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Unit 1: Inquisitive World of Research

Main Idea: Research manifests in everyday life
Essential Question: What is research all about?

Research Basic vs. Applied Research

• A systematic investigation that requires • Differentiates research according to its
data to be collected, analyzed, and purpose
interpreted of any social or natural • Basic – also known as theoretical research;
phenomena where results and conclusions aims to test existing or generate new
are aimed at contributing to generalizable theories to advance knowledge or
knowledge understanding; often identified when the
• Must follow the scientific method – a research discovers new phenomena or
standardized set of techniques for building new ideas of general interest
scientific knowledge • Applied – aims to use the acquired
knowledge in order to contribute directly
Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning
to the understanding or resolution of
• Methods of reasoning used when
practical issues; often identified when the
conducting scientific research research contributes to the solution of
• Inductive – aims to infer theoretical specific practical problems.
concepts and patterns from observed
data; also known as Theory Building Empirical vs. Nonempirical Knowledge
research • Empirical – information gathered through
• Deductive – aims to test concepts and experience and direct data collection
patterns known from theory using new • Nonempirical – roots from introspection,
empirical data; also known as Theory vicarious experiences, and people’s
Testing research analysis of events

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Scientific vs. Nonscientific knowledge

• Directly related to inductive and deductive • Scientific – a generalized body of laws and
reasoning theories that explains a phenomenon
• Qualitative – often referred to as inductive acquired using the scientific method; can
research; aims to understand or make be imperfect or far from the truth since it
sense of the world based on the is based on the various theories currently
experiences and perceptions of individuals accepted at the time
• Quantitative – often referred to as
deductive research; aims to understand
the world by generalizability using
controlled, value-neutral processes
• Although these two (2) research types can
be conducted separately, these are often
done alongside each other in higher
education.

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Exploratory vs. Explanatory Research Research Methodology vs. Methods

• Exploratory – often conducted in new • Methodology – acts as the justification and
areas of inquiry where it intends to scope rationale for choosing the type of data
out the magnitude of a particular collection and analysis the researcher will
phenomenon, problem, or behavior, to conduct. This is based on one’s existing
generate new ideas, and also to test the knowledge of the phenomenon and the
feasibility of undertaking an extensive knowledge that one wants to explore.
study regarding the phenomenon; seeks to • Methods – specific set of tools that a
investigate and under-researched aspect researcher uses throughout the study.
of life These are the details that will be based on
• Explanatory – provides explanations of an the methodology.
observed phenomenon by answering the
‘why’ and ‘how’ questions; attempts to Observation
Question
correct the dots by identifying causal
factors and outcomes of the phenomenon; Hypothesis
and often seeks to explain an aspect of
Revise
social life Experiment Hypothesis

• A third category, descriptive research, is Consistent Inconsistent

Result Result
often used to describe an aspect of life
richly. This is related to explanatory Peer Review
research but instead answers the ‘who’,
‘what’, ‘when’, and ‘where’ questions.
These observations are based on the Figure 1. The scientific method is a cycle that starts
scientific method and are therefore more with observations of a specific phenomenon,
which eventually sparks a question in the
reliable than descriptions provided by
researcher. This is then followed by the generation
untrained individuals.
of hypotheses that are tested or verified using an
experiment. Based on the result, the hypothesis
Research design vs. Methodology
can either be accepted or rejected and revised.
• Design – a strategic plan of how to go
about answering the research questions. It
is a plan on how to collect, analyze, and
interpret the research data. It touches on
all parts of the research and acts as a
blueprint.
• Methodology – This is the rationale for the Reference:
research design and is broader in terms of Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B.
concepts on which it touches. It justifies (2017). Applied research: An Introduction
one’s choice of data collection, analysis to qualitative research methods and report
method, and procedures. writing. Quezon City: Pheonix Publishing
House, Inc.

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Unit 1: Inquisitive World of Research

Main Idea: Research manifests in everyday life
Essential Question: What is research all about?

Research Paradigm Approaches to Qualitative Research

• A cluster of beliefs and dictates which 1. Phenomenology
for scientists in a particular discipline • Both an approach to and a method of
influence what should be studied, how understanding the behavioral,
research should be done, and how emotive, and social meanings of lived
results should be interpreted (Bryman, experiences of individuals
2008) • Emphasizes the individual’s
• Divided into two (2) paradigms: experiences, beliefs, and perceptions
o Qualitative – an inquiry process
of understanding a social or 2. Ethnography
human problem based on • Focuses on studying shared practices
building a complex, holistic and belief systems (i.e., culture) of a
picture, formed with words, group of people in their natural
reporting detailed views of context over a prolonged period
informants
o Quantitative – an inquiry 3. Case Study
process into a social or human • Allows in-depth investigation of
problem based on testing a complex issues within a specific
theory composed of variables, context based on a small
measured with numbers, and geographical area or a very limited
analyzed with statistical number of individuals as the subjects
procedures of the study

Qualitative Research 4. Discourse/Conversation Analysis

• Researchers are primarily concerned • Studies naturally occurring discourse
with processes rather than outcomes. and extract shared meanings from
• Researchers are interested in meaning, such discourse; text is the object of
or how people make sense of their analysis
experiences. • It is divided into four (4) themes:
• The researcher is the primary discourse as a topic, discourse as a
instrument for data collection and form of action, discourse is
analysis. rhetorically organized, and language
• Research involves fieldwork. is constructive.
• The research is highly descriptive in
that the researcher is interested in 5. Inductive Thematic Theory
deriving meaning from words or • Primarily concerned with presenting
pictures. the stories and experiences voiced by
• The process is inductive. study participants as accurately and
comprehensively as possible

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• Most common qualitative data

analysis used in social, behavioral,
and health sciences

6. Grounded Theory
• A set of inductive data collection and
analytic methods to construct theories
grounded in the data themselves

7. Narrative Analysis
• Focuses on narratives (storytelling) as
the source of data
• Research focus shifts from
“what actually happened” to “tell me
what happened”; relates not just
lifespans, but also accounts
episodes and interconnections
among them

Reference:
Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B.
(2017). Applied research: An introduction to
qualitative research methods and report
writing. Quezon City: Pheonix Publishing
House, Inc.

