DESIGN PROJECT OF BUSINESS JET

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by,

Name
Name
Name

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

SATYAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ARALVAIMOZHI, KANYAKUMARI

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

MAY 2023
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “ DESIGN PROJECT ON

BUSINESS JET ” is the bonafide work of “Names” who carried out the project
work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE. SIGNATURE.
Mr.S.SIVA JOTHI Mr.V.CHRISWIN GINO
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR
Aeronautical Engineering Aereonautical Engineering
Satyam college of Satyam college of
Engineering Engineering
And technology And technology

Submitted this project viva voce on ………………...

External Examiner Internal Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost we wish to acknowledgement our department to the

“ALMIGHT GOD” who have given as knowledge and good health. We would
like to express our regards to the chairman of your college,Mr.A.THINAGAR
M.E, and the principal, Dr. M.SURESH KUMAR M.E, for the providing better
working environment and facilities.

We are much grateful to our Head of Aeronautical Dept, Mr.S. SIVA

JOTHI M.E, and our class advisor Mr.R.AJAYKUMAR, for this encouragement
discussion, valuable comments and many innovative ideas in carrying out this
project. Without their timely help it would have been impossible for us to complete
this work.

We are also thankful to all our teaching and non-teaching staffs of our
department that helped us to complete our project work successsfully.

We owe a depth gratitude to our parents and friends for their advice and to
keep our spirits high to complete this project successfully.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT 1
1 LIST OF SYMBOL 2

INTRODUCTION 3

1.1 ACTUAL PROCESS OF DESIGN

1.2 STAGES OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN
1.2.1 PROJECT FEASIBILITY STUDY
1.2.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
1.2.3 DESIGN PROJECT

2 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF 7
BUSINESS JET
3 LIST OF GRAPHS 8
3.1 CRUISE SPEED VS LENGTH
3.2 CRUISE SPEED VS WING SPAN
3.3 CRUISE SPEED VS WING AREA
3.4 CRUISE SPEED VS HEIGHT
3.5 CRUISE SPEED VS EMPTY WEIGHT
3.6 CRUISE SPEED VS MAX TAKEOFF WEIGHT
3.7 CRUISE SPEED VS MAX SPEED
 3.8 CRUISE SPEED VS RANGE
3.9 CRUISE SPEED VS SERVICE CELLING
3.10 CRUISE SPEED VS MAX LANDING WEIGHT

4 OPTIMUM VALUE 14
5 WEIGHT ESTIMATION 15
5.1 FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATION
5.2 CREW WEIGHT
5.3 PAYLOAD WEIGHT
5.4 FUE WEIGHT
5.5 EMPTY WEIGHT

6 POWERPLANT SELECTION 20
6.1 INTRODUTION
6.2 DETAILS ABOUT THE SELECTED
ENGINE

7 SELECTION OF AIRFOIL 23
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 AIRFOIL CATEGORIES
7.3 SELECTED AIRFOIL

8 WING SELECTION 26
 8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 NUMBER OF WINGS
8.3 SELECTED WING

9 LIFT ESTIMATION 29
9.1 LIFT
9.2 LIFT COEFFICIENT
9.3 LIFT CALCULATION
9.3.1 LIFT AT CRUISE
9.3.2 LIFT AT TAKEOFF
9.3.3 LIFT AT LANDING

10 DRAG ESTIMAATION 32
10.1 DRAG
10.2 DRAG COEFFICIENT
10.3 DRAG AT CRUISE
10.4 DRAG AT TAKEOFF
10.5 DRAG AT LANDING

11 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 35
11.1 TAKE OFF PERFORMANCE
11.2 LANDING PERFORMANCE
12 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM 38
12.1 TOP VIEW
12.2 FRONT VIEW
12.3 SIDE VIEW

13 VN DIAGRAM 41
CONCLUSION 43
REFERENCE 44
 ABSTRACT

The aim of this design project is to design a Business Jet Aircraft

by comparing the data and specifications of present business jet aircraft
and to calculate performance details. The aircraft designed is such that
the landing and take-off field lengths they require are accordingly
shorter than those for the larger business jet aircraft minimum drag and
maximum thrust is also taken into consideration. Then the necessary
graphs have to be plotted for further performance calculation. Required
diagrams are also drawn.

