Design Project 1.
Design Project 1.
Design Project 1.
SUBMITTED BY
SUBASH . T 911516101021
1
MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KILAKARAI – 623 806
(AN ISO 9001 – 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
2
ABSTRACT:
3
TABLE OF CONTENT
1 INTRODUCTION 6
6 POWERPLANT SELECTION 24
7 AEROFOIL SELECTION 27
8 WING SELECTION 30
10 V-n DIAGRAM 39
11 3-VIEW DIAGRAM 43
12 CONCLUSION 44
4
LIST OF GRAPH:
1 VELOCITY VS ALTITUDE 16
2 VELOCITY VS RANGE 17
4 VELOCITY VS HEIGHT 18
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1.INTRODUCTION
The design method to be followed from the start of the project to the nominal
end can be considered to fall into three main phases. These phases are illustrated in
Figure. The preliminary phase (sometimes called the conceptual design stage)
starts with the project brief and ends when the designers have found and refined a
feasible baseline design layout. In some industrial organizations, this phase is
referred to as the ‘feasibility study’. At the end of the preliminary design phase, a
document is produced which contains a summary of the technical and geometric
details known about the baseline design. This is known as the aircraft Type
Specification.The next phase (project design) takes the aircraft configuration
defined towards the end of the preliminary design phase and involves conducting
detailed analysis to improve the technical confidence in the design. Wind tunnel
tests and computational fluid dynamic analysis are used to refine the aerodynamic
shape of the ircraft. Finite element analysis is used to understand the structural
integrity. Stability and control analysis and simulations will be used to appreciate
the flying characteristics.. Operational factors (cost, maintenance and marketing)
and manufacturing processes will be investigated to determine what effects these
may have on the final design layout. All these investigations will be done so that
the company will be able to take a decision to proceed to manufacture’
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manufacturing of the aircraft is given serious consideration and the cost
estimates are further refined. At the end of this step, the decision is made
whether to build the aircraft.
With the decision to build the aircraft, the design is “frozen.” The detailed
design involves generating the detailed structural design of the aircraft. This
involves every detail needed to build the aircraft. Sometimes component mock-
ups are built to aid in the interior layout. However, the present use of computer
aided design (CAD) software can substantially minimize the need for mock-ups
by providing realistic 3-D views.
The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With
this, it is often possible to place a design into a general category. Such
categories include combat aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general
aviation aircraft. These may also be further refined into subcategories based on
particular design objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing
distances, maximum speed, etc.
With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft generally
comes from a military program office. For example, the mission specifications
for the X-29 pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for proposals from
the U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory in which they were seeking a
research aircraft that would explore the forward swept wing concept and
validate studies that indicated such a design could provide better control and lift
qualities in extreme maneuvers.
1.3 Payload
The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s
mission. Standard payloads are passengers, cargo or ordnance. The first two are
considered nonexpendable payload because they are expected to be transported
for the complete duration of the flight plan. Military ordnance is expendable
payload since at some point in the flight plan it permanently leaves the aircraft.
This includes bombs, rockets, missiles and ammunition for on-board guns.
For personal or small general aviation aircraft, the payload includes the pilot
as well as passengers and baggage. For business, commuter and commercial
aircraft, the payload does not include the flight or cabin crew, only the
passengers, baggage and cargo.
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1.4 Cruise and Maximum Speeds
Modern military jet combat and attack aircraft usually have a flight plan that
involves efficient cruise at high subsonic Mach numbers. This is usually in the
range from Mach 0.85 to 0.90. The maximum speed is usually specified in the
context of an intercept portion of the flight plan. This has a Mach number that is
typically in the range of 2.0.
1.5 Range
The range is the furthest distance the aircraft can fly without refueling. In a
flight plan, range refers to the distance traveled during the cruise phase.The
choice of the range is one of the most important decisions because it has a large
(exponential) effect on the aircraft take-off weight. An aircraft that is intended to
fly across the United States (New York to Seattle) should have a minimum range
of 2500 nautical miles. A range of 3500 nautical miles would be necessary for
transatlantic flights from East coast U.S. cities to coastal cities in Western
Europe. Shorter range transports that are designed to fly between major cities in
a regional area (e.g., Los Angeles to San Francisco) should have a minimum
range of 500 nautical miles. Twice that range would allow an aircraft to fly non-
stop between most of the major cities along either coast of the United States.
