi) Lock washer internal tooth (vii) Counter sunk serrated toothed lock washer
Fig. 4.33
Threaded Fasteners 385
0.15D
D
2D + 3
Fig. 4.34
45º
0.08 D D
2D + 3
Fig. 4.35
386 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
O/D
H
0.1D
S
0.2D
0.1D
I/D
1.8D
Fig. 4.36
EXERCISE
1. Define the terms fastening.
2. What are the differences between temporary fastening and permanent fastening?
3. Sketch the common types of fasteners.
4. What is a nut? Sketch important types of nuts used in engineering fields.
5. What is a bolt? Sketch important types of bolts used in engineering field.
6. Draw three views of a hexagonal nut for a 20 mm diameter bolt, according to approximately
standard dimension.
7. What do you mean by foundation bolts and where they are used?
8. Draw three views assembly of a nut, bolt and washer.
9. What do you mean by screws?
10. Explain, different types of screws used in engineering field?
11. What is the difference between set screw and machine screw?
12. Define the term stud.
13. What is a washer? Define various types of washers.
Chapter
5
Rivets and Riveted Joints
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Rivets are used for fastening and joining two or more plates of metal permanently or
semi-permanently. The joints which are made by rivets are called riveted joints. Basically,
a rivet is a short cylindrical bar of ductile material with a head, formed during
manufacturing, at one end and tail at the other. The cylindrical portion of the rivet is
called shank as shown in Fig. 5.1. A
Tail
head is formed on the tail side by forging Head Shank
when it is assembled to fasten the Tail
D
0.7D
0.7D
0.8D
1.5
D
D
75
0.
D D D
(i) Snap or cup head (ii) Pan head (iii) Conical head
387
388 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
1.6D
1.5D 1.5D
0.6D
5D
1.6D
.57
0.5D
1.5D
1mm
D
0 .5
60°
D D D
(iv) Countersunk head (v) Rounded countersunk head (vi) Ellipsoid head
Fig. 5.2
The symbols for rivets may be recommended by ISI are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
9. Open hole
Fig. 5.3
For steel rivets upto 12 mm diameter, the cold riveting process may be used while for
larger diameter rivets, hot riveting process is used and only the tail is heated and not the
whole shank.
Caulking tool
Caulked rivet Fullering tool
80º 85º
Tearing of edge
M
P P
P=D
P
M
Fig. 5.6
P P
Fig. 5.7
Fig. 5.8
P P
Fig. 5.9
392 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
5.6 DEFINITIONS
The following terms are associated with the riveted joints and are important after the
riveting process is completed:
1. Pitch: It is the distance from the centre of one rivet to the centre of the next rivet
in the same row as shown in Fig. 5.13. It is denoted by p where p = 3d
2. Diagonal Pitch: It is the distance between the centres of the rivets in adjacent
rows of zig-zag riveted joint as shown in Fig. 5.14. It is denoted by pd
3. Back Pitch: It is the distance between rows of rivets measured perpendicular to
the seam as shown in Fig. 5.14. It is denoted by pb
4. Margin: It is the distance between the centre of rivet holes to the nearest edge of
the plate as shown in Fig. 5.13. It is denoted by m where m = 1.5d
Single Riveted Double Riveted Multi Riveted Single Cover Plate Double Cover Plate
Chain Riveting Zig-Zag Riveting Single Riveted Double Riveted Multi Riveted
Pit m
ch
t
d
1.5
t
d
1.5 10º
Upper d
plate 1.5d 1.5d
ELEVATION
Lower
plate
ISOMETRIC VIEW
Long breaks
(assumed)
1.6 d
P = 3d
A A
PLAN
Fig. 5.10
394 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
10º
t
ISOMETRIC VIEW
t
1.5d 2d 1.5d
ELEVATION
3P
A A
PLAN
Fig. 5.11 Double-riveted lap joint, chain riveting
Rivets and Riveted Joints 395
ISOMETRIC VIEW
d
10º
t
t
1.5d 2d + 6 1.5d
ELEVATION
pd
P = 3d
0.5P
PLAN
10º
t1
t
d
FRONT VIEW
PICTORIAL VIEW
L
p = 3d
p = 3d
A A
TOP VIEW
Thickness of Cover Plate t1: When one cover plate is used as shown in Fig. 5.13 is
used, the thickness is made more than the thickness of main plates, usually
t1 = 1.125 t of single coverplate
t1 = 0.625 t for double coverplate.
Rivets and Riveted Joints 397
Cover plate 1
Main plate 2
Pit
t2
ch
t
t2
d
Main plate1
FRONT VIEW
PICTORIAL VIEW
p = 3d
A A
TOP VIEW
EXERCISE
1. Draw the different types of rivet heads.
2. What do you understand by Caulking and Fullering?
3. Describe the way in which a riveted joint may fail and what steps should be taken to
prevent the failure?
4. What do you mean by butt joint? Explain with the help of neat sketch.
5. What are the differences between chain riveting and zig-zag riveting. Show by means by
sketches.
6. Draw the sectional front view and top view of the following riveted joints, taken thickness
of plate 16 mm and diameter of rivet 24 mm
(a) Single riveted lap joint
(b) Single riveted butt joint
(c) Double riveted lap joint, chain riveting
(d) Double riveted butt joint, zig-zag riveting
Chapter
6
Welded Joint
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Welding is the process of joining two or more metal parts together by the application of
heat. This may be done with or without additional (filler) metal and with or without the
application of pressure. It is a permanent joint.
Joining of steel can also be done by welding. Welding has almost replaced riveting
particularly in manufacturing of boilers and ships. It is extensively used in the construction
of boilers, ships, bridges, steel structure etc.
399
400 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Edge joint
Corner joint
S. SECTIONAL S. SECTIONAL
FORM OF WELD SYMBOL FORM OF WELD SYMBOL
NO. REPRESENTATION NO. REPRESENTATION
1. Fillet
15. Plug of slot
2. Square Butt
3. Single-v Butt
4. Double-v Butt
Before
6. Double-u Butt
18. Meshed seam
After
19. Stich
8. Double bevel butt
Before
21. Projection
11. Edge
After
12. Spot
Rod of bar
13. Stud
22. Flash Tube
A A
2. Field of site weld
3. Flash contour
4. Convex contour
5. Concave contour
6. Grinding finish G
G
7. Machining finish M M
C
8. Chipping finish C
Contour symbol
Length of weld
F
{ {
Size
Sides Unwelded length
Other
Reference line
side Field weld symbol
S L–P
Weld all
{ {
Both around
Arrow symbol
side
EXERCISE
1. What do you mean by welding?
2. What is fusion welding?
3. What are the different types of welding joints?
4. Draw free hand sketch of the following:
(i) Spot weld (ii) Single V-Butt weld
(iii) Double V-Butt weld (iv) Single U-Butt weld
(v) Double U-Butt weld.
5. What are the various methods by which welded joints are dimensioned?
Chapter
7
Keys and Cotter Joints
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Keys are temporary fasteners and are used to hold the pulleys, couplin, gears wheels,
crankarms and clutches on the rotating shafts. A key is defined as a part to fasten two
circular parts one wrapped around the other, in order to prevent relative rotary motion
between them. It is always inserted parallel to the axis. Hence it is generally made of
mild steel. They are simple in design, compact and are easy to assemble and replace.
A large number of standard keys are used in engineering work. The choice of key
depends upon the load being transmitted.
L
00
:1
r1
pe
Ta
T
405
406 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
00
1 :1
p er
Ta
L = 1.5 D, W = T = D/4
W
Hub
Shaft
T
Fig. 7.3
L
Woodruff key
T R
Shaft
Fig. 7.4
W
T
L
D
0
10
r-1:
Ta pe
T
Flat Surface
rotation between the two pieces is prevented only by the friction between the key and
the shaft, hence it is suitable only for light duty work as shown in Fig. 7.6.
Hub W
W
Shaft
L
T
0
10
r- 1: D
pe
Ta
T
Hollow Surface
Feather
key
T
L
D
Shaft
Fig. 7.7
Keys and Cotter Joints 409
Feather
key
Fig. 7.7
45º
T
3 W
L
Key 1.5T 1.75T
H
T
D
Shaft
Fig. 7.8
The key is fitted so that there is a clearance between the inner face of the gib head
and the outside of the hub for inserting an executor tool of the same kind.
Main dimensions of the key are as follows:
Length of gib head = L1= D/4
Width of gib head = W1 = 1.5T = T = D/6
410 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
d
as shown in Fig. 7.9. The taper is usually taken as
1 : 50.
7.3 COTTER
A cotter is a flat edge shaped piece of rectangular
cross section. It is a temporary fastener and is used Fig. 7.9
to hold two parts together where the parts are
subjected to axial forces only. Cotters are usually made of mild steel. Keys are generally
inserted parallel to the axis of the connecting shafts but a cotter is driven perpendicular
to the axis of connecting parts. Cotter is uniform in thickness but tapered in width on
one or both sides as shown in Fig. 7.10.
The usual taper is 1 in 48 to 1 in 30. Cotter is inserted by hammering. It is usually
used in connecting a piston rod to the cross-head of a reciprocating steam engine, a
piston rod pump rod etc.