1
 LIST OF SYMPOLS

M Mach number
V Velocity
L Lift
D Drag
T Thrust
W Weight
CL Lift coefficient
CD Drag coefficient
A Angle of attack
CJ Specific fuel consumption
R Range
H Height
AR Aspect ratio
WF Fuel weight
WE Empty weight
ṁ Mass flow rate of air
P Pressure
A Area
P Density
λ Taper ratio
B Wing span
C Chord
E Ostwald efficiency factor
c.g Centre of gravity
Re Reynolds number

2
 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION OF AIRCRAFT DESGN

For any airplane to fly, it must be able to lift the weight of the airplane, its fuel,
the passenger, and the cargo. The wings generate most of the lift to hold the plane
in the air. To generate lift, the airplane must be pushed through the air. The
engines, which are usually located the wings, provide the thrust to push the
airplane forward through the air.

The fuselage is the body of the airplane that holds all the pieces of the aircraft
together and many of the other large components are attached to it. The fuselage is
generally streamlined as much as possible to reduce drag. Designs for fuselage
vary widely. The fuselage houses the cockpit where the pilot and flight crew sit
and it provides areas for passengers and cargo. The wing provides the principal
lifting force of an airplane.

Lift is obtained from the dynamic action of the wing with respect to the air.
The cross-sectional shape of the wing as viewed from the side is known as the
airfoil section. The plane form shape of the wing (the shape of the wing is as
viewed from above) and placement of the wing on the fuselage (including the
angle of incidence), as well as the airfoil section shape, depend upon the airplane
mission and the best compromise necessary in the overall airplane design. The
control surfaces include all those moving surfaces of an airplane used for altitude,
lift and drag control.

3
1.1 ACTUAL PROCESS OF DESIGN
 Selection of aircraft type and shape.
 Determination of geometric parameters.
 Selection of power plant.
 Structural design and analysis of various components.
 Determination of aircraft flight and operational characteristics.

1.2 STAGES OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN

 Project feasibility study
 Preliminary design
 Design project

1.2.1 PROJECT FEASIBILITY STUDY

 Comprehensive market survey.
 Studies on conditions for the airplane to be designed.
 Studies on relevant design requirements (specified by Airworthiness
Authorities).
 Evaluation of similar existing designs.
 Studies on possibilities of introducing new concepts.
 Collection of data on relevant power plants.
 Laying down preliminary specifications.

1.2.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

It consists of the initial stages of design, resulting in the presentation of a
BROCHURE containing preliminary drawings and clearly stating the operational
capabilities of the airplane being designed. This Brochure has to be APPROVED
by the manufacturer and\or the customer.

The steps involved:

 Layout of the main components.
 Arrangements of airplane equipment and control systems.

4
  Selection of power plant.
 Aerodynamic and stability calculations.
 Preliminary structural design of major components.
 Weight estimation and CG travel.
 Preliminary and structural testing.
 Drafting the preliminary 3-view drawings.

1.2.2 DESIGN PROJECT

 Internal discussions.
 Discussions with prospective customers.
Discussions with Certification Authorities
 Consultations with suppliers of power plant and major
accessories.
 Deciding upon a BROAD OUTLINE to start the ACTUAL
DESIGN, which will consist of Construction of Mock-up.
 Structural layout of all the individual units, and their stress
analysis.
 Drafting of detailed design drawings.
 Structural and functional testing.
 Nomenclature of parts.

5
 CHAPTER – 2

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ON BUSINESS AIRCRAFTS

Units Dassault Dassault Gulf Bombardier Cessan

Variants falcon 8x falcon 7x stream challenger citation
G200 850 sovereign
Crew - 2 2 2 2 2

Passenger capacity - 16 16 18 16 12

Length m 24.46 23.38 18.97 26.77 19.35

Wing span m 26.29 26.21 17.70 21.21 22.04

Wing area m2 70.7 70.7 34.3 48.35 50.4

Height m 7.94 7.83 6.53 6.22 6.20

Empty weight kg 18143 15454 8709 15440 8271

MTOW kg 33113 31751 16080 24040 13959

Max speed kmph 950 950 900 1041 980

Cruise speed kmph 850 850 850 819 850

Range km 11945 11019 6300 5206 5900

Service ceiling m 15545 15545 13700 12500 14326

MLW kg 28304 28304 13608 21319 21293

Power plant - Pratt & Pratt & Pratt & General Pratt &
Whitney Whitney Whitney electric CF34- Whitney
Canada Canada Canada 3B1 Canada
PW307D PW300 PW306A PW306D