1.6 Endurance
Endurance is the amount of time an aircraft can fly without refueling. With a
reconnaissance aircraft, endurance is one of the main design drivers. For a
commercial aircraft, a flight plan will include an endurance phase to allow for
time that night is spent in a holding pattern prior to landing. For operation within
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the continental United States commercial aircraft are required to be able to hold
for 45 minutes at normal cruise fuel consumption. For international operation,
the required hold time is 30 minutes.
This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of
an aircraft. It is broken down in to several elements, which are followed in order.
These consist of,
1. Literature survey
2. Preliminary data acquisition
3. Estimation of aircraft weight
a. Maximum take-off weight
b. Empty weight of the aircraft
c. Weight of the fuel
d. Fuel tank capacity
4. Estimation of critical performance parameters
a. Wing area
b. Lift and drag coefficients
c. Wing loading
d. Power loading
e. Thrust to weight ratio
5. Engine selection
6. Performance curves
7. 3-view diagram
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1.9 Engineering units of measurement
Many different systems of measurement are used throughout the world but two
have become most common in aeronautical engineering. In the US the now
inappropriately named ‘British’ system (foot, pound and second) is widely used.
In the UK and over most of Europe, System International (SI) (metres, newton
and second) units are standard. It is advised that students only work in one
system. Confusion (and disaster) can occur if they are mixed. The results of the
design analysis can be quoted in both types of unit by applying standard
conversions. The conversions below are typical:
1
1 inch = 25.4 mm 1 cu. ft = 28.32liters
1 sq ft = 0.0929 sq. m 1 1 Imp. Gal = 4.546 liters
1USgal = 3.785 liters 1 1 litre = 0.001 cubic
1USgal = 0.833 Imp.gal meters 1 1 nautical
1 statute mile = 1.60 mile = 1.852 km
1ft/s = 0.305 m/s 1 1 knot = 0.516 m/s
1 knot = 1.69 ft/s 1 1 knot= 1.151 mph
1poundforce =4.448 Newton 1 1 pound mass = 0.454 kilogram
1 horsepower = 745.7 watts 1 1 horsepower = 550 ft lb/s
1 foot = 0.305 meters
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2.COMPARATIVE CONFIGURATION STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES
OF AIRPLANES
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3.COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATION AND
PERFORMANCE DETAILS OF AIRCRAFT
3.1. Dimensions :
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3.3. Performance :
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3.5.SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS:
Average values
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4.COMPARATIVE GRAPH PREPARETIONS & SELECTION OF
MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN
Comparative graph is prepared with the help the optimized value for design. The
graphs are:
4. 2. RangeVs Velocity
4. 4. Height Vs Cruise
850
800
750
Velocity(m/s)
700
650
600
550
500
8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000
ALTITUDE (m)
15
14000
12000
10000
velocity
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
850 900 950 1000 1050
range
1040
1020
1000
980
velocity
960
940
920
900
880
860
840
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
wing area
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1040
1020
1000
980
960
velocity
940
920
900
880
860
840
0 2 4 6 8 10
Height
1040
1020
1000
980
velocity
960
940
920
900
880
860
840
0 5 10 15
Aspect ratio
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5.PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATIONS
• The standard empty weight is the weight of the airframe, engines and all items
of operating weight that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the
aircraft.
This weight must be recorded in the aircraft weight and balance records. The
basic empty weight includes the standard empty weight plus any optional
equipment that has been installed.
• Maximum allowable gross weight is the maximum weight authorized for the
aircraft and all of its contents as specified in the Type Certificate Data Sheets
(TCDS) or Aircraft
Specifications for the aircraft.
• Maximum takeoff weight is the maximum allowable weight at the start of the
takeoff run.
• Maximum ramp weight is the total weight of a loaded aircraft, and includes all
fuel. It is greater than the takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during
the taxi and run-up operations. Ramp weight is also called taxi weight.
5.1.Gross weight:
The total weight of the aircraft at any particular time. Thus Basic Empty Weight
plus Pilot, Crew and their baggage plus payload (passengers and cargo) plus fuel
load. The aircraft gross weight (also known as the All-Up Weight (AUW)) is the
total aircraft weight at any moment during the flight or ground operation.