Taper both
side (1:30)
Taper one
side (1: 30)
(i) (ii)
Fig. 7.10
Keys and Cotter Joints 411
B
GI
16
140
45 en
d
64
rk
12 Fo
12
20
40
62
14 12 48
37
12
25
37
40
48 14
7
12
12
14
ar
te db
S lot
40
40
Fig. 7.11
412 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
28 12
GIB
12
Cotter
Fork end
16
Slotted bar
12
3
40
140
20
40 48 37 25 40
40
TOP VIEW
Fig. 7.12
Problem 2. Fig. 7.13 shows the details of parts of a socket and spigot joint. Assemble
the parts and draw the following orthographic projection:
1. Full section front view 2. Side view
44
Key
10 Cotter clearance
length 100 mm
taper 1 : 30
30 f 85
0
5
f2
28
47
17
16
5
f4
10
125
5
f2
0
SOCKET SPIGOT
f6
Fig. 7.13
3
f 85
f45
32
f 60
f 45
100
Taper 1 in 30
16 30
131
6
SIDE VIEW HALF SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW
Fig. 7.14
414 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Cotters
ve
Slee
Rod
Rod
Fig. 7.15
Clearances
3
100
f 25
60
45
32
Taper 1 in 30
32 65
190
Fig. 7.17
Problem 4. Fig. 7.18 shows the details of a knuckle joint. Assemble all parts and draw
the following view:
1. Full section front view
2. Top view
Taper pin
Pin
Eye end
Fig. 7.18
416 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
6
12
R25
18
18
25
14
28SQ
f 25
28SQ
R25
3
36 36
18
38
12
80 105
TOP VIEW
Fig. 7.19
EXERCISE
1. What is the function of a key? What is the difference between a saddle key and a sunk key?
2. Draw the neat sketch of the following keys:
(i) Wood ruff key
(ii) Hollow saddle key
(ii) Gib head key.
3. What do you mean by cotters and where they are used?
4. What is the difference between key and cotter?
5. Why the clearance is left in cotter joint?
6. Sketch the elevation and plan of a gib and cotter joint for two square shaft of side 45 mm.
Chapter
8
Couplings
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Shafts are manufactured in length varying from 6 to 10 metres due to inconveniences
in transport. If we require a long shaft then it is composed of a number of small shaft
pieces put together end to end joined by couplings. Therefore, coupling is used to join
two or more shafts to increase their length and for transmitting rotatory motion directly
from one shaft to the other. For example, an electric motor and pump can be connected
by a coupling.
417
418 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
FLANGE
d1
HUB
KEY SHAFT
D = 2d
D = 3d
D = 4d
d
1.5 d
KEY
A
B
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 8.1
Following standard proportions can be adopted for an unprotected type flange coupling:
Let d be the diameter of shaft. Then
(i) Outside diameter of hub, D = 2d
(ii) Length of hub, L = 1.5d
Couplings 419
tp tf tf tp
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 8.2
420 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 1. Fig. 8.3 shows detail of parts of an unprotected flange coupling. Assemble
the parts and draw the following projections:
(i) Sectional front view
(ii) Side view
f 177
f 78
f 36
63
3 to 12
21
4
160PCD
9
0
f6
Fig. 8.3
21
2
o1
3t
63
9
f 15
Shaft
f 36
f 78
f 177
84 84
21 21
Solution. See Fig. 8.4.
15
6
4
6
f78
f36
f177
f60
4
160 PCD
SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
Fig. 8.4
Couplings
421
422 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 2. Fig. 8.5 shows protected type flange coupling. Assemble the parts and draw
to full size scale.
(i) Sectional elevation
f 114
4
23
13
23 10
0
f2
3 65
Key
6
33
4×
6×
Y
KE 3
22
0
f2
0
f4
f 114
Fig. 8.5
Couplings 423
10 10
7
4
R5
10
R5
7.5
5
f 40
f 20
f 74 PC
f 114
65 65
SECTIONAL ELEVATION
Fig. 8.6
Muff or box
Gib head key W
Key
Shaft
T
f 25
f 50
5
f2
75
SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 8.7
60 42 50
f 100
f 50
f 40
Taper 1 in 12
8
R5
115
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 8.8
Couplings 425
First half
Shaft
Second half
This type of coupling is commonly used for directly connecting an electric motor to
a machine.
Flange - 1
Rubber
3
Hub
6
key 5 × 5
40
f 80
f 116
f 25
f 50
6
4
38 38
Key 5 × 5
10 10
f8
f 18
f 12
Flange - 2
3 22 17
CENTRE BLOCK
FORK
PIN AND COLLAR
Fig. 8.11
Problem 3. Fig. 8.12 shows pictorial views of a universal coupling. Assemble the parts
and draw half sectional front view in full scale.
f5
f3 6
2
f32
110
38
f56
55
55
Fig. 8.12
428
130 SPLIT PIN f 6
58 32
12
Solution. See Fig. 8.13.
28
f 32
KEY'S
12 × 8
38 C.T.C
f 88
f 50
110
Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
f56
R 38
28
COLLAR- f 50
R 38
12
f 50
Fig. 8.13
Couplings 429
EXERCISE
1. What do you mean by coupling? Name the different types of couplings.
2. What are the differences between rigid and non-rigid shaft couplings?
3. What are flexible couplings?
4. What are the differences between unprotected flange coupling and protected flange coupling?
5. Draw a sectional elevation and side view of a cast iron muff coupling of the following
dimension.
Diameter of shaft = 2.5 mm
Diameter of muff = 63 mm
Length of muff = 87.5 mm
Width of muff = 6 mm
Depth of muff = 4 mm
Taper of key = 1 : 50
6. Figure 8.14 shows the details of pin type flexible coupling. Assemble the details and draw
the following views:
(a) Tape half-sectional front view.
(b) Left side view.
f12, 6 holes on 65 P.C.D. f-34, 6 holes on 65 P.C.D.
36 36
of equal angle of equal angle
20 Key way 20
Key way
14 × 5 f50 14 × 5
f-50
f-34
50
50
2 × 45º 2 × 45º
f-216
f-90
f216
f90
58 58
40
f30 f22
10 40 14 40 8
M12 f22 f18 20
2
f-18
f-30
M-12
80
f50
f-13
f-24
10
65
14
Fig. 8.14
430 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Chapter
9
Pipes and Pipes Joints
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In engineering, various types of pipes are used for carrying fluids, e.g. steam, water,
gas, oil etc. from one place to another. Sometimes they are also used as structural
elements such as beams and columns. Pipes are made of definite lengths. For getting
long length pipes, it is possible to join by means of pipe joints. Type of joint used depends
on the purpose for which it is required as well as material of pipe. Pipes are made of
cast iron, steel, wrought iron, copper, pvc, brass, lead aluminium etc.
Selection of material for pipes depending on the nature of the fluid to be conveyed
viz, pressure, velocity, and chemical properties. Pipes may be with seam or seamless.
Seamless pipes are prefered for high pressure. Pipes are extensively used in water
supply systems, oil refineries, chemical plant, power plant, food processing plant and
sewage piping system etc.
431
432 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 1. Fig. 9.1 shows a pictorial view of a flange joint. Draw the half sectional
front view and sectional side view.
75
30
75
125
0
1:1
p e
Slo
50 70
12
8
6 20
6 85
2 Holes, f 40
R 50
Fig. 9.1
75
A
75 30
M-38, 2 Nos
Slope, 1:10
8
6
18
f 100
6
f 140
250
12 6 12
85 85 R 50
Section A-A
A
Fig. 9.2
Pipes and Pipes Joints 433
tf x
FLANGE
PIPE +
t y
X X
Dp
Do
+
t + Pc
PACKING
D1
f 100
f 130
120
80
f 90 10
140
5
f 96
35
f 92
65
FRONT VIEW
90
Fig. 9.4
f 50
f 70
f 80
f 85
SIDE VIEW
Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD 434
Pipes and Pipes Joints 435
little rigidity and is slightly flexible. It can, therefore, take small changes in alignment
due to the settlement of the earth.
It consists of two parts spigot and socket. The spigot end of one pipe enters the
socket end of the other pipe. The space between the spigot and socket is partly filled in
by flexible material, such as ropes of jute and the remaining space by molten lead.
This joint is used for pipes which are strictly in a straight line and commonly used for
domestic sewer lines.
Problem 2. Fig. 9.5 shows the detail drawing of a spigot and socket joint. Assemble the
parts and draw the front view of the joint.
R 20
240
f 240
f 150
f 200
f 180
f 150
Out side
f 180
Taper 1:5
R 20
SOCKET
Fig. 9.5
Taper 1 : 5
Socket
f 150
f 180
f 200
f 240
Spigot
FRONT VIEW
f 125 H7
f 150 g6
f 125
f 100
f 200
f 185
f 220
f 150
f 170
f 170
f 150
f 170
f 275
f 130
40 10 10 90
15 15
5 NECK BUSH 3 GLAND BUSH
BRASS 1-OFF BRASS 1-OFF
22 50 70 100 20
262
4-HOLES, f16, EQUALLY SPACED,
1 BODY C.I. 1-OFF ON 236 P.C.O
6-HOLES, f15, EQUALLY SPACED,
ON 156 P.C.O. OFF CENTRE LINES 6 M16 NUT MS
4-OFF
f 190
f 220
f 170
f 125
f 100
f 120
f 275
145
90
M16
7 BOLT
50 22 MS 4-OFF
300
70 20
2 PIPE C.I. 1-OFF 4 GLAND BRASS 1-OFF
Fig. 9.7 Expansion joint
Pipes and Pipes Joints 437
4
6
8
5
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 9.8
9.8.1 Nipple
A nipple is a short piece of pipe having external threads on its both ends. It is screwed
inside the internally threaded ends of the two pipes as shown in Fig. 9.9.
9.8.2 Bends
A bend is used to connect pipes at different angles. It is just like an elbow with the
difference that the ends are not needed to be at right angle. A bend is threaded from
inside as shown in Fig. 9.10.
438 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
9.8.3 Elbows
Elbow is just like a socket with its ends at right angle and is used to connect two pipes
at right angles to each other. It is used to change the direction of two pipes. It is
available in different sizes as shown in Fig. 9.11.
Fig. 9.11
9.8.4 Socket
Socket is used to join two pipes of same diameters such that their axis remain in
same straight line. The socket is threaded from inside and is available in different
sizes as shown in Fig. 9.12.
Inside threaded
Portion
Fig. 9.12
9.8.5 Tee
A tee is used to join a branch pipe which is perpendicular to the main pipe line. A tee
has three sides open and internal threads. Tees are also available in different sizes as
shown in Fig. 9.13.
CRANE
Tee
Tee
Fig. 9.13
Pipes and Pipes Joints 439
9.8.6 Crosses
Crosses are used to join four pipe, with inside threads. It is connected in the main line
for multiple connections. It is available in different sizes as shown in Fig. 9.14.