6
 CHAPTER –3

Graphs
Graph 3.1 Cruise speed vs Length

Optimum length = 21.54m

Graph 3.2 Cruise speed vs Wing span

Optimum wing span = 23.06m

7
 Graph 3.3 Cruise speed vs Wing area

Optimum wing area= 63.93m

Graph 3.4 Cruise speed vs Height

Optimum height =7.125m

8
Graph 3.5 Cruise speed vs Empty weight

Optimum empty weight =16798.5

Graph 3.6 Cruise speed vs Max Take-off weight

Optimum max take-off weight=32432

9
Graph 3.7 Cruise speed vs Max speed

Optimum max speed = 960

Graph 3.8 Cruise speed vs Range

Optimum range = 11482

10
Graph 3.9 Cruise speed vs Service Ceiling

Optimum service ceiling =14779

Graph 3.10 Cruise speed vs Max Landing Weight

Optimum max landing weight = 1295

11
 CHAPTER - 4
OPTIMUM VALUE
parameters Units Optimum values
Length M 21.54

Wing span M 23.06

Wing area M2 63.93
Height M 7.125

Empty weight Kg 16798.5

MTOW Kg 32432
Max speed Kmph 960
Range Km 11482

Service ceiling M 14779

MLW Kg 1295
Cruise speed Kmph 850

12
 CHAPTER – 5
WEIGHT ESTIMATION

5.1 FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The design take-off gross weight Wo is the weight of the airplane
at the instant it begins its mission. It includes the weight of all fuel on board at the
beginning of the flight.

W (Crew) + W (Payload)
WTO =
1- W (Empty weight) + W (Fuel weight)

5.2 CREW WEIGHT

The two pilots and 5 cabin crews. Therefore,
No. of Crew = (2+1) = 3
W (Crew) = (2+1)*91
W (Crew) = 273 kg
5.3 PAY LOAD WEIGHT
On an average taking 91 kg per person, including baggage
and clothing.
No. of passengers = 16*91
W (Payload) = (16*91)
W (Payload) = 1456 kg.

13
5.4 FUEL WEIGHT
Mission profile
5
6
4 7
1 2 3 8

1. Engine Starts Warm-up

2. Taxi
3. Take-off
4. Climb
5. Cruise
6. Loiter
7. Descent
8. Landing

Phase 1: The Engine starts warm-up Weight Ratio is W 1 / W 0

Phase 2: The Taxi Weight Ratio is W 2 / W 1
Phase 3: The Take-off Weight Ratio is W 3 / W 2
Phase 4: The Climb Weight Ratio is W 4 / W 3
Phase 7: The Descent weight Ratio is W 7 / W 6
Phase 8: The Landing Weight Ratio is W 8 / W 7

The design takeoff gross weight can be broken down into crew
weight, payload or passengers weight, fuel weight and the remaining
or empty weight. The empty weight includes the structure,

14
engines, landing gear, fixed equipments, avionics and anything else that
is not considered as a part of the crew, payload or fuel. The following
equation summarizes the design takeoff weight,

The crew and the payload weights are known. The only unknowns are the fuel
weight and empty weight. The following iterative equation is used to calculate
the weight,

Now, W0 can be determined if Wf/W0 and We/W0 are known.

In order to meet the mission requirements the aircraft must be able to
take off and climb to the desired cruising altitude and then cruise for the
desired range and land. There should be enough additional fuel for
emergency climb & cruise and loitering before landing.