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5.2.Payload
The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s
mission. Standard payloads are passengers, cargo or ordnance. The first two are
considered nonexpendable payload because they are expected to be transported
for the complete duration of the flight plan. Military ordnance is expendable
payload since at some point in the flight plan it permanently leaves the aircraft.
This includes bombs, rockets, missiles and ammunition for onboard guns.For
personal or small general aviation aircraft, the payload includes the pilot as well
as passengers and baggage. For business, commuter and commercial aircraft, the
payload does not include the flight or cabin crew, only the passengers, baggage
and cargo.
5.3.Mission Profile:
WEIGHT ESTIMATION;
5
6
4 7
1 2 3 8 9
5.4.Gross Weight
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1.Overall weight of the aircraft is given by
𝑾𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 + 𝑾𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝑾𝒐 = 𝑾𝒇 𝑾𝒆
𝟏 − ( 𝑾𝒊 ) − ( 𝑾𝒊 )
𝑳 𝑾𝒊 𝑽
R= ∗ 𝒍𝒏 [ ]∗
𝑫 𝑾𝒊−𝟏 𝑪
𝑾𝒊 −𝑹𝑪 𝑳
= 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [ ∗ ]
𝑾𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑽 𝑫
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MISSION 0-1:
The mission 0-1 is the engine start, warm up and the Take off from
the historical data, it isFound to be.
MISSION 1-2:
The mission 1-2 is the climb. The fuel fraction from historical datawas
W2/W1=0.985
MISSION 2-3:
The mission 2-3 is the cruise. The fuel fraction for this mission was found
from the range Equation
(i.e.) Brequet equation.
𝑉∝ 𝐿 𝑊2
R= ln
𝐶𝑡 𝐷 𝑊3
𝑳
=16
𝑫
𝑽 ∝= 871 km/hr
𝑻𝑺𝑭𝑪 = 𝑪𝒕 = 0.36
R= 4626.67 + 830
R= 5456.93 km
871 𝑊2
5456.93= 16 ln
0.600.36 𝑊3
𝑊2
ln = 0.1409
𝑊3
𝑊2
= 1.1583
𝑊3
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𝑊3
= 0.8685
𝑊2
MISSION 3-4:
The mission 3-4 is loitering. The fuel fraction for this mission was found from
the endurance equation.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Time = = 7.96 ℎ𝑟𝑠
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
Additional distance = Head wind× total time
= 54×7.96
= 430.26km
Diverssion airport = 400km
W5/W4= 0.995
FUEL FRACTION
The fuel fraction is found from the product of all the values,
We/WO = A * W 0^C *K
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Where K = No. of sweep and so K =1.
A = 1.02, C = -0.06
We/WO = 1.02* (71000)^0.06 * 1 = 0.521
To obtain the actual weight for the aircraft to be designed iteration process
carried such that the error is less than 5% when compared with the approximated
weight obtained.
A = 1.02, C = -0.06
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6.POWER PLANT SELECTION
6.3Thrust Calculation:
The thrust of the aircraft is thus found by the previous data and the
weight estimated from the above calculations
T/W = 0.3176
T/Wo= 0.3176
T = 0.3176*56405.1
=17914.259 kN.
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6.4 Thrust Vs SFC
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Where, V vertical = 1.2 V stall and
V stall =0.25 Vcruise
Therefore,
(T/W) climb = 1 / (L/D) climb + ((1.2*0.25* Vcruise / V)
= (1/15.54 )+ (1.2*0.25*241.94)
= 0.3826
(T/W) take-off = (T/W) cruise * (Wcruise/ W take- off ) * (Ttake-off/ Tcruise)
(T/W)take off =0.34
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7.Aerofoil Selection
a) Reynolds’s No:
Re = Vc / γ
Where,
R cut = 0.8501*10^9
Cf2 = 1.328 / sqrt (R) = 4.4089*10^-5
Cfe = (Cf1+Cf2) / 2 = 1.1605*10^-3
CDo = Cfe * (Swet / Sref) = 1.1605*10^-3 * 6.3
CDo = 7.311x10^-3
Oswald’s efficiency for supersonic flow,
e = 4.61 * (1-0.045Aeff0.66) * (cos ALE) 0.15- 3.1
Where,
Ale =350
Aeff =1.2A = 11.268
e = 0.328
Co-efficient of drag,
CD = CDo + KCL^2
Where,
K= 1 / (π*AR*e) = 1 / (3.14*9.39*0.8) = 0.0423
NACA -2412
2 – Max camber height as % of chord
4 - Max. camber position as % of chord
12- Max. airfoil thickness as % of chord
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8.WING SELECTION
A wing is a type of fin that produces lift, while moving through air
or some other fluid. As such, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are
subject to aerodynamic forces and act as an .airfoils. A
wing's aerodynamic efficiency is expressed as its lift-to-drag ratio. The lift a
wing generates at a given speed and angle of attack can be one to two orders
of magnitude greater than the total drag on the wing. A high lift-to-drag ratio
requires a significantly smaller thrust to propel the wings through the air at
sufficient lift.