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Unit 2: Qualitative Research and Inquiry

Main Idea: Understanding and explaining an issue is as important as devising a solution
Essential Question: How would you know if your topic is suited for qualitative research?
Essential Question: What course of action would you take if your research was considered crucial to the
development of your field but did not adhere to ethical standards?

Characteristics of Qualitative Research • Tendency to ask leading

• Qualitative research occurs in the field or in a questions
• Interviews and analysis can be
natural setting where the phenomenon is both time-consuming, subjective,
happening. The researcher engages with the Weakness
and not generalizable
people directly involved and often acclimate • Participants’ accounts always
themselves to the views, beliefs, and culture of mean something, but they cannot
always be taken at face value
the community in focus.
Observations
• Researchers act as the key instrument in • First-hand account of observing,
collecting data for qualitative research. The prevents imposition of
Strengths
interactions, direct observations, and subjective preconceived ideas and explore
analysis of the researcher and participants unforeseen effects
• Observations and analysis can be
become part of the research process and
time-consuming and are not
collected data. generalizable
Weakness • Observer’s presence may
• The participant and their subjective views on a influence participants
• Observer may misinterpret
particular phenomenon are put into emphasis in actions, may be subjective
a qualitative study. These different
perspectives are highlighted when presenting Focused group discussion
the findings of the study. • Less expensive than individual
interviews
• Qualitative research uses multiple sources of • Provides a relaxed atmosphere so
data and analysis. Data can be collected using that people feel free to express
Strengths
their views and strengths
interviews, focus group discussions, • Responses can be more
observations, document reviews, and audio- spontaneous than in a one-to-one
visual information. Although these methods are interview
not based on a unified theoretical and • Findings are not generalizable
unless sampling techniques are
methodological concept, criteria and protocols used to constitute the groups
Weakness
are developed to ensure that findings are • Depends on people’s ability to talk
grounded in empirical data. in groups; group dynamics may
inhibit people
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative
Research Methods

Semi-structured interviews
• Prevents imposing biases
• Important means to dig down
information using open-ended
Strengths questions
• Ensures mutual understanding
between participant and
interviewer

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Research Ethics and Guidelines Researchers must be able to identify their

• Research ethics ensures that every part of the responses, but not their identities.
study can balance the values and morals of Individuals should have the right to limit
both researcher and subject/respondent. access to information about themselves
and control the use of this information.
Ethical Goals of a Researcher
• Ensure that people participate voluntarily in the • Disclosure
study o This sets a boundary on what to disclose to
• Keep people’s comments and behavior the participant regarding the study. It is
confidential important to note that although it is required
• Protect people from harm for researchers to disclose information
• Ensure mutual trust between researcher and about the study, this must be carefully
participants considered so that the respondents’
opinions and responses will not be affected
Six (6) Ethical Principles or influenced (e.g., if the research is
• Beneficence focused on collecting negative reviews
o Researchers are ethically obligated to about a certain product, stating this specific
maximize benefit and minimize harm. The objective to the participant may sway their
study puts emphasis on the research responses and result in bias).
design being sound and the researchers
having the appropriate competencies. • Consent
o Informed consent is an operational
• Veracity or Justice principle that allows participants to know
o The truth must always be stated, and all that they are being researched, the nature
agreements or promises must be met. of this research, and that they have the
Researchers are morally obligated to treat right to withdraw. This addresses four (4)
each person what is morally proper and due areas of concern in research:
to him/her. Additionally, both benefits and ▪ Giving relevant information about the
burdens must be equally distributed to all research to the subject for them to
participants. decide whether to participate
o Vulnerability may provide an exception to ▪ Making sure that subjects understand
the equal distribution of benefits and information by writing it in the subject’s
burdens of the study. This is defined as a language and capacity
substantial incapacity to protect one’s own ▪ Ensuring that participation is voluntary
interest, identity, consent, and well-being. by requiring written consent
▪ Subjects that are not competent to
• Voluntary Participation/Respect for Persons agree must be given consent by a
o Participants must be aware that their proxy.
participation in the study is voluntary and Beneficence
that they are free to withdraw at any time
without unfavorable repercussions. Veracity
Disclosure
Respect for persons is based on the
respect for autonomy and protection of said
persons.
Voluntary
Anonymity
Participation
• Anonymity and Confidentiality
o Researchers seek to protect subjects’ Consent
identity, interests, and future well-being.
Figure 1. Six (6) Ethical Principles of Research

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Ethical Pitfalls and Common Ethical Problems

• Exploitative social research
• Deception
References:
• Identification of subjects’ identities Marquez-Fong, S. R., & Tigno, C. R. (2016).
• Fraternizing with disliked groups Practical research 1. Quezon City: Vibal
Group, Inc.
• Participation in dubious bargains
Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B.
• Research as a therapeutic action (2017). Applied research: An Introduction
(researchers choose a topic that they are to qualitative research methods and report
writing. Quezon City: Pheonix Publishing
personally involved in)
House, Inc.
• Research is conducted without a good Smith, D. (2003, January). Five Principles for
background of safety precautions Research Ethics. American Psychological
Association, 34(1), 56.
• Family members and friends are used as
Torneo, A., & Clamor-Torneo, H. (2018). An
participants introduction to qualitative research:
Practical research 1. Quezon City: Sibs
Informed Consent Publishing House, Inc.
Below is an example of an informed consent form.

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Informed Consent Form

Research Project Title:
Researchers:
Research Adviser:
Participant/s name/s:

This informed consent form has two (2) parts: (a) information sheet that is intended to share information about
the study and (b) mandatory consent form where your written decision to participate or not in the study is
indicated.
INFORMATION SHEET
1. Introduction
2. Purpose of the Study
3. Study Procedures
4. Duration
5. Voluntary Participation
6. Benefits and Reimbursement
7. Confidentiality
8. Contact Information

CONSENT FORM

I, ___________________________, Filipino, of legal age, and with sound judgment, have reviewed the
foregoing details in the information sheet. I understand that my words and responses will be used as stated
above and that I may request a copy of these transcripts to review, edit, and remove as I deem necessary. I am
aware of the benefits, burdens, and reimbursements that this study will provide in exchange for my participation.
I have had the opportunity to ask all relevant questions and that these have been answered honestly and
accurately by the researchers to my satisfaction. Lastly, I understand that my participation is voluntary and that
I have the right to withdraw at any time with no unfavorable repercussions.