Fuel fraction estimation (Wf/W0)

Engine start or warm up
W1/W0 = 0.99
 W1=37620 kg

Taxi

15
W2/W1=0.995
 W2=37431.9 kg

Take off
W3/W1=0.995
 W3=37244.74 kg

Climb
W4/W3=0.98
 W4=36499.84 kg

Cruise
Using Breguet’s range formula,

R-range in m
Ct-TSFC in s-1
W0- initial weight
W1- final weight
Value of Ct
For high bypass turbofan business jets
For cruise Ct=0.5 lb/lbf-h = 14.16*10-6 kg/N-s
For loiter Ct=0.4 lb/lbf-h = 11.32*10-6 kg/N-s
Value of L/D
(L/D)max = 10+AR
=10+9 = 19
L/D = 0.866*(L/D)max = 0.866*19 = 16.454 Rearranging Breguet’s range equation
W5/W4 = Exp (-R Ct g/ (VL/D))

16
 =Exp (-7000*103*14.16*10-6*9.81/ (236.039*16.454))
=0.778516
 W5 = 28415.709 kg
Emergency climb
W6/W5 = 0.98
 W6 = 27847.395 kg

Emergency cruise (for 100 nm = 185.2 km)

W7/W6 = Exp (-185.2*103*14.16*10-6*9.81/ (236.039*16.454))

= 0.993398
 W7 = 27663.544 kg

Loitering (for 1 hour = 3600 seconds)

Using the endurance formula

Rearranging the above equation

W8/W7 = Exp (-E*Ct*g/ (L/D))
During loitering L/D is (L/D) max
W8/W7 = Exp (-3600*9.81*11.32*10-6/19)
= 0.97918
 W8 = 27087.559 kg

Descent
W9/W8 = 0.990
 W9 = 26816.683 kg

Landing, taxi and shut down

17
W10/W9 = 0.992
 W10 = 26602.1499 kg

Fuel fraction
W10/W0 = (W1/W0)*(W2/W1)*(W3/W2)*…*(W10/W9)
=0.99*0.995*0.995*0.98*0.778516*0.98*0.993398*0.97918*0.99*0.992
= 0.70006
Therefore, the fuel fraction is
Wf/W0 = (1+mfres)*(1-W10/W0)
Where mfres is the weight fraction of reserved and trapped fuel.

Wf/W0 = (1+0.06)*(1-0.70006)
= 0.3179
Estimation of We/W0
A new design always has an evolutionary change from an Existing
aircraft. Therefore, we can assume a value for this ratio from Existing
data from similar aircraft. The graphs yield an equation for the
calculation of empty weight ratio. It is,

We/W0 = AW0cKvs
A & c are constants for particular type of aircraft, for business jets A = 1.02 and c
= -0.06
Kvs has a value of 1 for fixed sweep and 1.04 for variable sweep
We/W0 = 1.02W0-0.06
The final estimation value of our aircraft,
WTO = 29734 Kg

18
 CHAPTER – 6
POWERPLANT SECTION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Selection of powerplant is an important step in design process
because one has to compromise with weight of the engine, thrust
provided by it, TSFC etc. different types of powerplants are available,

 Turbojet

 Turboprop
 Turbofan
 Ramjet
Turbojet aircraft was the earliest form of jet engine. It can be classified into
two types based upon the type o compressor used

 Axial flow compressor

 Centrifugal flow compressor

Though the turbojet engine has certain advantages like easy construction,
weight and size, it also has disadvantages like low efficiency and
disturbing noise of high dB.

Turboprop is a combination of the propeller and the jet engine. It has

good advantage of efficiency but has altitude and speed limitations due
to the propeller effects. It is better suited for medium altitude and
medium speed cruise.

Turbofan is a modified form of jet engine. It has a comparatively large

fan attached ahead of the compressor. A turbofan engine has two types
of thrust like the turboprop engine, fan (propeller) thrust and jet thrust.
There are two flows in a turbofan engine. The outer flow or cold

19
flow and the inner or core or hot flow. The ratio of mass flow rate of
outer flow to that of core or inner flow is known as the bypass ratio.
Based on this parameter, the turbofan engines can be classified as,
 Low bypass turbofan
 Medium bypass turbofan
 High bypass turbofan
Higher the bypass ratio, higher the propulsive efficiency. This is the
reason why most transport and business aircrafts utilize high bypass
turbofan engines. The TSFC of a turbofan engine is almost half of that
of a conventional turbojet engine.