CRANE
Fig. 9.14
EXERCISE
1. Explain the various types of pipes and their uses.
2. How pipe is specified according to Indian Standrards?
3. Give the symbols of the following fittings:
(i) Elbow 90° (ii) Reducing elbow
(iii) Tee (iv) Union
(v) Reducer (vi) Cross
4. Sketch various types of expansion joints for pipes.
5. Draw views of a union joint for 30 mm diameter of pipe
6. Sketch the following types of pipe joints:
(i) Socket Joint (ii) Spigot and Socket Joint
(iii) Flanged Joint.
440 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Part-III
441
Chapter
1
Electrical Drawing
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical drawing is an important part of engineering drawing. The art of representation
of electrical objects or machines such as motors, generators, transformers, poles etc.
on drawing is known as electrical machine drawing. It is commonly used by electrical
engineers to express electrical engineering works and projects. In this chapter
various types of parts of Electrical Machines and their respective views are discussed.
Fig. 1.1
443
444
Classification
available in different ratings from fractional H.P. FG 1 HPIJ due to wide field of application.
H 400 K
These motors are named as “Duncky of Electricity”. Essential parts of an induction
motor are as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Construction: Induction motor consists of the following parts:
1. Stator
2. Rotor
3. Shaft and bearing
4. End plates
5. Outer frame (yoke)
According to the rotors these motors may be classified as under:
Slip Rings
Rotor Slots
Shaft
Rotor
Winding
Fig. 1.2
446 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
The efficiency of this type of motor is high and so high is the cost. These type
of motors are used in industrial purposes where speed control is important.
The rotor speed is related to number of poles by this formula
120 f
NS = (Rotor speed is slightly less than NS)
P
where, N S = Synchronous speed of flux (in r.p.m)
f = Frequency of supply (in Hz)
P = Number of poles
Rotor Conductors
Shaft
End Ring
Fig. 1.3
Fig. 1.4
The sides of cover which are to fit over the machined surface of the body are also
machined properly so that there is not even slightest margin between two surfaces.
The proper and correct fitting of end cover to the body will help to maintain uniform
air gap between stator and rotor. The end cover is fitted to the body with three long
studs at 120º angle each.
On one side of each end cover, there is an inward projection 3 mm thick having
3 semi-circular cuts. This projection is made to avoid reversal of circulating air in
the motor. This projection comes over fan plates. The small and uniform cuts in the
lower half of the end cover are for air circulation and to provide passage for air inlet
from one side and exit on the other through the grooves.
Yoke
Stator pole
Stator windings
Fig. 1.5
Shaft
Startor
winding
Rotor (delta)
Slip rings winding
(star)
Slip
rings
Off
Motor
Carbon starter
brushes (external Fuse
On resistance)
T.P.I.C. main
On switch
Off
Supply
Fig. 1.6
Advantages of slip rings type motors are: best speed control, possibility of regenerative
breaking higher starting torque and high efficiency. X-section of slip rings is shown
in Fig. 1.7.
Slip rings
Tapered hole
for hub screw
Key way
Screw
Fig. 1.7
Fig. 1.8 shows the pin type insulator. These insulators are used for telephone
lines and overhead electric distribution line of low capacity. Insulators are required
to withstand high mechanical and electrical stresses. Pin type insulators are always
used in vertical position.
Binding wire
Conductor
Porcelain petticoats
Steel pin
Cross-arm
Fig. 1.8
Cross arm
There are two galvanised iron plates each 25 mm wide, on each side of these
round insulators. A long bolt holds plates and insulator and a nut is tightened at its
bottom. The other end of plates are placed around cross arm of channel iron or wood
and held firmly with bolt. These insulators can be used either in horizontal or
vertical position. A soft binding wire is used to fixed the conductor in the groove.
Long covered
tape Winding
Tapped holes
Side plate 3
Rivet head
Fig. 1.10
452 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Fig. 1.11
The most commonly used bus bar arrangements in substation are as follows:
(i) Single bus bar arrangement
(ii) Single bus bar system with signalisation
(iii) Double bus bar arrangement
Brass contacts
for Fuse carrier
Porcelain base
Fig. 1.12
Porcelain body
Conductor holder
Stud
Fig. 1.13
Silicon steel
core
Output connectors
Nonmetallic former
Base plate
Input Output
Problem 1. Fig. 1.15 shows the isometric view of an end cover of induction motor.
Draw the following views:
1. Full sectional elevation
2. Left hand side view
Open hole
7mm wide 7 deep
f72
4
f56
12
2
22
6
4
15
3 f7-holes
7 120 PCD 4
m
8m
37
3 f7-holes 3
3
62 PCD 3
Fig. 1.15
X
3
f 194
f 178
f 174
f 170
Solution See Fig. 1.16.
f 150
f 72
f 50
3, f 8 Holes
3 4 15
3, f 6 Holes 62 P.C.D.
40
X
50
Fig. 1.16
Electrical Drawing
457
458 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 2. Fig. 1.17 shows the pictorial view of a rotor of squirrel cage. Draw
1. Half section elevation
2. Left hand side view
f 90
2.
f 65
f 57
12
f 28
X-Bars
80
×7
a y4
y-w
Ke
80
X-Ring
0
12
T
ON
FR
Fig. 1.17
f 95 f 65 X
f 90
f 28
f 57
Solution. See Fig. 1.18.
12 12
2. 1
5
80
122
Fig. 1.18
Electrical Drawing
459
460 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 3. Fig. 1.19 shows the isometric view of slip rings. Draw the following views:
1. Half sectional elevation
2. Right hand side view
B
f226
C
f220
f180
80
25
f1 90
00
f2 15
80
10
134
30
50
30
40
30
40
30
30
30 Key way 25 × 8
Fig. 1.19
f 310
30 40 30 40 30 20 30
f 125
C B A
Ring Ring Ring
Solution. See Fig. 1.20.
B/C
C
B
Keyway 25 × 8
80 90 80
R 90
Y
R 110
R 113
A
30 40
X 1.5 Thick Insulation
Fig. 1.20
Electrical Drawing
461
462 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 4. Fig. 1.21 shows the isometric view of pin type insulator. Draw
1. Full sectional front view
2. Top view
f 20
0
f4
0
f1
32
4
f 20
f 24
R
32
36
100
26
39
R7
R
35 f30
8
R
25
R 10 f24
R 25
6
R 15
8
R3
23
70
2
R2
40
R3
5
R2
5
R3
R3
5
R4
10
Fig. 1.21
Electrical Drawing 463
36
6 8
R7 R 26
R 25
23
R3
40
R 15
10
R 22
R 25
R 35
R 45
f 40
TOP VIEW
Fig. 1.22
464 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 5. Fig. 1.23 shows a shackle type insulator filled with G.I strips and bolts
to be used on the cross arm of a pole. Copy the view and draw a top view to scale
1 : 1. (B.T.E. New Delhi, June 2004)
73
17 24 20
6 8
2
f 74
R 42 2
f 10
f 46
f 32
f 40
f 80
f 50
f 10, Bolt
45
50 R
R
Fig. 1.23
120
25 Wide, G.I. Strip
50
f 10
Electrical Drawing 465
f 46
R
54
17
8 6
R
45
50
73
44
20
M10
R
42
M10
f 32
f 40
f 80 f 50
TOP VIEW
Fig. 1.24
466 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 6. Fig. 1.25 shows isometric view of field, pole and coil. Draw
1. Half sectional front view. 2. Top view. (Use first angle projection).
f 16, 2 holes, 30 deep
202 4 0
23
12
94 0
2 60
R 20
54 68 47
65
2
15
13 2
10
90
60
18
35
128
f 8 Rivets 116 long
164
55
f8
64
60
R1
R2
Fig. 1.25
Solution. See Fig. 1.26.
90
60
128
R-260
55
20
162R
164
94
202
TOP VIEW
Fig. 1.26
Electrical Drawing 467
Problem 7. Fig. 1.27 shows the isometric view of bus bar post. Draw
1. Full sectional elevation 2. Plan 3. Left hand side view
40
45
5
3
10
10
40
80
40
Fig. 1.27
Solution. See Fig. 1.28.
40
5
f8
8
8
f 20
45
3
15
f 25
3
f 40 40
f 10.2 holes
10 10 10 10
PLAN
Fig. 1.28
468 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 8. Fig. 1.29 shows the pictorial view of a fuse carrier. Draw
1. Full sectional elevation
2. Top view
3. Left side view
30
15
5
15
10
15
5 40 10
5
5
25
5 2.5
5 50
15
Porcelain
5
30
25
Fig. 1.29
40
10 1.5 12 1.5
30
25
15
Solution. See Fig. 1.30.
12
5
15
5
30
5
15
15
5
5 15 5 50 5 15 5
Electrical Drawing
PLAN
Fig. 1.30
469
470 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 9. Fig. 1.31 shows the pictorial view of a fuse base. Draw
1. Full sectional elevation 2. Top view 3. Left side view
50
Porcelain body
50
30
Fig. 1.31
10
20
f 10
f5
25
10
50
20
5
10
20
10
Electrical Drawing 471
10 20 50 20 10
50
50
10
40
11
10
5
10
5
f5
3
15 20
f 3, 4 stud
50
FULL SECTIONAL ELEVATIONAL
30
11
30
TOP VIEW
Fig. 1.32
EXERCISE
1. Define end cover of induction motor with sketch.
2. What do you understand by slip rings?
3. Differentiate between pin-type insulator and shackle type insulator.
4. What is the function of kit-kat fuse carrier?
5. What is the difference between dry type and oil type transformer?
472 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Chapter
2
Civil Drawing
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The main aim of civil engineering drawing is to give sufficient drawing information
to the construction engineer. In order to give sufficient information about the building,
views that are drawn are plan, elevation and section along any particular plane.
Basically, civil drawing is a type of technical drawing that shows information about
grading, and other details.
Civil draftsman prepare drawings for topographical and relief maps used in major
construction or civil engineering projects, such as highways, bridges, pipelines, flood
control projects and water and sewage systems.
473
474 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 1. Draw the plan of a low income group house showing one room janta flat
(size 22½ m2) along with civil and electrical drawing symbols.