_______________________________ ________________
Printed Name and Signature of Participant Date
_______________________________ ________________
Printed Name and Signature of Witness Date
_______________________________ ________________
Printed Name and Signature of Research Adviser Date

*Ensure that this form is returned two (2) days after receipt
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CONSENT FORM

If illiterate:
I, _____________________, Filipino, of legal age, and with sound judgment, have reviewed the foregoing
details in the information sheet on behalf of ________________________ who is unable to review or provide
their written consent without aid. I confirm that their words and responses will be used as stated above and that
they may request a copy of these transcripts to review, edit, and remove as I deem necessary. I confirm that
they are aware of the benefits, burdens, and reimbursements that this study will provide in exchange for their
participation. I confirm that they have had the opportunity to ask all relevant questions and that these have been
answered honestly and accurately by the researchers to their satisfaction. Lastly, I confirm that they understand
that their participation is voluntary and that they have the right to withdraw at any time with no unfavorable
repercussions.

_______________________________ ________________
Printed Name and Signature of Representative Date
______________________________ ________________
Printed Name and Signature of Participant Date
_______________________________ ________________
Printed Name and Signature of Witness Date
_______________________________ ________________
Printed Name and Signature of Research Adviser Date

*Ensure that this form is returned two (2) days after receipt
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Unit 2: Qualitative Research and Inquiry

Main Idea: Understanding and explaining an issue is as important as devising a solution.
Essential Question: If your research problem is irrelevant, how will it affect the rest of your study?

Characteristics of a Good Qualitative Research 2. The problem should be amenable to

Problem change as data are collected and
• Feasibility – an adequate number of analyzed.
subjects to be interviewed and at the same 3. The problem should not be biased with
time an adequate technical expertise on restrictive assumptions or desired
any scope of a topic that is interesting findings.
enough and can be managed by the 4. The problem should be written in how and
researcher. what forms to focus on describing the
• Novelty – the newness of a topic, either to phenomena.
confirm or refute previous finding or to 5. The problem should include a central
extend a new finding to previous studies. question as well as the participants and
• Ethics – the assurance of giving due the site.
respect to the participants of the research
in making sure they only experience Steps in Developing a Research Problem
minimal harm, and without intruding into 1. Selection of the research topic – a list of
their privacy. ideas can be classified as interesting
• Relevance – the significant contributions of topics, some familiar while others
the investigation to scientific knowledge, perplexing. Choose the most suitable
and in the development of some policies one.
and actions intended for future research 2. Contemplating the ideas – explore the
directions. phenomena by examining the problem’s
precipitating factors, how it is exactly
Three (3) Basic Components of a Good viewed or perceived by the researcher,
Qualitative Research Problem the responses of others who are involved
1. The ideal situation – this is where you in the situation, personal involvement of
provide the history of the issue and the the researcher in the situation, values and
ideal scenario that can exist. biases, and the contributions the
2. The main problem – this is where you not researcher has to offer.
only inform what the problem is, but also 3. Narrowing the topic – once a research
answer what the problem is, and where, topic has been specified and
why, and when it occurs. contemplated, the researcher must then
3. The scope of the problem – this is where narrow it down to develop a research
you define the extent of your study and problem by generating questions from the
give a brief overview of the kind of research topic.
methodology you would be using to work 4. Reviewing the related literature – this
out for the solution and provide stage sheds light on the problem by
justifications for the selection of this study illuminating the topic and identification of
and consequences that may be entailed. what is known and what is not known
about the research problem and therefore
Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research allowing the specification of the research
Problems problem and the establishment of a
1. The problem should not be too general or theoretical framework and planning of
too specific. research methodology.

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5. Writing the statement of the research research later with the recognition that the
problem – expressed in an interrogatory research is likely to garner a great deal of
statement such as “what are the burnout support and importance deemed relevant to a
experiences of elementary teachers,” larger community of researchers.
which serves as a guide to the researcher • The research should be clear – short,
in the course of designing the study in conceptually straightforward, and jargon-free
work culture. that is based on theoretical foundation using
abstract disciplinary language for the analysis
Six (6) Elements in Qualitative Research but stated in a clear and simple manner like
Statement keeping questions close to the topic or place
• Literature on the research topic that can you are researching. Determine your
provoke the research question’s relevance and intent and link your
• Scope of the problem question to a larger context.
• Importance and relevance of the problem • The research question should be
• Discipline that can be influenced by the researchable – clearly “doable” as one of the
study most common rationales for rejecting
• General characteristics or profile of the research questions that are too expensive to
participants of the study be carried out, thus consider limitations as
• Overall goal or aim of the study or the many very practical questions need to be
question to be answered considered when choosing your research
question.
Criteria for a Good Qualitative Purpose • The research question should be iterative – is
Statement an approach where insight and learning are
• The statement must be in a single gathered, allowing ideas or concepts to be
sentence only. developed through repeated interfaces with
• The statement must include the purpose the participants. An iterative qualitative
of the study. research allows certain dynamism in
• The statement must include the central investigating a problem with great flexibility of
phenomenon. the process combined with hands-on session
• Use qualitative words like “explore”, that allows the researcher to continually
“understand”, or “discover”. enhance the stimuli being developed.
• Note the participants (if any).
Research Title
• State the research site.
Giving the title for a qualitative research calls for
creativity, more than what quantitative research
Research Question
offers. This must be put on a title page which
• The research question should be evocative –
contains a running head that is flushed left at the
should catch the interest of the readers and
top of the page and a page number that is flushed
be drawn into the proposed study that
right at the top of the page.
engages with challenging topics, posing
innovative approaches to the exploration of
The title should be located at the top half of the page
problems that are not obvious and easily
and should be centered between margins. This
predictable.
page should include the title of your paper, your
• The research question should be relevant –
name, and your school affiliation.
clearly demonstrated relevance of research
question to society, a social group, or
The title is a very concise statement of what the
scholarly literature and debates are likely to
reader will find in the paper, identifying the major
be given more weight, when the question can
variables of the study.
fill in the gap which will be answered in your