Keeping in mind the above data we have selected Rolls Royce AE3007 turbofan
engines.
It is the most suited engine to meet our specifications.
6.2 TYPE OF ENGINE

ROLLS ROYCE AE3007 TURBOFAN ENGINE

20
Specifications

Description Specification
Thrust 8900 lb or 39.6 kN
Bypass ratio 4.8
Fan diameter 38.5 in or 0.9779 m
Length 115.1 in or 2.923 m
Weight 1586 lb or 719.397 kg
Inlet mass flow 240-280 lbs-1
108.86-127 kgs-1
Stages Fan ; 14 HPC ; 2 HPT
; 3LPT
Overall pressure 18-20:1
ratio
Turbine inlet 994 0C
temperature

21
 CHAPTER – 7
SELECTION OF AIRFOIL

7.1 INTRODUCTION
After the estimation of weight, a compatible airfoil for the type
of aircraft that would be able to generate enough lift to overcome the
weight efficiently has to be selected. First, a study of the Existing
airfoils is suggested before proceeding to airfoil selection. NACA
provides a wide variety of airfoils, each having its own different merits
and demerits.

22
7.2 AIRFOIL CATEGORIES

NACA Four-Digit Series

Around 1932, NACA tested a series of airfoil shapes known
as the four-digit sections. The four-digit airfoil geometry is defined,
as the name implies, by four digits; the first gives the maximum camber
in percent of chord, the second the location of the maximum camber in
tenths of chord, and the last two the maximum thickness in percent of
chord.

For Example, the 2412 airfoil is a

12% thick airfoil having a 2% camber located 0.4 from the leading edge.

NACA five-Digit Series

The NACA five-digit series developed around 1935 uses the
same thickness distribution as the four-digit series.

The numbering system for the five-digit series is not as

straightforward as for the fourdigit series. The first digit multiplied by
3/2 gives the design lift coefficient of the airfoil. The next two digits
are twice the position of maximum camber in percent of chord.

NACA 6 Series
The 6 series airfoils were designed to achieve desirable
drag, compressibility, and Cl, performance. These requirements are
somewhat conflicting, and it appears that the motivation for these
airfoils was primarily the achievement of low drag. The chord wise
pressure distribution resulting from the combination of thickness and
camber is conducive to maintaining Extensive laminar flow over the
23
 leading portion of the airfoil over a limited range of G values. Outside
of this range, Cd and Clm values are not too much different from other
airfoils.

7.3 SELECTED AEROFOIL

Fig 7.4 Airfoil NACA 664-221

CL = 0.3 at angle of attack 0˚
CL max = 1.6

24
 CHAPTER – 8
WING SELECTION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the
primary component of the aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and
its lifting capabilities are in general, a function of the thickness of the airfoil
section that is used in the wing structure. The wing may be considered as the most
important component of an aircraft, since a fixed-wing aircraft is not able to fly
without it. The primary function of the wing is to generate sufficient lift force or
simply lift (L). In fact, a wing is considered as a lifting surface that lift is produced
due to the pressure difference between lower and upper surfaces.

8.2 NUMBER OF WINGS

One of the decisions a designer must make is to select the number of wings. The
options are:
1. Monoplane (i.e. one wing)
2. Two wings (i.e. biplane)
3. Three wings

WING VERTICAL LOCATION

25
 One of the wing parameters that could be determined at
the early stages of wing design process is the wing vertical location
relative to the fuselage centerline. In principle, there are four options for
the vertical location of the wing. They are,

8.3 SELECTED WING IS LOW WING

8.3.1 LOW WING
In this section, advantages and disadvantages of a low wing configuration
will be presented. Since the reasons for several items are similar with the reasons
for a high wing configuration, the reasons are not repeated here. In the majority of
cases, the specifications of low wing are compared with a high wing configuration.

26
 CHAPTER – 9
LIFT ESTIMATION
9.1 LIFT
Component of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft perpendicular to
flight direction.

Fig 9.1 Forces acting in aircraft

9.2 LIFT COEFFICIENT (CL)
• Amount of lift generated depends on:
• Plan form area (S),
• Air density (ρ),
• Flight speed (V),
• Lift coefficient (CL)
Lift is given by,
Lift = (1/2)*ρV2SCL
• Section shape,
• Plan form geometry,

• Angle of attack (α),

• Compressibility effects,

27
GENERATION OF LIFT
• Aerodynamic force arises from two natural sources:
o Variable pressure distribution.
o Shear stress distribution.