Solution. See Fig. 2.1.
F = Fan
S.B. = Switch Board
L L = Light
T.L. = Tube light
W/L
W = Window
V = Ventilator
D = Door
D M = Meter
F
T.L.
W
D
S.W.
T.L. L
PLAN
2 m × 1.2 m MS
S.B.
1m
M
1 m × 1.5 m
D
W
W
5.5 m
1.5 m
F
L
1 m × 1.5 m
W
W
1m
3.4 m
PLAN
Fig. 2.2
Civil Drawing 475
Problem 3. Draw a plan of a middle income group house, showing one bed room,
living room, kitchen and bath room of size 77.38 square metre, along with its necessary
civil and electrical drawing symbols.
Solution. See Fig. 2.3.
W.V. W.V.
Exhaust fan L
KITCHEN BEDROOM
7.8′ × 6.10′ 9.4′ ×10.3′
T.L.
F
S.B.
S.B.
D
D
BATH
4.3′ × 5.6′ L
W
D
D L
S.B.
LIVING ROOM
9.4′ ×10.3′
W TOILET L
3′ ×4′
T.L.
S.B.
T.L.
D L
S.B.
F L
M
MS
P W, V
VERANDAH
PLAN
Problem 4. Draw the plan of 2 bedroom type C flat size 107 square meter along with
its necessary civil and electrical drawing symbols.
Solution. See Fig. 2.4.
BEDROOM
16.4¢ × 10¢
BALCONY
5¢ × 10¢
F F
L
TOILET
6.7¢ × 6¢
T.L. T.L.
W.V.
BEDROOM
13.7¢ × 9¢
W.V.
TOILET
6.7¢ × 6¢
L
BALCONY
5¢ × 9.6¢
W.V.
DINING HALL
12.8¢ × 10¢
DRAWING HALL
11¢ × 10.3¢
W.V.
T.V.
KITCHEN
13¢ × 6¢
PLAN
Fig. 2.4
Civil Drawing 477
W.V. W.V.
W.V.
T.L.
T.L.
W.V.
DOOR
Entrance
T.L.
W.V.
T.L.
W.V.
Entrance
W.V.
FAN
W.V.
W.V. W.V.
Fig. 2.5
478 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 6. Draw the plan of a dispensary for students hostel showing waiting room,
doctor room, toilet, store and dispensing room alongwith necessary civil and electrical
drawing symbols.
Solution. See Fig. 2.6.
TOILET
R
6¢×10¢.00¢¢
8.63 × 10.00 L D U.F.
STORE L
F
S.B.
B.P.
D WAITING
W
S.B.
DOCTOR
12 × 19.38
DISPENSING
W
D 13¢×10¢.00¢¢ W
F M.S.
B
S.B. M
W DOOR
PLAN
Fig. 2.6
Problem 7. Draw the plan of a Panchayat house and show on its the necessary civil
and electrical drawing symbols.
Solution. See Fig. 2.7.
W W
L L
L
W
MEETING HALL
L OFFICE
W L
L
D L
L
M VERANDAH
Fig. 2.7
Civil Drawing 479
Problem 8. Draw a plan for a canteen for students and staff of a engineering college
along with civil and electrical drawing symbols.
Solution. See Fig. 2.8.
W.V. W.V.
T.L. E.F.
S.B.
T.L.
(Service room) Kitchen
Tea & snack & drinks
T.L.
Slab T.L.
Slab
S.B.
Slab
T.L.
Service Room
F
T.L.
LAWN
Fig. 2.8
480 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
2.3 FURNITURE
Furniture is manufactured in a wide range for offices, institutions, hostels, houses
etc. of different raw materials as per the situation and need. Furniture is made of
wood and steel but wood is the main raw material used for manufacturing of furniture.
Timber is the name given to the wood obtained from trees by cutting these trees
after full growth and are made suitable for engineering purposes by sawing. It is the
main forest product. It is an important engineering raw material and has wide
application in our day to day life such as doors, windows, almirahs and other furniture.
A well seasoned wood is used in engineering field. The main object of seasoning
is to reduce the moisture content in the wood to the extent it is desirable so as to
make it suitable for various purposes. There are different types of woods used for
manufacturing of furnitures such as, Teak, Shisham, Sal, Deodar, Mango, Babul,
Kail, Chid etc.
Deodar, Chid, Kail etc. are soft woods where as Teak, Sal, Mango etc. are hard
woods. Teak is widely used for making good quality of furnitures.
Problem 9. Fig. 2.9 shows the isometric view of a dining table. Draw to scale
1 : 10 the following. (B.T.E. New Delhi, June 2004)
(i) Sectional front view (Looking from A)
(ii) Top view
0
90
0
180
60
0
0
120
0
R 10
25
725
30 × 120
A
SQ 30
SQ 60
Fig. 2.9
482 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
1200
25
30 × 120
725
SQ30
SQ60
R = 100
600
Fig. 2.10
Civil Drawing 483
Problem 10. Fig. 2.11 shows the orthographic views of a dining table. Draw the
isometric view of the dining table.
25
50
450
300
300 900 300
FRONT VIEW
375
375
TOP VIEW
Fig. 2.11
Fig. 2.12
484 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Problem 11. Fig. 2.13 shows the orthographic views of a chair without arms. Draw
the isometric view.
25
450
50 50
900
25
65
75 50
450
50
50 × 20
450
50 50
450
150
450
TOP VIEW
Fig. 2.13
Civil Drawing 485
45
0
50
25
50
25
900
65
450
0
15
50
50 × 20
75
25
50
45 0
0 45
Fig. 2.14
486 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
EXERCISE
1. What are the different types of symbols used in electrical engineering drawings?
2. What do you mean by building plan drawing?
3. Why do we prepare furniture drawing?
4. Fig. 2.15 shows the orthographic views of a table. Draw the isometric view of the given
figure.
20
6 50
75
6
60
400
260
270
25
750 150 75 350
60
20
40
60
12
10
40
20 20
500
Wooden button
1050
Fig. 2.15
Civil Drawing 487
5. Fig. 2.16 shows the orthographic views of a simple book rack. Draw its isometric view.
1500
36 HIGH SKIRTING
ELEVATION
Commercial plyboard
375
1500
PLAN
Fig. 2.16
488 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Chapter
3 Indian Standard
Codes for Drawing
489
490 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IS 11065 : Part 2 : 1985 Drawing Practice for Axonometric Projection : Part 2 Dimetric
Projection
IS 11663 : 1986 Conventional Representation of Common Features
IS 11664 : 1986 Folding of Drawing Sheet
IS 11665 : 1985 Technical Drawings-Title Blocks
ISO 7200 : 1984
IS 11666 : 1985 Technical Drawings-Item Lists
ISO 7573 : 1983
IS 11667 : 1985 Technical Drawings-Linear and Angular Toleracing Indications
ISO 406 : 1982 on Drawings
IS 11669 : 1986 General Principles of Dimensioning on Techincal Drawings
ISO 129 : 1985
IS 11670 : 1986 Abbreviations for use in Technical Drawings
(Contd...)
492 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Counterbore C BORE I
Countersunk CSK Imperical Standard Wire Gauge SWG
Countersunk head CSK HD Inch or Inches in
Cube or Cubic CU Indian Standard IS
Cylinder of Cylinderical Cyl Inside Diameter ID I/D
Inspection INSP
Insulation INSUL
(Contd...)
Indian Standard Codes for Drawing 493
O Standard STD
Opposite OPP Standard Wire Gauge SWG
Outside Diameter OD Station Point SP
Symetrical (in a note) SYM
P
Perpendicular PA, ⊥ System International SI
Pitch Circle PC T
Pitch Circle Diameter PCD Tee T
Picture Plane, Profile Plane PP Temperature TEMP
Plate PL Thick THK
Thread THD
Q
Quantity QTY Thread per centimetre TPC
(Contd...)
494 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
MATERIALS
(Contd...)
496 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Part-IV
AutoCAD
497
Chapter
1
Computer-Aided Drafting
499
500 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
1.4 HARDWARE
For a computer to be of any use there must be a means of giving to it information
to process (input), instructions for the method of processing (programs) and a means
of retrieving the results (output).
A typical CAD system will include one or more input, output and storage devices,
as well as the central processing unit, the arrangement at which an engineer works
known as a “workstation”. Workstations are usually net worked together so that
everyone works with a common and readily accessible catalog of drawing and design
data as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1
Memory
RAM ROM
Fig. 1.2
502 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
1.5.1 Key-Board
Alphanumeric keyboards is a text only device and forms an essential basic input
device. They are typically employed to create/edit programs to perform word processing
functions. They are usually similar to a typewriter, but it may include other features
such as special function keys or a number keypad. The keyboard typically is used
in one or two ways. It is used for writing either programs or word processing.
There are some extra keys in keyboard which are called function keys. These
functional keys are listed below.
F1 Online Help
F2 Text/Graphics screen
F3 Running snap
F4 Tablet On/Off
F5 Isoplane Top/Right/Left
F6 Coordinates On/Off
F7 Grid On/Off
F8 Ortho On/Off
F9 Snap On/Off
These function keys are used to perform some special functions in particular
software applications. For example, F1 is used for help in most of the softwares, F9
is used to control snap in AutoCAD.
The speed of the inputting data with the keyboard is a function of the ability to
use the keyboard as shown in Fig. 1.3.
Computer-Aided Drafting 503
Fig. 1.3
1.5.2 Mouse
Mouse is another graphics input device. This simple device usually has two or three
buttons. The mouse is moved on a flat surface known as “mouse pad”. It consists of
two small wheels which rotate when the mouse moves on the surface. Nowadays
most of the mice we are using are optical mice. They have a sensor at their bottom
which controls its speed and precision. In laptops, the alternative of mouse is touchpad.
The functions of the touchpad is same as mouse. Touch screen monitors are also
used nowadays as input devices. Although they are not extensively used in CAD
systems today.
In AutoCAD, button one (left button) on mouse device is the pick button. We use
the pick button to select the commands from the side screen or pull down menus.
Select menu items and select the dialog box items as shown in Fig. 1.4.