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A title exudes a lot of attraction that prods the rationale, timeliness, and relevance of the study to
readers to an interesting topic, whether or not existing conditions. Also, the possible solutions to
reading of the text must continue. Formulating the existing problems or improvements must be
best and final title for the research suggests an identified. It should also discuss the implications
effective research statement that includes principal such as the possible causes of the problems
words and ideas (concept variables) in giving a discovered, the possible effects of the problems,
glimpse of the study. The title also takes a unique and the remedial measures to solve the problems.
form, written in caps and lower case (CLC) bold In addition, the research must take into
typeface set in an inverted pyramid structure. A title consideration the individuals, groups or
is not the same as label which may just be a communities who may be placed in a more
deadwood without indication of the thrust and advantageous position on account of the study.
direction of research.
Phrases in Expressing the Significance of the
The title must be descriptive and comprehensive Study:
but concise. Long titles in research are just a waste • Researchers may find the findings useful
when they can be shortened without removing the as…
essence of the study. The following are examples • This study will encourage them to…
of wordy titles and their revised versions: • It will also serve as a basis in the study of…
• This study will contribute to…
Two-part titles are creative but must be used • This study can help boost the…
judiciously. Not because you have separated the • Through this study, the students will become
title and subtitle by a colon doesn’t mean a aware of…
complication in such a pithy statement of the • The results of this study will provide some
research with an explanation that delimits or insights and information on how they…
explains such title. The following examples show
when a two-part title is effective or not:
Scopes and Limitations
Significance of the Study The scope and limitations of qualitative research
To know the significance of any inquiry, the are tandem ideas of what and what not the
researcher must first consider what the research researcher can do. The scope of research is the
rationale is. The significance of the study is coverage, the part of the research that was exactly
whatever you have deemed it to be. You decide the done, and where the information that was used
significance of your study and be the better you can specifically came from.
articulate this, the stronger your thesis will be.
Depending on a given subject, the scope can be
Researchers must have to review it over many large or small, as there are three (3) basic steps to
times before they can decide a direction where the follow. These are expressed in terms of focus
research is going. Choosing a study that you are (subject matter coverage), locus (the place or
passionate about will make the work seem location of the study), and modus (mode or manner
effortless in citing the significance. of data- gathering). With these considerations, a
research can see the coverage of the research.
In writing the importance or significance of the
study, the researcher or writer must explain the

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School Coercers Strike

School Coercers Strike Again – How to Pull Away

From a Bully

Juan dela Cruz

Matayog National High School

Poor
Case on the Implementation Phases of the Campaign Against Pork
Barrel to Combat Corruption – Perspectives of Selected Barangay
Residents in Metro Manila
Better
Perspectives on “Daang Matuwid” – Straight or Crooked Path?

Poor
Anime and Phenomenon on Violence of Young Filipino Males Playing
Computer Games in Internet Cafes in the City of Manila

Better
Phenomenology on Aggressive Behavior of Computer Gamers

Ineffective
A Study on Broadcast Journalism News Source Perceived by Selected
Students of Campus Journalism: A Comparative Approach

Improved
Reliability and Ethical Values of TV Broadcast Journalism Against
Citizen Journalism as News Source – Perspectives of Selected
Secondary Campus Press Students of Manila

Effective
David Conquers Goliath: Documentary Narratives of Kara David in
Solving Social Problems of Urban Communities

References
Henson, R. M. & Soriano, R. F. (2016). Practical research 1 qualitative research, world of reality dissections. Malabon City:
Mutya Publishing House Inc.
Marquez-Fong, S. R., & Tigno, C. R. (2016). Practical Research 1. Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc.
Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B. (2017). Applied Research: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods
and Report Writing. Quezon City: Pheonix Publishing House, Inc.
Torneo, A., & Clamor-Torneo, H. (2018). An Introduction to Qualitative Research: Practical Research 1. Quezon City: Sibs
Publishing House, Inc.

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Unit 2: Literature, Methods, and Techniques in Qualitative Research

Main Ideas: Research studies are only as credible as its supporting sources;
Decision-making and choosing the best approach are always based on the situation
Essential Question: What criteria should a study meet to be credible and relevant as supporting literature?
Essential Question: How do appropriate or inappropriate research designs impact the result of a study?

Field of Study Provides Provides Other

Sources Direct Content References
Remarks
Specific General

A common resource used in literature reviews;

Textbooks ✓  ✓  Caution should be taken when referencing dated
books.

Recommended when looking for information about

Manuals/Guides ✓  ✓  processes/methods

Encyclopedias A general resource used for the definitions of

 ✓ ✓  jargon/terms
Dictionaries
Excellent source of recent research activities of a
Annual Reviews  ✓ ✓ field
Listing of sources with brief summaries related to
Bibliographies   ✓ another resource (e.g. books)

Summaries of scholarly articles that serve to brief

Abstracts ✓  ✓  the reader on the paper's content

Annual or quarterly updates on recent research

Scholarly Journals ✓  ✓  studies of the field;
Caution should be taken to avoid predatory journals

Provide important sources of information and

Trade Periodicals ✓  ✓  insights from individuals working in a specific field

Table 1. General Resource Matrix

A sample list of common resources used to collect information
for qualitative literature reviews

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Citation Style American Psychological Association (APA)

Note that the
One (1) Author Surname, First name. (Year). Title of the book. City of Publication: Publisher.
rules here
should be
Two (2) or more authors Surname, F., Surname, F., & Surname, F. (Year). Title of the book. City of Publication: Publisher.
applied to
other Surname, F., Surname, F., Surname, F. … Surname, F. (Year). Title of the book. City of Publication:
situations Eight (8) and up authors
Publisher.
Citation Style Modern Language Association (MLA)
One (1) Author Surname, First name. (Year). Title of the book. City of Publication: Publisher.
Citation Style American Medical Association (AMA)
Surname, First name initial. Middle initial. Title in sentence case. Abbreviated Journal Title. Year Month Day;
One (1) Author
Volume (Issue #): pp-pp.
Citation Style Chicago/Turabian
One (1) Author Surname, First name. Title of the book. City of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.
Table 2. Citation Styles Used in Research
These are common examples on how to use different citation styles when writing references.