Fig 9.2 Pressure distribution on airfoil

9.3 LIFT CALCULATION:

General Lift equation is given by,

Lift = (1/2) ρ V2SCL

9.3.1 LIFT AT CRUISE

= 0.27641 kg/m3 (at the cruising altitude of 12750m)
V = 241.944 m/s
S = 350 m2
CL (cruise) = 0.6 (from the wing and airfoil estimation)
Substituting all these values in the general lift equation,
L (cruise) = 1/2×0.27641 × (241.944)2 × 350 × 0.6
Lift at cruise = 1699.349 KN

28
9.3.2 LIFT AT TAKEOFF
= 1.225 kg/m3 (at sea-level)
V = 0.7 x 1.2 x V stall
= 60.738 m/s

S = 350m2
C L (take-off) = 1.2251(flaps kept at the take-off position of 20˚)
Substituting all these values in the general lift equation,
L (take-off) = 1/2× 1.225 × (60.738)2 × 350 × 1.2251
Lift at take-off = 968.873 KN

9.3.3 LIFT AT LANDING

= 1.225 kg/m3 (at sea-level)
V = 0.7 x 1.3 x V stall
= 65.799 m/s
S = 350m2
CL (Landing) = 1.6 (flaps kept at the take-off position of 40˚)
Substituting all these values in the general lift equation,
L (Landing) = 1/2× 1.225 × (65.799)2 × 350 ×1.6

Lift at Landing = 1485.0214 KN

29
DRAG
Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which
is parallel to the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow). It always acts
to oppose the direction of motion. It is the undesirable component of the
aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable component.

10.2 DRAG COEFFICIENT (CD)

Amount of drag generated depends on:
Plan form area (S), air density ( ), flight speed (V), drag coefficient (CD)
CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:
Section shape, plan form geometry, angle of attack (α),
Compressibility effects (Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

DRAG COMPONENTS
SKIN FRICTION
Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer. Significantly
more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.

Fig 10.1 Skin friction drag

30
FORM (PRESSURE) DRAG
Due to static pressure distribution around body - component resolved in
direction of motion. Sometimes considered separately as fore body and rear (base)
drag components.

Fig 10.2 Form drag

WAVE DRAG
Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and supersonic speeds.
Result of both direct shock losses and the influence of shock waves on the
boundary layer. LIFT INDUCED (OR) TRAILING VORTEX DRAG

Fig 10.3 Downwash region in wings

10.3 CALCULATION
The general drag equation is given by,
= (½) 𝜌 𝑉2 𝑆 CD

31
10.3.1 DRAG AT CRUISE
= 0.27641 kg/m3 (at the cruising altitude of 12750m)
V = 241.944 m/s
S = 350m2
CD (cruise) = 0.523 (from the wing and airfoil estimation)
Substituting all these values in the general drag equation,
D (cruise) = ½*0.27641*(241.944)2 *350 * 0.523

Drag at cruise = 30.992 KN

10.3.2 DRAG AT TAKEOFF
= 1.225 kg/m3 (at sea-level)
V = 0.7 x 1.2 x V stall
= 60.738 m/s
S = 350m2
CD (take-off) = 0.6257(flaps kept at the take-off position of 20˚)
Substituting all these values in the general drag equation,
D (take-off) = ½*1.225 * (60.738)2 * 350 * (6.7583 x 10-3)

Drag at take-off = 17.7235 KN

10.3.3 DRAG AT LANDING
= 1.225 kg/m3 (at sea-level)
V = 0.7 x 1.3 x V stall
= 65.799 m/s
S = 350 m2
CD (Landing) = 0.65 (flaps kept at the take-off position of 40˚)
Substituting all these values in the general drag equation,
D (Landing) = 1/2x 1.225 * (65.799)2 * 350 * (7.54656 x10-3)
Drag at Landing = 33.513 KN

32
 CHAPTER-11
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

11.1 TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE

Distance from rest to clearance of obstacle in flight path and usually
considered in two parts:
1. Ground roll - rest to lift-off (SLO)
2. Airborne distance - lift-off to specified height (35ft FAR, 50ft
others).
The aircraft will accelerate up to lift-off speed (VLO = about 1.2 x V stall)
when it will then be rotated.
A first-order approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be
made from:
SLO = (1.44 x W2) / (g 𝜌 S CL max T)
SLO may be reduced by increasing T, S or CL max (high lift devices relate
to latter two).
An improved approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be
made by including drag, rolling resistance and ground effect terms.