Fig. 1.4
1.5.3 Joystick
Basically it is a device used to locate the position of the cursor
on the screen. It should be moved in the same direction as you
wish the cursor. Their concept of operation is very similar to
that of the mechanical mouse discussed in the above section.
Joystics are suitable for faster display system and have become
very popular in the home computer market. In CAD system they
are most effectively used in conjunction with screen-display type
menu facilities as shown in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5
504 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
1.5.4 Scanner
The scanner is an input device. It is used to make an exact copy of a picture or
photograph which is displayed on the monitor as shown in Fig. 1.6.
Fig. 1.6
1.6.4 Memory
A memory or store is required in a computer to store programs and the data processed
by programmes. A memory is made up of a large number of cells, with each cell
capable of storing on bit. The memory unit is called by different names, such as
storage, internal storage, primary storage, main memory or simple memory. It may
be classified into two groups.
(i) Main memory
(ii) Storage memory.
Computer-Aided Drafting 505
1.6.8 Monitor
Monitor looks like a home television system. Various sizes of the monitor are available
in the market as (30/35/48cm). The monitor screens may be monochrome or colour.
They are used in text mode or graphics mode although some terminals and a few
micro computers do not have a graphics
mode. Various display technologies are
now available to the user to choose from
among the available technologies, the CRT
(Cathode ray tube) is the most dominating
and has produced a wide range of
extremely effective graphic displays. Other
technologies such as LCD (Liquid Crystal
Display) which produces low energy ‘Low-
glave, space efficiency flat screens.
The screen is divided into horizontal
and vertical directions into a large number
of picture element called pixels, the higher Fig. 1.7
the number of pixel, the better will be
the appearance of the picture as shown
in Fig. 1.7.
506 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Fig. 1.8
1.6.10 Storage
The computer uses primary and secondary storage systems for the information that
it processes. The primary system consists of solid state chips which are volatile, that
is the information is stored as electrical charges which are lost when the power is
turned off. Other types of primary memory chips are PROMS and EPROMS. Both are
ROM chips, which may be programmed by the user. The secondary storage system
differs from the primary storage by being more or less permanent.
Secondary storage is also much larger, and takes longer to access, when compared
to primary storage, secondary storage is also shared by different users of course.
A RAM disk is a hybrid memory form. It is a volatile memory installed on a board
in chip form like RAM, unlike RAM it is used as a temporary secondary storage
because it can be accessed much more quickly than any disk system.
1.8 AUTOCAD
AutoCAD is a very popular software package that provides computer aided design and
drafting (CADD) capabilities for micro computers. It is a comprehensive software
application that facilitates almost all varieties of 2D drawing, such as electrical,
mechanical, plumbing, Air-conditioning, architectural etc. AutoCAD has introduced
3D drawings and has started in corporating the internet and network support.
AutoCAD is accepted as the industry standard and it is preferred by a large
community of CAD users in the world. Although AutoCAD is available for a variety
of computer systems, majority of AutoCAD implementations are available on IBM or
compatible personal computers with MS-DOS operating system. AutoCAD can be
used with many engineering design programmes and can be used separately if
needed.
Autodesk, US based developer of “AutoCAD software” is the world leading supplier
of computer aided design and drawing software packages. Since its inception in
1982, the company has introduced a family of software packages for use in a wide
range of industries. It has hit the technical world like a shock wave, revolutionizing
the manner of drawing preparation.
508 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Application: AutoCAD package is suitable for accurate and perfect drawing of engineering
designs. The design of machine parts, isometric views and assembly drawings are
possible in AutoCAD. This package is also suitable for 2D and 3D drawings etc.
Various Versions of AutoCAD: The first release of AutoCAD version 1.0 was in 1982
many updates and improvements were done constantly. Release of AutoCAD version-12
was introduced in 1992 and AutoCAD release-14 introduced in 1998, AutoCAD 2000
in 1999, AutoCAD 2002, AutoCAD 2009, Auto CAD 2013.
Recently AutoCAD 2016 has been launched which offers a higher level of speed,
accuracy and ease of use. AutoCAD 2016 is strictly a windows XP/Vista program.
Chapter
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains the various aspects of the AutoCAD 2016 for Window drawing
screen and shows how they can be manipulated. Launching AutoCAD 2016 is very
easy. Just double-click the AutoCAD shortcut. After few seconds, you would see the
AutoCAD desktop in which top line displays the Window pulldown menus for exiting
a program and changing program. The second line is the standard toolbar, contains
a group of commands. The third line contains some command icons and an area that
shows the current, or docked, object properties that are active. The line just above
the drawing portion of the screen displays the name of current drawing. The bottom
left corner of the screen shows the co-ordinete display position of the horizontal,
vertical crosshairs in terms of an X, Y co-ordinate value. The commands listed on
the bottom line display the horizontal and vertical scroll bars that can be used to
move the drawing screen up and down, left and right etc.
509
510 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Fig. 2.1
Computer-Aided Drafting 511
Scroll Bar
Draw Toolbar Drawing Area
UCS Icon
Status Bar
Coordinate Display Layout Tabs
Command Prompt Window
Fig. 2.2
Draw line
Insert block
Draw construction line Make block
Draw polvline Draw point
Draw polygon Draw hatch
Draw rectangle Draw region
Draw arc Draw text
2.5 SAVING
In AutoCAD or any computer system, save same your work before exit from the
drawing editor or turnoff the system. It is also recommended to save your drawings
after regular time of internal, so that in the event of a power failure.
AutoCAD has provided the SAVE commands that allows the user to save their
work on the hard disk of the computer. User may choose save from the file menu,
or the save button in the standard toolbar. If the current drawing is unnamed and
the user save the drawing for the first time, the SAVE command will prompt the user
to enter the file name in the Save Drawing. As dialog box shown in Fig. 2.5. User
can enter the name for the drawing and then choose the save button. This allows
the user to do a quick save.
Computer-Aided Drafting 513
Fig. 2.4
Fig. 2.5
514 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
Close: AutoCAD closes the current drawing if there have been no changes since the
drawing was last saved. If user should modify the drawing, user to save or discard
the changes.
Drawing template file This is a file that contains preset values for frequently
used setting. AKA a prototype drawing. The file
extension in DWT.
Model space The drawing space where user ‘model’ the objects.
Units The basic drawing unit set for your drawing. For
example, user can use inches or millimeters
depending on your needs. User can also set the
precision you want displayed, such nearest 1/4", 1/
2" 1/64", etc.
2.8 LIMITS
In AutoCAD, the drawings must be drawn full scale and therefore, the limits are
needed to size up a drawing area. The limits of the drawing area are usually determined
by the following factors.
(i) The actual size of the drawing.
(ii) The space needed for putting down the dimensions, notes, bill of materials.
(iii) The space for the borders and title block.
The limits command allows the user to change the upper and lower limits of the
drawing area. Turn limits, checking ON or OFF.
Command: Limits (Press Enter↵)
Specify lower left corner or [ON/OFF] < 0.0000, 0.0000 > : (Press Enter↵)
Specify upper right corner < 12.0000, 9.0000 > :
Type 297,210 (Press Enter↵)
Type zoom (Press Enter↵)
Type all (Press Enter↵).
2.9 ZOOM
The zoom all command magnifies the drawing on the screen. This command is to
follow limits, command in order to apply selected limits.
This command enlarges or reduces the view of the drawing on the screen, but
it does not affect the actual size of the objects. In this way, the zoom command
functions like the zoom lens on a camera. When the user magnify the apparent size
of a section of the drawing, seen that area in greater detail. On the other hand, if
the user reduce the apparent size of the drawing, seen a layer area.
Command: Zoom (press ENTER↵)
[All/centre/Dynamic/Extents/previous/scale/Window/< Real time > : All (Press Enter↵)
518 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES:
Chapter
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Y
Starting with the advanced sketching, with 2D systems
recognise only flat shapes defined by points, lines, curves
contained in two-dimensional plane. 2D systems are
primitive by compression with 3D system, but 2D system
is sufficient for a wide variety applications and at its
lower cost, is an attractive choice for many companies.
The majority of CAD orthographic engineering drawings
and electrical circuit drawing are created on 2D system
as shown in Fig. 3.1. 0,0 X
Fig. 3.1 2D Model
3.2 VARIOUS COMMANDS OF 2D SYSTEM
3.2.1 Point
AutoCAD uses points to determine where an object is located. There is an origin
where it begins counting from. This point is (0, 0). Every object is located in relation
to the origin. If user were to draw a line straight out to the right from the origin,
this would be considered the positive X-axis. If user were to draw a line straight up,
this would be the positive Y-axis. Fig. 3.2 shows a point located at (8, 5). This means
that the point is 8 units over in the axis and 5 units up in the Y-axis. When user
are working with points, X always comes first.
+Y
(+X, + Y)
(–X, + Y)
8, 5
–X +X
(–X, – Y) (+X, – Y)
–Y
Fig. 3.2
519
520 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
(12, 10)
+
0, 0
Fig. 3.3
This places the given point in the drawing at location (12, 10).
3.2.2 Line
The most fundamental object in a drawing is the line. The line command is used to
draw straight lines between two defined points. User can invoke the line command
by choosing the line button from the drawn toolbar as shown in Fig. 3.4.
Fig. 3.4
Starting with the Advanced Sketching 521
Command: Line
From Point: Specify a point-P1 or [undo]
Specify a point P2 or [close/undo]
Press enter at the end of the LINE command.
(1) Undo: User can undo the most recently drawn, line segment by entering the
option U when prompts to specify next point. User can undo all the line segments
drawn in reverse till the first point of the first line segment.
(2) Close: Close option joins the very last point entered with the very first point
that is picked in a series of line segment that user had draw by a straight line.