Steps in Literature Review 7. Develop and maintain a systematic tool for recording
1. Work closely on your research problem and sub-problems to relevant information. You can use bibliography cards for
identify more specific keywords. Brainstorm your research recording relevant information about each source that you
problem, write the sub-problems, and research questions locate and read. Use the note cards to record your findings.
that will help you to solve them. This will help you to identify
narrower topics you need to read more about in order to A. Principles for Instructing a Research Paper
conduct your research. 1. Chronological – the chronological pattern explains each of
2. Find out related keywords. Look for them with your research the steps in a time-order process. the chronological pattern
problem and sub-problems as guides. is often appropriate for a paper describing a series of
3. Locate related literature. Start looking for your related historical, political, or sociological processes or events.
sources with the keywords in searching related literature in 2. Comparison and Contrast – the pattern of comparison and
online databases and library catalog. contrast presents the similarities and/or differences between
4. Make searches with specific keywords. Different types of two (2) or more persons, places, or things. a logical
catalog and databases can show many results, and keep development by comparison and contrast entails discussion
track of these searches, so as not to repeat the same search of the same qualities of both subjects. comparison and
again. contrast are appropriate when a subject can be best
5. Create a list of the desired sources. You need to read, and understood by distinguishing it from others in its class.
always keep updating it. 3. Spatial Pattern – develops the physical layout or
geographical dimensions of a topic.
6. Find your sources and look them over. Make remarks on 4. Cause and Effect – a cause-and-effect paper presents the
your sources list that comes out not to be helpful or not events or forces that produce certain results, speculates
found. about how things might have turned out of if conditions had

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been different, or reports controlled experimentation to

determine the factors important to a particular outcome.
5. Analysis – some subjects can best be understood by an
examination of their component parts. analysis is the
process of dividing a subject into its parts and classifying
them.

B. Ethics of Writing Literature

1. Fabrication – is making up data or results and recording or
reporting them.
2. Falsification – is manipulating research materials,
equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or
results such that their search is not accurately represented
in the research record.
3. Plagiarism – is using another person’s ideas, processes,
results, or words without giving proper credit.
4. Redundant publication – is a special type of plagiarism that
invokes copyright infringement. It is defined as a duplicate
publication of a paper that overlaps substantially with one
already published.
5. Unauthorized authorship – is another nagging issue,
especially in student researches, where advising is the usual
contribution of the research adviser.

References
Henson, R. M., & Soriano, R. F. (2016). Practical research 1
qualitative research, world of reality dissections. Malabon
City: Mutya Publishing House Inc.
Marquez-Fong, S. R., & Tigno, C. R. (2016). Practical research 1.
Quezon City: Vibal Group, Inc.
Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B. (2017). Applied
research: An introduction to qualitative research methods and
report writing. Quezon City: Pheonix Publishing House, Inc.
Smith, D. (2003, January). Five principles for research ethics.
American Psychological Association, 34(1), 56.
Torneo, A., & Clamor-Torneo, H. (2018). An introduction to qualitative
research: Practical research 1. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing
House, Inc.

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 Unit 3: Collecting, Organizing, Treating, and Analyzing Data
Main Ideas: Data is present everywhere and can be analyzed to reach conclusions and make decisions
Essential Question: What is the difference between methodology and methods? How are these related to your research design?

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 Setting boundaries Types of Sampling Methods
(Sampling) i. Probability/Statistical Sampling
- This is used when an accurate representation of the
entire population is needed in the sample. It gives
Data Collection all representatives of the entire population to be
selected as a sample.
- It is often used in quantitative research rather than
Establishing data qualitative research. Relies on a statistical analysis
management protocol
of the population.
Figure 1.0 The Data Collection Procedure
A general outline of the data collection procedure. Though it appears short,
each step has its thorough guidelines and procedures. i. Simple Random Sampling
Samples are identified randomly with the help of
Sampling statistical and mathematical computations.
The process by which a researcher identifies the
representative of a population to be used in his/her study. ii. Stratified Random Sampling
Flick (2009) outlined areas of the research process where The population is divided into different
sampling decisions are applied: groups/strata based on criteria set by the
• Case sampling - Identifying your target participants researcher. The researcher then randomly
• Sampling groups of cases – Determining where you identifies individuals from these groups.
get these participants
• Material sampling – Identifying which tools you will iii. Cluster Sampling
use on the participants to collect data This is similar to stratified randomly sampling, but
• Sampling within the material – Determining what instead of grouping them based on criteria set by
collected data will you use or analyze the researchers the individuals are randomly
• Presentational sampling – Choosing which data selected from naturally occurring groups (e.g.
should be used to represent the outcomes of the sections in a school)
study

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 iv. Multistage Sampling ii. Non-probability Sampling
This type of sampling is a combination of stratified - This is used when the population can not/does not
random and cluster sampling. It consists of multiple need to be sampled to represent the target
stages of grouping: first from naturally occurring population and so individuals do not have an equal
groups and then groups based on criteria set by the chance of being sampled. The researcher is
researcher. selective of its population and sample (e.g., not all
individuals can be sampled, or the researcher does
v. Systematic Sampling not need to sample all individuals).
This method of sampling is the easiest since it only - It is often used in qualitative research rather than
requires the researcher to set a fixed interval to quantitative research.
determine the sample. For example, in a population
of 100 individuals, the researcher can choose to i. Purposive Sampling
select every 5th member until he reaches 50 Samples are targeted and selected based on a
representatives criterion set by the researcher. These criteria are
based on the research objectives and questions
that the study aims to answer (e.g. a study that
wants to study smoking habits would only select
individuals who are smokers)

ii. Convenience Sampling

The sampling group is identified by the
convenience of the researcher (e.g. nearby, already
familiar). Groups are determined based on their
availability rather than randomness from the
Figure 2.0 Types of Probability Sampling population. This method of sampling does not
There are five (5) general types of probability sampling commonly used in
research. The circles represent the population, while those colored yellow are
guarantee an accurate representation of the
the selected samples. Top Left: simple random sampling; Top Middle: population but can be useful in collecting
stratified random sampling; Top Right: cluster sampling; Bottom Left:
multistage sampling; Bottom Right: systematic sampling. preliminary data.