Lifting structures used in water, include various foils,
including hydrofoils. Hydrodynamics is the governing science, rather than
aerodynamics. Applications of underwater foils occur
in hydroplanes, sailboats and submarines.
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Wing Geometry Design:
Equivalent AR = a. M c
Equivalent AR = 9.39
WKT, AR = b2 / S
9.39 = b2 /122.4
b2 = 9.39* 122.4
b = 33.90m
Therefore,
Volume of fuel = 8821.75 / 800
Volume of the fuel = 11.027 m3
Total volume of the fuel = 11027 liters
Assume,
20% of fuel carrying in the wings = t/c * C * (0.5*C)*(0.5*b*0.75*2)
Since, 20% of the fuel = 2.205 m3
Therefore,
2.205= t/c * 3.61 * (0.5*3.61) * (0.5*33.9*0.75*2)
t/c = 0.0133
Thereby we get,
Thickness of the root, tr = 0.013* 3.61 =0.048m
Thickness of the tip, tt = 0.013* 1.08= 0.014m
To find C.G. :-
Centroid (Cg):
x = b/2 = 1.08/2 = 0.54m;
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y = h/3 * ((b+2a) / (b+a))
y= 9.998m
Wing Cg = (0.54m,9.998m)
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9.ESTIMATION OF VARIOUS DRAGS
9.1 DRAG:
Drag Components:
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9.1.2 Form (Pressure) Drag
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9.1.4 Typical streamlining effect
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9.1.5 Lift induced (or) trailing vortex drag:
The lift induced drag is the component which has to be included to account
for the 3-D nature of the flow (finite span) and generation of wing lift.
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CALCULATION:
Generally for jet aircrafts, it is given that
CD0 = 7.311X10^-3
e = 0.328
The general drag equation is given by, For calculating d,
WHERE, CD=CD0+KCL^2
CD=0.3156
TAKEOFF;
V=1.1XVSTALL=1.1X241.94=266.134 m/s
S=122.4
D=1.67MN
LANDING;
V=1.1XVSTALL=1.13X241.94=273.39 m/s
S=122.4
D=1.765MN
CRUISE;
(AT ALTITUDE 12500m)
V=241.94m/s
S=122.4
D=214.4KN
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10. V-n DIAGRAM
DESCRIPTION:
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10.1. SUBSONIC AIRCRAFT PARAMETER:
𝟏 𝑾
Load factor: 𝒏 = × 𝝆𝜶 × 𝑽𝜶 × 𝑪𝑳𝑴𝑨𝑿 /
𝟐 𝑺
𝑾𝑺 = 𝟐𝑾/𝝆𝒔𝑪𝑳𝑴𝑨𝑿
= 53.74m/s
VS=241.94m/s
Vd=1.25*Vcruise
= 302.4
=AR*0.555=5.26
10.6. MANEUVERINGVELOCITY:
Vman = √2nw/ρsclmax
=(2*56405.1*10)/(1.225*122.4*2.56)
= 0.068
=(2*56405.1*1.5)/(1.225*122.4*9.81)
=0.035
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N 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒏 (𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)
0 0
10 0.068
20 0.69
30 1.16
40 2.18
50 3.83
N 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒏 (𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)
0 0
10 0.068
20 - 0.69
30 -1.16
40 -2.18
50 -3.83
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V-n curve:
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11.PREPARATIONS OF LAYOUTS OF BALANCE DIAGRAM
AND THREE VIEW DRAWING
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12.CONCLUSION:
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REFERENCES:
45
MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KILAKARAI – 623 806
(AN ISO 9001 – 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
46
MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KILAKARAI – 623 806
(AN ISO 9001 – 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
47
MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KILAKARAI – 623 806
(AN ISO 9001 – 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
48