Line can be drawn by anyone of the following three methods using LINE commands
(i) Absolute co-ordinate system 6, 6
@ –3, 0 @ 0, 5
(ii) Relative Co-ordinate System @ X Distance, Y
Distance (Fig. 3.6)
COMMAND : LINE
Specify first point; 3, 3↵ @ –3, 0
Specify next point: @ 6, 0↵ @ 0, –2
3.2.3 Curves
Following are the various types of curves used in engineering drawing:
(1) CIRCLE: With this command user can draw a circle as required. User can
also invoke the circle command from the draw, toolbar, from the DASHBOARD. Circle
may be defined by a center point and either a radius or diameter; by two or three
points on the diameter, arc and a radius value. Following are the various methods
to draw circles:
(a) Using centre and radius
(b) Using centre and diameter
(c) 2 points (2p)
(d) 3 points (3p)
(e) Tangent, Tangent and Radius (TTR).
(a) Using Centre and Radius:
Problem 2: Draw a circle with centre (5, 5) R 16
Diameter/ <Radius> : 16 ↵
(b) Using Centre and Diameter:
Problem 3: Draw a circle with centre (8, 15) and diameter 16 units
Solution: See Fig. 3.9.
COMMAND : CIRCLE
(8, 15)
3P/2P/TTR/<centre point > : 8, 15 ↵
Diameter/ < Radius > : 16 ↵
D 32
Fig. 3.9
(c) 2 Points (2P): This allows to enter two diametrically opposite points of the
circle.
Starting with the Advanced Sketching 523
Problem 4: Draw a circle using the given 2 points (8, 32) and (8, 45) 8, 45
by entering 2nd points of the circle diameter.
Solution: See Fig. 3.10.
COMMAND : CIRCLE
3P/2P/TTR/< centre point> 16p ↵
First point on diameter: 8, 32 ↵
Second point on diameter 8, 45 ↵ 8, 32
(d) 3 Points: This allows to enter any three points on the Fig. 3.10
circumference of the circle.
Problem 5: Draw a circle using the given 3 points (5, 20),
(5, 20)
(5, 25) and (10, 20).
Solution: See Fig. 3.11
COMMAND : CIRCLE
(5, 25)
3p/2p/TTR/<centre point> : 3p ↵
First point: 5, 20 ↵
Second point: 5, 25 ↵
(10, 20)
Third point: 10, 20 ↵
Fig. 3.11
(e) TTR: (Tangent, Tangent and Radius): The tangent and radius option allows
to select two objects as tangent and fits a circle between them for a specified radius.
Problem 6: Draw a circle with radius 13 units and two existing lines as tangent.
Solution: See Fig. 3.12.
Take: For line 1, from point (17, 5) to point (20, 10) 1
E
IN
For Line 2, from point (20, 2) to point (20, 6) L
COMMAND : CIRCLE
3p/2p/ TTR < centre point > : TTR ↵
Enter tangent specification : Select first object T1, Enter second
2
COMMAND : ARC
P1 P3
Centre / < Start point > : Specify start point ↵
Centre/End/ < Second point > specify second point ↵ Fig. 3.13
Chord length
Arc Direction
There are seven methods used for drawing an arc.
Center pt
Inclined
angle
(a) Three points method
(b) Start point — Centre point — End point Tangent and direction
Centre/ < Start point > : specify a point, entre c, or press enter ↵
Specify centre point of Arc: use one of the point fixing method ↵
P1
Specify end point of Arc or [Angle/chord length]: specify a point or enter an
Fig. 3.15
option ↵
END POINT: Draw-ARC-start, centre, end using the centre point (P2) as shown in
Fig. 3.16. Draw an arc counter clockwise from the start point (P1) to a point that falls
on an imaginary ray drawn from the centre point through the end point (P3).
The end point determines the angle at which the arc ends. The arc does not
necessarily pass through this third point.
Starting with the Advanced Sketching 525
Note: If angle is negative (–ve), then version of AutoCAD 2008 Fig. 3.16
draws an arc clockwise.
(3) ELLIPSE: There are three options associated with the Ellipse tool. These
three options allow the user to define the Ellipse.
1. Ellipse is defined as the full length of one axis and half length of the other
axis.
2. Define as the centre point of ellipse and half length of other two axis.
COMMAND : ELLIPSE
Specify axis end point of ellipse or (ARC/CENTRE): use one of the point fixing method or
enter an option. Ellipse can be drawn by anyone of the following methods:
Problem 7: Draw an ellipse using major axis end point (12, 22) (65, 25) and minor
axis endpoint (30, 30)
Solution: See Fig. 3.18.
COMMAND : ELLIPSE
Specify axis end point of ellipse or [Arc/centre]: 12, 22 ↵
Specify other end point of axis : 65, 25 ↵
Specify distance to other axis or [Rotation]: 30, 30 ↵
526 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
(30, 30)
Fig. 3.18
P2
P1
Fig. 3.19
Problem 8: Draw an ellipse with centre (100, 20) major axis end point (120, 25) and
minor axis end point (90, 30).
Solution: See Fig. 3.20.
COMMAND : ELLIPSE
Select the ellipse tool from the draw toolbar
Starting with the Advanced Sketching 527
(120, 25)
(100, 20)
Fig. 3.20
3.2.4 Polygon
Polygon is a geometric figure with equal sides. In AutoCAD, the POLYGON command
is used to draw regular 2D polygon [Fig. 3.21].
COMMAND : POLYGON
Enter number of sides < current > : Enter a positive integer specify centre of polygon or
[edge] : use one of the point fixing method ↵
Specify first endpoint of edge use one of the point fixing method ↵
Specify second point of edge: use one of the point fixing method ↵
Pick box
P2
Edge
P1
3.2.5 Erase
Erasing means to remove unwanted part of a drawing ERASE command is used to
remove a single entity or group of entities from the drawing screen. This command
is used exactly the same way as in erase used in manual drafting to remove the
unwanted user which invokes the ERASE command, a small box, known as the pick
box, replaces the screen cursor. To erase an object, move the pick box so that it
touches the object user can select the object by pressing the pick button of the
pointing device as shown in Fig. 3.22.
COMMAND : ERASE
Select the object : Use any object selection method ↵
528 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
3.2.6 Oops
Oops command is used to restore the erased entity immediately. The following illustration
narrates the above situation. First, the circle at the centre is removed using ERASE
command. The same is restored after using oops command [Fig. 3.23].
Fig. 3.23
3.2.7 Move
Sometimes object should not be located at the actual position where they actually
needed. In these situations, user can use the MOVE command. This command
allows to move one or more objects from their current position to a new position.
This change in the position of the objects does not change their size as shown in
Fig. 3.24.
COMMAND : MOVE
Select objects: use one of the object selection method ↵
Specify base point or displacement: use one of the point fixing method or, enter the displacement ↵
Specify second point of displacement or < use first point as displacement > : use one of
the point fixing method of press enter ↵
Fig. 3.24
Starting with the Advanced Sketching 529
3.2.8 Copy
This command is similar to the MOVE command is the sense that it makes copies
of the selected objects and places them at a specified location as shown in Fig. 3.25.
COMMAND : COPY
Select objects: Specify base point or displacement or enter option M ↵
Select second point of displacement or < use first point as displacement > : use one of
the point as displacement > : use one of the point fixing method or press enter ↵
3.2.9 Array
If the user needs to make multiple copies of an object but at a regular interval, copy
command is a little cumbersome. ARRAY command comes in handy in such situations,
where prompts user for the number of rows and columns.
COMMAND : ARRAY
Select objects: use any object selection method ↵
Fig. 3.26
530 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
3.2.11 Rotate
Sometimes when making drawing, user may need to rotate an object or group of an
objects. In these situation, user can use the ROTATE command. ROTATE command
moves an object about a base point.
COMMAND : ROTATE
Select Object : use an object selection method base point ↵
Specify a point (1) < Rotation angle > / Reference ↵
Specify an angle or enter R ↵
3.2.12 Mirror
This command is used for producing mirror image of the symmetrical object. In such
cases, user can just draw one half of the model and AutoCAD, can produce the other
half by mirroring what user has done as shown in Fig. 3.27.
End point 1 Mirror line
End point 2
Fig. 3.27
COMMAND : MIRROR
Select objects: use any object selection method ↵
Specify first point of mirror line: use any of the point fixing methods ↵
Specify second point of mirror line: use any of the fixing methods ↵
Delete source object? [Yes/No] <N> : Enter an option. ↵
3.2.13 Offset
If the user, want to draw a parallel lines, polylines, circles, arcs etc., user can use
the OFFSET command as shown in fig. 3.28. This command creates another object
that is similar to the selected one. Remember that user are allowed to select only
one entity at a time to be offset. When offseting an object user can specify the offset
distance and the side to offset, or specify a point through which user want to offset
the selected object.
Starting with the Advanced Sketching 531
3.2.15 Extend
EXTEND command may be considered the opposite of TRIM command. In TRIM command
the user trims the objects, but in the EXTEND command, the user can extend lines, rays,
arcs and polylines to meet the other object(s). This command does not extend closed loops.
In EXTEND command user are required to select the boundary edges firstly. The boundary
edges are those objects that are selected lines or arcs extend to meet.
Command : EXTEND
Current setting: Projection= UCS ↵
Edge = Extend ↵
Select boundary edges ↵
Select object: use an object selection method or press enter ↵
3.2.16 Text
The TEXT command is used to write a single line text in the drawing. Although user
can write more than one lines of text using this command, but each line will be a
separate text entity. After invoking this command user need to specify the start point,
height and rotation angle for the text. The character appear on the screen, as user
enter them. When user press enter after typing a line, the cursor automatically places
itself at the start of the next line and repeats the prompt for entering another line.
User can end the command by pressing the enter key and the backspace key is use
to edit the text on the screen while writing it. The prompt sequence is given next.
532 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
COMMAND : TEXT
Specify start point of text or [Justify/style] : specify the starting point of the text.
Specify height <current> : Enter the text height
Specify rotation angle of text <0> ↵
Exter the first line of the text box displaced in the drawing window ↵
Exter the second line of the text in the box displayed in drawing window ↵
3.2.17 Break
The BREAK command breaks an existing object into two or erases portions of the
objects. This command can be used to remove a part of the selected objects or to
break objects such as lines, arcs, circles, ellipses and polylines. There are two
methods of BREAK commands.
(1) 1 Point option.
(2) 2 Point option.