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 iii. Snowball Sampling Methods of Data Collection
The identification of the sample group is Observation/Fieldwork
accumulative and can come from populations not It is a method that is used when a participant can be
initially known by the researcher. For example, if a observed directly. There are five (5) types of observations:
researcher wants to study the impact of Alzheimer's Participant, Nonparticipant, Systematic/Structured,
on family members, but they don't know a lot of
Unstructured, and Simple/Contrived observations.
patients. They can ask the patients they know for
Advantages Disadvantages
others like them.
• The researcher has first- • The researcher may be
hand experience with the seen as intrusive
iv. Quota Sampling participant. • "Private" information may
Very similar to purposive sampling wherein the • The researcher can record be observed that the
population is filtered based on a criterion set by a information as it occurs. researcher cannot report.
researcher. However, in quota sampling, they are • Unusual aspects can be • The researcher may not
looking for specific characteristics in individuals that noticed during the have good attending and
observation observing skills
may or may not directly link to the research
• Useful in exploring topics • Certain information (e.g.
question/objective (e.g. age, sex, religion). that are difficult or children may present
uncomfortable for the special problems in gaining
participants to discuss. rapport)

1. Participant Observation
− The researcher is immersed for prolonged periods
of time in the setting where the
participants/phenomenon is to be observed.

2. Non-participant Observation
Figure 3.0 Types of Non-probability Sampling
There are four (4) general types of non-probability sampling commonly used
− This is similar to participant observation except that
in research. In this study, they want to know if immigration affects a person's the researcher is NOT immersed in the setting or
opportunity to get a job. The triangles represent immigrants, and those colored
yellow are the selected samples. Top Left: purposive sampling; Top Right:
the participants are not aware of the researcher's
convenience sampling; Bottom Left: snowball sampling; Bottom Right: quota presence.
sampling.

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3. Structured or Systematic Observation 2. Prepare how you will enter the field
− It is when the researcher establishes specific rules How will you present yourself (researcher, observer,
for the observation and schedule (e.g. they will be participant)? How will you handle issues that arise due
observed for two (2) hours inside the school). The to the venue? How about issues involving participants?
participant is informed ahead of time of these rules.
3. Identify the things to observe
4. Unstructured Observation What will you look for? (People who stand out, number
− It is the complete opposite of structured observation of people entering/exiting the setting, personal space,
where there are no rules or guidelines set for the behaviors, verbal/non-verbal interactions, or
observation. This allows a more freeform or appearance)
narrative means of data collection.
4. Prepare means of data collection and what type of data
5. Simple and Contrived Observation you will collect
− In both methods, the participant is unaware of the What data type will you collect? (notes, videos, audio,
researcher and the researcher does interact or formal and informal interviews, counts/frequency,
involve themselves with the setting. process flows, or lists)
− For simple observations, the researcher cannot
change any factors in the setting. 5. Organize your data
− For contrived observations, the researcher can Can you capture it quickly and accurately? What
change or has control over some factors in the devices can you use? When will you analyze the data?
setting. This is useful when the goal is to see how
participants react to specified situations. 6. Define how long the observation is
How long will you need to get the data? Will this span
multiple days?
Observation Guide
1. Determine the venue 7. Determine when you will exit
Will the setting be based on who, what, and when the Do you need to revisit? Is your data complete? Did you
observation will take place? Is the venue within your thank your participants? Did you get a contact file of
limitations (e.g. logistical and financial consideration)? the participants?

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Interviews Interview Guide
It is a method that is used when a participant can be 1. Develop an interview framework by reviewing your
observed directly. There are four (4) types of interviews: research objectives and questions. The guide should
Structured, Semi-structured, and Unstructured interviews. ask and answer the following items:
Advantages Disadvantages i. What are the main research questions that the
• Useful when the participant • Provides "indirect" interviewees are intended to answer? – You are
cannot be directly observed information filtered through
expected to get a list of high-order research
• Historical information can the views of interviewees
be collected. • Provides information in a
questions. These are NOT your interview questions
• Allows research "control" designated "place" rather but rather these are the questions that will
over the line of questioning than the natural setting immediately answer your research objectives.
• Researcher's presence may
bias responses ii. What are the primary domains of content that should
• Not all people are equally
be covered in the interview? – You are expected to
articulate and perceptive.
identify domains or subtopics that are important
1. Structured interview
features of your research objective.
− These are "oral questionnaires". The researcher
asks a list of predefined questions that only permits
iii. What types of data are needed to provide these
limited participant responses.
answers? – You are expected to get the types of
data that you will gather based on the question
2. Semi-structured interview
above.
− The researcher begins with a set of key questions
however the participant is given more freedom to 2. Develop a guidepost in preparing your interview guide.
explain certain topics. This should consider the following items:
i. Create a flow of topic areas to be discussed
3. Unstructured interview ii. Formulate questions that answer your researcher
− This is the opposite of structured interviews. questions/objectives but are not too specific
iii. Try to use language that is easy to understand for
Participants will be asked one (1) general question the participant
and can explain their responses in depth. Further iv. DO NOT ask leading questions
questions will be based on their answers.