The bracketed term will vary with speed but an approximation may be
made by using an instantaneous value for when V = 0.7 x VLO.
In the above equation:

Where,
Ø accounts for drag reduction when in ground effect

33
Ø is calculated by using the following formula,

µr = 0.02 for smooth paved surface, 0.1 for grass.

CALCULATION

= (3.8777635 x 1012) / (1392870392)

SLO = 1685.159 m
Take-off runway Distance = 1685.159 m

11.2 LANDING PERFORMANCE:

Landing performance consists of three phases:
• Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 3o) and constant
speed.
• Flare - transitional maneuvers with airspeed reduced from about 1.3
Vstall down to touch-down speed.
• Ground roll - from touch-down to rest.
Ground roll landing distance (s3 or s1) estimated from:

Where,
• Vav may be taken as 0.7 x touch-down speed (V t or V2) & V t is
assumed as 1.3 x V stall.

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 • µr is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied - use µr = 0.4 for
paved surface.
If thrust reversers (T r) are applied, use:

CALCULATION:

= (4074.34 + 0.4 (167278.608 x 9.81 – 373084)

SLO = 11193.283 m
Landing Runway Distance = 1193.283 m

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 CHAPTER – 12

THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

The three view diagram is nothing but the result or outcome
of the conceptual design process. The configuration or layout helps in
proceeding to the next level in design process i.e. the preliminary
design and then over to the detailed design.

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 CHAPTER – 13
V-N DIAGRAM
The operating flight strength limitations of an airplane are
presented in the form of a V-n diagram. This chart is usually included in
the aircraft flight handbook in the section dealing with limitations. The
V-n diagram presented in the figure is intended to present the most
important general features of such a diagram and does not necessarily
represent the characteristics of any particular airplane. Each airplane
type has its own particular V-n diagram with specific V’s and n’s. The
flight operating strength of an airplane is presented on a graph whose
horizontal scale is airspeed (V) and vertical scale is load factor (n).

The presentation of the airplane strength is contingent on four factors

being know:
1. The aircraft gross weight
2. The configuration of the aircraft (clean, external stores, flaps,
and landing gear position, etc...)
3. Symmetry of loading (since a rolling pull-out at high speed can
reduce the structural limits to approximately two -thirds of the
symmetrical load limits), and the applicable altitude.
4. A change in any of these four factors can cause important
changes to operating limits.

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 CONCULSION
Design is a fine blend of science, presence of mind and the
application of each one of them at the appropriate time. Design of
anything needs experience and an optimistic progress towards the ideal
system. The scientific society always loo k for the best product design
.This involves a strong fundamental in science and mathematics and their
skill full application which is a tough job endowed upon the designer .
We had put enough hard work to the best of our knowledge for this
design project. A design never gets completed in a flutter sense but it is
one further step towards the ideal system. But during the design of this
passenger aircraft we learnt about aeronautics.
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 Its implications when applied to an aircraft. Thus a conceptual
design of a 150seater passenger aircraft has been successfully done. The
Aircraft is a twin engine configuration. It uses two CFM56 -5A1 engines
which fulfills the power requirement. The wing is NACA 66 4 -221 airfoil.

REFERENCES
 Aircraft Performance and Design by John D. Anderson Jr, Tata
McGraw Hill Edition 2010
 Aircraft Design, a conceptual Approach by Daniel P Raymer,
AIAA Education series 2nd edition
 Airplane Design by Dr. Jan Roskam, Roskam Aviation and
Engineering Corporation, 1985
 Introduction to Flight by John D. Anderson Jr, Tata McGraw Hill
Edition 2009
 Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance by Dr. Jan Roskam & Dr.
Chuan Tau Edward Lan, DAR Corporation 1997
 Theory of Wing Sections by Ira H. Abott & Albert E. Von
Doenhoff, Dover Publications 1959

INTERNET

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