The 2 point method allows, to break an object between two selected points as
shown in Fig. 3.29. In this method the portion of the object between the two selected
point is removed. The point at which, selected the object becomes the first break
point and then user are prompted to enter the second break point.
Object selection point Second point
Fig. 3.29
D2
Second object
3.2.19 Fillet
The edges in the design are generally filleted to reduce the area of
stress concentration. The FILLET command helps to form round
corners between any two entities by allowing to define two entities
that form a sharp vertex.
The result is that a smooth round arc is created that connects
the two objects as shown in Fig. 3.32.
A fillet can also be created between two intersecting or parallel Fig. 3.32
lines as well as nonintersecting and nonparallel lines, polylines,
rays, circles and true ellipses.
Current settings: Mode = TRIM, Radius = 0.0000
Select first object or [Undo/Polyline/Radius/TRIM/Multiple]
3.2.20 Quit
This exists AutoCAD. At the command prompts, enter quit or at the right top of the
screen click (X) to exit from AutoCAD.
Endpoint
Midpoint
Intersection
Apparent Intersect
Etension
x
Centre
Quadrant
Tanent
g
Perpendiatar
Parael
l
Noe
d
Inert
s
Neaest
r
None
Osnap Settings...
Fig. 3.33
3.3.1 Endpoint
The ENDpoint Object Snap mode snaps to the closest endpoint of a line or an
arc. To use this Object Snap mode, select the Endpoint button, and move the cursor
anywhere close to the endpoint of the object. The marker will be displayed at the
endpoint; click to specify that point. AutoCAD will grab the endpoint of the object. If
there are several objects near the cursor crosshairs. AutoCAD will grab the endpoint
of the object that is closest to the crosshairs, or if the Magnet is on, user can move
to grab the desired endpoint. Fig. 3.34 invoke the LINE command from the Draw
toolbar.
Endpoint
Selects
endpoint
Specify first point: Select the Snap Endpoint button from the Object Snap toolbar.
endp of Move the crosshair and select arc.
Specify next point or [Undo]: Select the endpoint of the line.
3.3.2 Midpoint
3.3.3 Nearest
The NEArest Object Snap mode selects a point on an object (line, arc, circle, or
ellipse) that is visually closet to the graphics cursor. To use this mode, enter the
command, and then choose the Nearest object snap. Move the crosshairs near the
intended point on the object so as to display the marker at the desired point and then
select the object. AutoCAD will grab a point on the line where the marker was displayed.
Fig. 3.36 invoke the LINE command from the Draw toolbar.
Nearest
Selects
nearest point
3.3.4 Centre
The CENtre Object Snap mode allows user to snap to the centre point of an
ellipse, circle, or arc. After selecting this option, user must point to the visible part
of the circumference of a circle or arc. Fig. 3.37 invokes the LINE command from the
Draw toolbar.
Selects
centre point
Centre
3.3.5 Tangent
The TANgent Object Snap allows user to draw a tangent to or from an existing
ellipse, circle, or arc. To use this object snap, place the cursor on the circumference
of the circle or arc to select it. Fig. 3.38 invokes the LINE command from the Draw
toolbar.
Selects
tangent point
Tangent
Fig. 3.38
Nearest
Deferred
tangent
Endpoint
Midpoint
Fig. 3.39
538 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
3.3.6 Quadrant
The QUAdrant Object Snap mode is used when user need to snap to a quadrant
point of an ellipse, arc, or a circle. A circle has four quadrants, and each quadrant
subtends an angle of 90-degree. The quadrant points are located at 0, 90, 180, and
270-degree positions. If the circle is inserted as a block, that is rotated, the quadrant
points are also rotated by the same amount, [Fig. 3.40 and 3.41].
The use this object snap, position the cursor on the circle or arc closert to the
desired quadrant. The prompt sequence for drawing a line from the third quadrant
of a circle, as shown in Fig. 3.42 is given next.
Specify first point: Choose the Snap to Quadrant button from the Object Snap toolbar.
_qua of Move the cursor close to the third quadrant of the circle and select it.
Specify next point or [Undo]: Select the endpoint of the line.
Quadrant Quadrant
point 2 point 2
Quadrant
Quadrant point 1
point 3
Quadrant
Quadrant point 1
point 3
Quadrant Quadrant
point 4 point 4
Fig. 3.40 Location of the circle quadrants Fig. 3.41 Quadrants in a rotated circle
Selects
third quadrant
point
Quadrant
Fig. 3.42
3.3.7 Intersection
The INTersection Object Snap mode is used to snap to a point where two or
more lines, circles, ellipses, or arcs intersect. To use this object snap, move the
cursor close to the desired intersection so that the intersection is within the target
box, and then specify that point. Fig. 3.43 invokes the LINE command. The prompt
sequence is given text.
Starting with the Advanced Sketching 539
Specify first point: Choose the Snap to Intersection button from the Object Snap toolbar.
_into of Position the cursor near the intersection and select it.
Specify next point or [Undo]: Select the endpoint of the line.
After selecting the Intersection Object Snap, if your cursor is close to an object
and not close to an actual intersection, the tooltip displays Extended Intersection. If
user select this object now, AutoCAD prompts and, for the selection of another object.
If your cursor is close to another object, AutoCAD marks the extended intersection
point between these two objects. This mode selects extended or visual intersections
of lines, arcs, circles, or ellipses as shown in Fig. 3.44. The extended intersection
are the intersections that do not exist at present, but are imaginary and formed if
the line or arc is extended.
Second
object
Selects the
intersection
point
Intersection First
object
Fig. 3.43 The INTersection Object Snap Mode Fig. 3.44 Extended Intersection Object Snap Mode
3.3.8 Perpendicular
Specify first point: Choose the Snap to Perpendicular button from the Object Snap toolbar.
_per to Select the line on which user want to draw perpendicular.
Specify next point or [Undo]: Select the endpoint of the line.
First point Second
point
Perpendicular Perpendicular
to the selected line from the
selected line
Perpendicular Perpendicular
Fig. 3.45 Selecting the Start Point and then the Fig. 3.46 Selecting the Perpendicular Snap
the Perpendicular Snap
Fig. 3.47 shows the use of the various object snap modes.
Center
Intersection
Quadrant
Endpoint
Perpendicular
Deferred tangent
3.3.9 Parallel
When user need to draw a line parallel to a line or polyline on the screen, user
can use the PARallel Object Snap as shown in Fig. 3.48. For example, when user are
in the middle of the LINE command, and user have to draw a line parallel to the one
already on the screen, user can use the PARallel object snap as follows.
Command: Choose Line from the Draw toolbar.
Specify first point: Select a point on the screen.
Starting with the Advanced Sketching 541
Specify next point or [Undo]: Choose the Parallel bottom from the Object Snap toolbar.
_par to Specify object to which parallel is to be drawn.
Parallel
symbol
Parallel 3.0456<4.0
Parallel to the
selected line
When user specify the reference object, a parallel sign is displayed. User should
briefly pause on that line so that a small plus sign appears on it to indicate that it
has been selected. Now, on moving the cursor close to an angle parallel to the line,
an imaginary parallel line appears, on which user can select the next point. A tooltip
which has the relative polar coordinate is displayed with the cursor as user move
it on the construction line. This helps user to select the next point. This line which
has been drawn is parallel to the selected object.
3.3.10 Extension
The EXTension Object Snap gives user an option to locate a point on the
extension path of a line or an arc as shown in Fig. 3.49. It can also be used with
intersection to determine the point of the extended intersection. To use the extension,
choose the Line button from the Draw toolbar and then choose the Snap to Extension
button from the Object Snap toolbar. Briefly pause at the end of the line or arc user
want to use. A small plus sign (+) appears at the end of the line or arc, indicating
that it has been selected. If user move the cursor along the extension path, a
temporary extension path is displayed and the tooltip displays relative polar coordinates
from the end of the line. Select a point or enter a distance to begin a line and then
select another point to finish the line.
Dimension line
Dimension text
Extension line
1.7422
Aligned
dimension
13
82
0.
Vertical
dimension
2.00
0.5807
R0.2
f0.6836
Fig. 3.50
lines
However, user can make extension lines incline
at an angle by using the DIMEDIT command
(Oblique option) or by selecting Dimension Edit
from the Dimension toolbar. AutoCAD also allows
0.70
to the keyway feature. Also, a leader can be used to attach annotations such as part
numbers, notes, and instructions to an object.
0.2 × 0.1
keyway
Leader
R1.125
Fig. 3.52
Fig. 3.53
Chapter
4
Getting Started with 3D
4.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the latest enhancements in AutoCAD is that it directly Y
starts in the 3D modelling environment. All commands and
options required to create the 3D design are displayed by
default in environment as shown in Fig. 4.1.
Today by CADD technology, it has become possible to
X
build typical types of 3D-objects on the screen and visualise
the object without wasting much time, money and efforts.
Using AutoCAD, the industry standard for computer aided
design and drafting software student can build and visualize Z
Fig. 4.1
3D models easily. These 3D objects are generated by the
process of geometric modelling.
545
546 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
prism, cones, cylinder, spheres, wedges and etc. It is the process of creating objects
which is similar to actual solid object. In the solid modelling technique, the object
is completely filled with solid material. The creation of solid models on the screen
allows calculation of the mass, properties, engineering properties like volume area,
mass, centre of gravity etc. With mechanical desktop, the user can also define solids
parametrically and maintain associatively between 3D Models and the 2D views that
student generate from them.
Hidden line removal A way of hiding lines that would not be visible if
user were viewing the actual object user have drawn
in AutoCAD. (Command: HIDE)
Plan View Also known as the top view, a plan view looks directly
down the WCS Z-axis to the X-Y axis.
4.4.4 Section
The section command is very similar the SLICE command. The only difference is
that the command does not chop the solid. Instead, it creates a cross-section along
the selected section plane. The cross-section thus created is a region.
Select objects: select the object to section
Select objects:
specify first point on section plane by [object/Z axis/view/XY/YZ/ZX/3 points]
< 3 points >:
4.5.1 Box
User can use the box command to create a solid rectangular box or cube. Start a new
file by the acad3D.dwt template file. In 3D drawing templates, dynamically preview
the operations that are perform.