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 v. Always ask for a database of personal information, Analysis of Documents and Audio-Visual Materials
or face sheet, for general (age, gender, etc.) and It is a method often used as a means of validating data
specific (position, number of years, etc.) information. collected through other methods. It is the analysis of
documents or materials to give meaning around an
3. Prepare different types of questions: introducing,
follow-up, probing, specifying, direct, indirect, and assessment/topic. Documents and materials can be (1)
interpreting questions. Note that these can be arranged public records, (2) personal documents, (3) artifacts, (4)
in varying order and should allow time for silence and video, or (5) drawings/pictures.
thinking.
Advantages Disadvantages
4. Consider the setting, technical requirements, logistics, • Written documents are • Provides "indirect"
and practice interviews. manageable and practical information filtered through
resources that are "non- the views of interviewees
5. Identify a successful interviewee. They should be reactive", which allows the • Provides information in a
knowledgeable, structured (in terms of responses), researcher to review it designated "place" rather
clear, gentle yet assertive, open, critical, remembering, multiple times. than the natural setting
and able to interpret things. • Documents are common • Researcher's presence may
and highly accessible since bias responses
6. Plan what to do after an interview. Makes notes on how it comes in a variety of • Not all people are equally
it went, where it took place, feelings about the interview forms. articulate and perceptive.
(both the researcher and participants perspective), and • It is a cost and time-efficient
the setting of the interview. method of data collection.
Process of Document Analysis (O'Leary, 2014)
7. Consider some final tips for the interview such as: 1. Create a list of texts to explore
i. Prepare for the unexpected interviewee behavior or 2. Consider how texts will be accessed with attention to
issues with the setting linguistics or cultural barriers
ii. Be aware and avoid intrusion of biases or 3. Acknowledge and address biases
expectations 4. Develop appropriate skills for research
iii. Maintain focus in asking questions 5. Consider strategies for ensuring credibility
iv. Be careful when talking about sensitive issues 6. Know the data to look for.
v. Always transcribe information as accurately as 7. Consider ethical issues (e.g. confidentiality, copyright)
possible

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Validation
This refers to the integrity and application of the methods
taken by the researcher, as well as the precision and
relevance of his/her findings.

1. Content Validity
2. Construct validity
3. Criterion-based validity
4. Triangulation

References
Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B. (2017). Applied Research: An
Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Quezon
City: Pheonix Publishing House, Inc.
Statistics Solutions. (2019). Dissertation Consulting Services. Retrieved from Statistics
Solutions: Advancement Through Clarity:
https://www.statisticssolutions.com/dissertation-consulting-services
Sullivan, L. (26, July 24). The Role of Probability. (W. M. La Morte, Producer) Retrieved
from Boston University School of Public Health:
http://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-
Modules/BS/BS704_Probability/index.html
Torneo, A., & Clamor-Torneo, H. (2018). An Introduction to Qualitative Research:
Practical Research 1. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House, Inc.
Triad 3. (2016, March 9). An Introduction to Document Analysis. Retrieved from
Research Methodology in Education: https://lled500.trubox.ca/2016/244

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Unit 5: Collecting, Organizing, Treating, and Analyzing Data

Main Ideas: Data is present everywhere and can be analyzed to reach certain conclusions and make decisions
Essential Question: How are data, results, and discussion different from each other?

Methods for
Based on Methods for
What to look for Validation
Your: Exploration
1. _ _ _ _ _ _ 1. _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1. _ _ _ _ _ _
2. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
4. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

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Data Cleaning/Preparation
− Data cleaning or preparation is meant to transform your data into Data Interpretation and Presentation
manageable formats. Raw data is managed by converting audio − Chunks are clustered into categories which are then coded into
or video files into transcripts, and images into photos or charts. similar categories. From these codes and clusters, themes
− This step is focused on identifying which data is relevant and emerge that can answer the research question posed.
usable. − Since Interpretation and presentation are simultaneous, there
are different methods by which you represent your data.
Data Exploration o Narrative – focused on telling a story using the results.
− Data exploration is divided into four (4) repetitive steps: o Chronological – according to the narrative described by each
Chunking, clustering, coding, and memoing. Proper data participant. Useful in case studies.
exploration should have at least two (2) or three (3) cycles. o Critical Incidents – focused on the main incidents, not the
− The goal of data exploration is to categorize and refine your data participants
to identify themes and trends to be used in making o Thematic – data is presented in a way that it revolves around
discussions/conclusions. a particular theme
− Chunking is the act of breaking down your cleaned data and o Visual representation – data can be presented as charts or
determining which parts are for what purpose (e.g., is this about tables. Visual representation should be thought of carefully
participant information, background, examples provided, etc.). when being used in qualitative research. Remember that you
− Clustering is the act of taking these chunks and classifying them should not quantify your results if it isn’t necessary.
according to labels or basic codes. − There are multiple ways to present your data in a written
− Coding, on the other hand, is focused on creating labels and manner. Below are some common patterns in writing qualitative
categories that represent the data accurately. Codes should be results and discussions.
specific and refined so that they answer and relate to the o Write the main idea first, then a detailed account from the
research question. These can start as general and then become participant.
specific. There are three (3) patterns or levels of coding: o Write a description of the participant's account, then feature
o Descriptive to Interpretative to Pattern – move from it.
summary to meaning o Join both the participant's account and your interpretation
o Open to Axial to Selective – moves from initial theory to (results and discussion). This is often discouraged.
developing relationships between codes for the emerging
theory Validity
o First to the second cycle – moves from describing the data This is used in qualitative research to verify or check if the data
units to inferring meaning collected from the procedures performed by the researcher is accurate
− Memoing is the act of taking these codes and clusters and then and can support the proposed discussions (Haradhan, 2017). There
adding notes that help explain or define them. are four (4) types of validity that can be performed for qualitative
research.

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b. Discriminant Validity – determines the lack of relationship

1. Content validity among certain variables according to theory and empirical
It is the extent to which the questions on the instrument and the scores evidence.
from these questions represent all possible questions that could be
asked about the content or skill (Creswell, 2005). 4. Triangulation
a. Face Validity – this is the minimum index of content validity. Triangulation relies on multiple validation methods to verify the results
This tests the degree by which the results or instrument of a study. This can be done by any of the following methods:
measures the concept being measured. a. With different investigators – the instrument is used on various
sample groups OR is delivered by a different set of
2. Criterion-based validity researchers.
It is used to predict current or future performances by correlating
results with another criterion of interest (Burns et al., 2017). b. With different research methods (same research type) –
a. Concurrent Validity – relates the results to an already another qualitative approach is used to collect data which will
established/validated set of scores. then be used to validate the initially collected data. (e.g., using
b. Predictive Validity – relates the results to a future criterion to document analysis to validate observations).
predict some form of behavior.
c. With different research methods (different research types) – a
3. Construct validity quantitative approach is used to validate the qualitative results
It is used when the goal of the study is to construct theories to collected. This is usually done in mixed research with
understand better and predict behavior (Thatcher, 2010). statistical analysis.
a. Convergent Validity – determines the correlation of different
results. This tests the relationship among variables.

References
Billups, F. D. (2014). Qualitative Data Analysis NERA Webinar Presentation. New York:
Northeastern Educational Research Association.
Haradhan, M. (2017, December 24). Two Criteria for Good Measurements in Research:
Validity and Reliability. Munich Personal RePEc Archive, 3(17), 58-82.
Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/83458/
Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B. (2017). Applied Research: An
Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Quezon
City: Pheonix Publishing House, Inc.
Statistics Solutions. (2019). Dissertation Consulting Services. Retrieved from Statistics
Solutions: Advancement Through Clarity:
https://www.statisticssolutions.com/dissertation-consulting-services
Torneo, A., & Clamor-Torneo, H. (2018). An Introduction to Qualitative Research:
Practical Research 1. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House, Inc.
University of Southern California. (2019, December 16). Research Guides: 8. The
Discussion. Retrieved from USC Libraries:
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/discussion

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Unit 6: Concluding, Presenting, and Continuing the Study

Main Idea: Processing and Effective Communication
Essential Questions: Which has more impact on the study: the results, discussion, conclusion, or the abstract?
Why is presentation considered as one (1) of the areas that can make or break the impact of a study?

1. Conclusions 2. Recommendations
Suggestive, action statements intended for either fellow researchers,
Act as the "final say" of a study. This is where all implications, the general public, or for global advancement of information.
inferences, and confirmations are stated. A conclusion is not a Recommendations must be:
summary of the study, but rather a culmination of all findings. • Related – Recommendations must be based on information
presented in the study. Similar to conclusions, you should not
What to do when writing What not to do when writing introduce new material.
conclusions conclusions • Relevant – The output/goal of a recommendation must be
• Restate your position – To • Introduce new material – significant and relevant to the overall goal of the study.
help readers connect the Closing statements and • Levelled – Recommendations should have proper levelling and
entire study, it is useful to inferences should all refer to must take into consideration the researchers who may continue
restate the purpose of the information previously the study. (Are these students? Are they practitioners?)
study. presented in the study.
Things to Consider for an Effective Presentation
• Emphasize subject • Repeat your results and 1. Message – The purpose of the presentation is to reveal your
importance – Similar to the discussion – A conclusion research findings. Relying on your idea/message alone is not
statement above, this helps can reference the results enough to sell your study. Having a strong and simple message
the reader understand the and discussion, but should makes for a strong, effective presentation.
importance of the study. not act as a summary 2. Words and images – Researchers do not realize that most people,
including world experts, do not want to be blasted with jargon,
• Offer suggestions – • End on a cliff hanger – a acronyms, and complex charts and graphs. Concentrate on words
Although some research conclusion should wrap the and images when making an effective presentation.
papers prefer to separate study neatly. Readers 3. Rapport – The most important factor in measuring presentations is
these in a different section, should not be left with any how the panel or public audience interacts with the presentation.
the conclusion can include unanswered questions or Interact with the audience to add strength to your presentation.
recommendations of the unclear answers. 4. Retention – End the presentation with a good idea, call to action,
study. or even some knowledge.
5. Guides and scripts – Guides and cue cards can be brought when
• End on relevant quotes presenting. However, scripts or reading from your manuscript is not

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allowed. Familiarize and understand your research, don't References:

memorize it. Henson, R. M., & Soriano, R. F. (2016). Practical research 1 qualitative
research, world of reality dissections. Malabon City: Mutya
Publishing House Inc.
Design Tips and Techniques Melegrito, M. F., Mendoza, D. J., & Mactal, R. B. (2017). Applied research: An
1. Font Styles – There are two (2) types of fonts – Serifs and sans introduction to qualitative research methods and report writing.
Quezon City: Pheonix Publishing House, Inc.
serifs. Serif fonts are often used in publications and printed
Torneo, A., & Clamor-Torneo, H. (2018). An Introduction to qualitative
material, while sans serif fonts are used for visual presentation. research: Practical research 1. Quezon City: Sibs Publishing House,
Inc.
2. Font Size – Always consider your area of presentation and if
possible, conduct an ocular visit of the place. A font size of at least
28 is often considered the minimum, but a good way to check is
by backing away from your monitor at least four (4) feet away. If it
can be read, then your font size is large enough.

3. Number of lines and text – Text in presentations should be chosen

carefully. Only include key terms/phrases that you want to
highlight. NEVER LIFT FROM YOUR MANUSCRIPT. Follow the
7×7 rule.

4. Emphasis in text – When presenting, animations should be

avoided. If you need to emphasize something, you can make it
bold, italicized, underlined, or of a different font color. DO NOT
COMBINE EMPHASIS TECHNIQUES.

5. Images – Only use images that are relevant to the study. Avoid
"aesthetic" or irrelevant images. An image should communicate
one (1) idea per slide. Always choose SVG files over bitmap,
bitmap over PNG, and PNG over JPEG. Scale photos so that their
proportions are not distorted.

6. Graphs and data – NEVER INCLUDE RAW DATA IN

PRESENTATIONS. Present summaries, visualizations (graphs,
etc), or consider carefully if they need to see this data at all.

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