(i) By two corner option [Fig. 4.2]
Specify first corner or [centre] <0, 0, 0> : 2, 2, 0
Specify other corner or [Cube/Length] : @ 5, 4, 0
Specify height or [2 point] : 3
Getting Started with 3D 549
ght ht
Hei Heig
th
h ng
idt Le
First corner W
(2,2,0)
Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3
4.5.2 Cone
The CONE command creates a solid cone with an elliptical or circular base. This
command provides, with the option of defining the cone height or the location of the
cone apex. Defining the location of the apex will also define the height of the cone
and the orientation of the cone base from the XY plane as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Centre of
cone
Height
s
diu
Ra
Fig. 4.4
4.5.3 Cylinder
The CYLINDER command is used to create a solid cylinder. Similar to the CONE
command, this command provides, with two options for creating the cylinder. Circular
cylinder and elliptical cylinder. This command also allows to define the height of the
cylinder or choose from the 2 point or Axis end point options.
Circular cylinder [Fig. 4.5]
Centre of
cylinder
t
igh
He
s
di u
Ra
Fig. 4.5
Specify centre point of base or [3P/2P/Ttr/Elliptical]<0, 0, 0>: Specify the location of the
centre point or choose one of the options
Specify base radius or [Diameter] <default> : Specify the radius or choose the option for
specifying the diameter.
Specify height of the cylinder or [2 Point/Axis/end point]< default > : specify the height of
the cylinder or choose an option.
4.5.4 Sphere
The SPHERE command is used to create a solid sphere. In 3D drawing templates, can
dynamically preview the operation that are perform on the choosing the sphere
button, it will prompted to specify the centre of the sphere. On specifying the centre,
user can create the sphere by defining its radius or diameter.
Specify centre point or [3P/2P/Ttr] : Specify the location of the centre of the sphere or
choose an option.
Specify radius of sphere or [Diameter] <default> : Specify the radius or choose an option.
3P Option of Sphere
Specify first point: Specify the first through point.
Specify second point: Specify the second through point.
Specify third point: Specify the third through point.
4.5.5 Torus
User can use the TORUS command to create a torus that is a tyre-tubelike shape,
as shown in Fig. 4.6. Start a new file by the acad3D.dwt template file. In 3D drawing
Getting Started with 3D 551
templates, user can dynamically preview the operations that user perform. When
user select this command, AutoCAD will prompt user to enter the diameter or the
radius of the torus and the diameter or radius of tube as shown in Fig. 4.7.
Center of
torus
Road of Rod of
torus tube
Fig. 4.6 Dynamically Created Torus Fig. 4.7 Parameters Associated with a Torus
4.5.6 Wedge
This command is used to create a solid wedge and is similar to the BOX command.
This means that this command provides user with the options of creating the wedge
that is similar to those of the BOX command.
4.5.7 Polysolid
The POLYSOLID command is similar to the POLYLINE command with the difference
that this command creates a solid with a rectangular cross-section of a specified
width and height. This command can also convert existing lines, 2D polylines, arcs,
and circles to a polysolid feature. The prompt sequence, when user will invoke the
POLYSOLID command, is given next.
COMMAND: POLYSOLID
Height = current, Width = current, Justification = current
Specify start point or [Object/Height/Width/Justify]<Object>: Specify the start point for the
profile of the polysolid. Else, press the ENTER key to specify an object to convert into a
polysolid or enter an option.
Next Point of Polysolid: When user specify the start point for the profile of the solid,
this option is displayed. This option is used to specify the next point of the current polysolid
segment. If additional polysolid segments are added to the first polysolid, AutoCAD
552 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
automatically makes the endpoint of the previous polysolid the start point of the next
polysolid segment.
COMMAND: POLYSOLID
Height = current, Width = current, Justification = current
Specify start point or [Object/Height/Width/Justify] <Object>: Specify the start point of the
polysolid.
Specify next point or [Arc/Undo]: Specify the endpoint of the first polysolid segment.
Specify next point or [Arc/Close/Undo]: Specify the endpoint of second polysolid segment
or press the ENTER key to exit the command.
4.5.8 Slice
SLICE command is used to slice the selected solid with the help of a specified plane.
User will be given an option to select the portion of the sliced solid that has to be
retained. User can also retain both the portions of the sliced.
Select objects to slice : Select the object to slice select objects to slice:
Specify first point on the slicing plane or [Planer object/surface/Z axis/View/XY/YZ/ZX/3
points] <3 points>:
4.5.9 3 Points
This option is used to slice a solid using a plane defined by three points as shown in Fig. 4.8.
Select objects to slice: Select the object to be sliced.
Select objects to slice:
Specify first point on slicing plane or [Planer object/surface/Z axis/view/XY/YZ/ZX/3 points]
<3 points>:
Specify first point on plane: Specify the point P1 on the slicing plane as shown in Fig. 4.9.
P2
P1
P3
Slicing
plane
Fig. 4.8 Defining the Slicing Plane Fig. 4.9 Model after Slicing
Specify second point on plane: Specify the point P2 on the slicing plane.
Specify third point on plane: Specify the point P3 on the slicing plane.
Specify a point on desired side of the plane or [keep both sides]. Select the portion of the
solid to retain or enter B to retain both the portions of the sliced solid.
Getting Started with 3D 553
4.5.10 Fillet
As mentioned earlier, the FILLET command is used to round the edges or corners of
the models. This is generally done to reduce the stress concentration area in the
model. The behaviour of this command is different while working with 2D entities
from the behaviour while working with solid models. Therefore, it is very important
for the user to first understand the use of this command to fillet the edges of the
solid models. Fig. 4.10 shows two lines that are selected to be filleted. Now, as these
lines are nothing but 2D entities, when user select these two lines to fillet, the
result will be as shown in Fig. 4.11.
Fig. 4.10 Lines before Filleting Fig. 4.11 Lines after Filleting
This shows that if actually there was a vertical edge at the corner of the lines
shown in Fig. 4.10, then it would have been filleted. However, in 3D models, user
directly have the vertical edges and therefore, user have to select the vertical edge
to be filleted. Fig. 4.12 shows a solid model. To fillet this model, user just need to
select the vertical edges, as shown in Fig. 4.13.
Edges selected
to fillet
Fig. 4.12 Selecting the Edges to be Filleted Fig. 4.13 Model after Filleting the Edges
554 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
4.5.11 Chamfer
The CHAMFER command is used to bevel the edges of the solid models. This command
is also used to reduce the area of the stress concentration in the solid models. The
working of this command is also different while working with solid model.
(TRIM mode) Current chamfer Dist 1 = current, Dist 2 = current
Select first line or [Undo/Polyline/Distance/Angle/Trim/mEthod/Multiple]: Select the edge to
chamfer. One of the faces associated with the edge will be selected and highlighted.
Base surface selection...
Enter surface selection option [Next/OK(current)]<OK>: Give a null response if user want to
make this face as the base surface. Otherwise enter N at this prompt.
Specify base surface chamfer distance <default value>: Specify the distance.
Specify other surface chamfer distance <default value>: Specify the distance.
Select an edge or [Loop]: Select the edge to fillet.
Fig. 4.14 and 4.15 show the solid model before and after chamfering, respectively.
Fig. 4.14 Solid Model before Chamfering Fig. 4.15 Solid Model after Chamfering
4.5.12 Rotate
The ROTATE3D command is used to rotate the selected solid model in the 3D space
about a specified axis. Once again the right-hand thumb rule will be used to determine
the direction of rotation of the solid model in 3D space. The prompt sequence that
will follow when user choose this command from the Modify menu is given next.
Current positive: ANGDIR = counterclockwise ANGBASE = 0
Select objects: Select the solid model.
Select objects:
Specify first point on axis or define axis by
[Object/Last/View/Xaxis/Yaxis/Zaxis/2points]:
2points Option
This is the default option for rotating solid models. This option allows user to rotate
the solid model about an axis specified using two points. The direction of the axis
Getting Started with 3D 555
will be from the first point of the second point. Using this direction of the axis, user
can calculate the direction of rotation of the solid model by applying the right-hand
thumb rule.
[Object/Last/View/Xaxis/Yaxis/Zaxis/2points]:
Specify first point on axis: Specify the first point of the rotation axis. [Fig. 4.16.]
Specify second point on axis: Specify the second point of the rotation axis.
Specify rotation angle or [Reference]: Specify the angle of rotation.
Original
object
P1
P2
Rotated
object
Fig. 4.16
4.5.13 Mirror
The MIRROR3D command is used to mirror the solid models about a specified plane
in the space. The prompt sequence that will follow when user choose this command
from the Modify menu is given next.
Sect objects: Select the solid model to be mirrored.
Select objects:
Specify first point of mirror plane (3 points) or [Object/Last/Zaxis/XY/YZ/ZX/3points] < 3points >:
3points Option
This is default option for mirroring the solid models. As discussed earlier, a line can
be defined by the two points from which the line passes. Similarly, a plane can be
defined by the three points through which it passes. This option alloys user to
specify the three points from which the mirroring plane passes.
Specify first point of mirror plane (3 points) or [Object/Last/Zaxis/View/XY/YZ/ZX/3points]
< 3points >:
Specify first point on mirror plane: Specify the first point on the plane.
Specify second point on mirror plane: Specify the second point on the plane. [Fig 4.12]
Specify third point on mirror plane: Specify the third point on the plane. [Fig. 4.17]
Delete source objects? [Yes/No] <N>:
556 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
P1
P2
Original
object
P3
Mirrored
object
Fig. 4.17
4.5.14 Material
This option is used to apply material to the selected face.
Select faces or [Undo/Remove]: Select one or more faces to apply the material
Select faces or [Undo/Remove/ALL]: Select one or more faces, enter an option,
or
Enter new material name <By Layer>: Enter the name of the material or
E W
VI
P
TO
FR
ON
T W
VIE
E VIE
W
SID
HT
RIG
30
(width)
15
d1.0
(Height)
+
20
10
TOP VIEW
Fig. 4.18
558 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD
IMPORTANT NOTES: