Lecture Notes

Graph Theory
Prof. Dr. Maria Axenovich
December 6, 2016

1
Contents
1 Introduction 3

2 Notations 3

3 Preliminaries 4

4 Matchings 13

5 Connectivity 16

6 Planar graphs 20

7 Colorings 25

8 Extremal graph theory 27

9 Ramsey theory 31

10 Flows 34

11 Random graphs 36

12 Hamiltonian cycles 38

References 39

Index 40

2
1 Introduction
These brief notes include major definitions and theorems of the graph theory lecture
held by Prof. Maria Axenovich at KIT in the winter term 2013/14. We neither prove
nor motivate the results and definitions. You can look up the proofs of the theorems
in the book “Graph Theory” by Reinhard Diestel [4]. A free version of the book is
available at http://diestel-graph-theory.com.
Conventions:
• G = (V, E) is an arbitrary (undirected, simple) graph
• n := |V | is its number of vertices
• m := |E| is its number of edges

2 Notations

notation definition meaning

V


k , V finite set, {S ⊆ V : |S| = k} the set of all k-element
k integer subsets of V
V 2 , V finite set {(u, v) : u, v ∈ V } the set of all ordered pairs
of elements in V
[n], n integer {1, . . . , n} the set of the first n posi-
tive integers
N 1, 2, . . . the natural numbers, not
including 0
2S , S finite set {T : T ⊆ S} the power set of S, i.e.,
the set of all subsets of S
S4T , S, T finite sets (S ∪ T ) \ (S ∩ T ) the symmetric difference
of sets S and T , i.e., the
set of elements that ap-
pear in exactly one of S
or T
˙
A∪B, A, B disjoint sets A∪B the disjoint union of A
and B

3
3 Preliminaries

Definition. A graph G is an ordered pair (V, E), where V is a finite set and graph, G


E ⊆ V2 is a set of pairs of elements in V .
• The set V is called the set of vertices and E is called the set of edges of G. vertex, edge


• The edge e = {u, v} ∈ V2 is also denoted by e = uv.
• If e = uv ∈ E is an edge of G, then u is called adjacent to v and u is called adjacent, incident
incident to e.
• If e1 and e2 are two edges of G, then e1 and e2 are called adjacent if e1 ∩e2 6=
∅, i.e., the two edges are incident to the same vertex in G.
We can visualize graphs G = (V, E) using pictures. For each vertex v ∈ V we draw a
point (or small disc) in the plane. And for each edge uv ∈ E we draw a continuous
curve starting and ending in the point/disc for u and v, respectively.
Several examples of graphs and their corresponding pictures follow:

2
1

V = [5], E = {12, 13, 24} 3

5
4
A
V = {A, B, C, D, E}, E
E = {AB, AC, AD, AE, CE}
B
C D

Definition (Graph variants).

• A directed graph is a pair G = (V, A) where V is a finite set and E ⊆ V 2 . directed graph
The edges of a directed graph are also called arcs . arc
• A multigraph is a pair G = (V, E) where V is a finite set and E is a multiset multigraph



of elements from V1 ∪ V2 , i.e., we also allow loops and multiedges.
• A hypergraph is a pair H = (X, E) where X is a finite set and E ⊆ 2X \ {∅}. hypergraph

Definition. For two graphs G1 = (V1 , E1 ) and G2 = (V2 , E2 ) we say that G1 and
G2 are isomorphic , denoted by G1 ' G2 , if there exists a bijection φ : V1 → V2 with isomorphic, '
xy ∈ E1 if and only if φ(x)φ(y) ∈ E2 . Loosely speaking, G1 and G2 are isomorphic if
they are the same up to renaming of vertices.
When making structural comments, we do not normally distinguish between isomor-
phic graphs. Hence, we usually write G1 = G2 instead of G1 ' G2 whenever vertices =

4
are indistinguishable. Then we use the informal expression unlabeled graph (or just unlabeled graph
graph when it is clear from the context) to mean an isomorphism class of graphs.

Important graphs and graph classes

Definition. For all natural numbers n we define:
• the complete graph Kn on n vertices as the (unlabeled) graph isomorphic to complete graph,


Kn
[n], [n]
2 . Complete graphs correspond to cliques.

K5 K3
• for n≥ 3, the cycle Cn on n vertices  as
the (unlabeled) graph isomorphic to
cycle, Cn
[n], {i, i + 1} : i = 1, . . . , n − 1 ∪ n, 1 . The length of a cycle is its number
of edges. We write Cn = 12 . . . n1. The cycle of length 3 is also called a triangle . triangle
v1
v2
v6
v3
v5 v4
C6 = v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v1

• the path Pn on n
vertices as the (unlabeled) graph isomorphic to [n], {i, i+1} : path, Pn
i = 1, . . . , n − 1 . The vertices 1 and n are called the endpoints or ends of the
path. The length of a path is its number of edges. We write Pn = 12 . . . n.

1 2 3 4 5 6


• the empty graph En on n vertices as the (unlabeled) graph isomorphic to [n], ∅ . empty graph, En
Empty graphs correspond to independent sets.

E10
• for m ≥ 1, the complete bipartite graph Km,n on n+m vertices as the (unlabeled) complete bipartite
graph isomorphic to (A ∪ B, {xy : x ∈ A, y ∈ B}), where |A| = m and |B| = n, graph, Km,n
A ∩ B = ∅.
m

n
Km,n

5
• for r ≥ 2, a complete r-partite graph as an (unlabeled) graph isomorphic to complete r-partite


A1 ∪˙ · · · ∪A
˙ r , {xy : x ∈ Ai , y ∈ Aj , i 6= j} ,

where A1 , . . . , Ar are non-empty finite sets. In particular, the complete bipartite

graph Km,n is a complete 2-partite graph.


• the Petersen graph as the (unlabeled) graph isomorphic to [5] , {S, T } : S, T ∈ Petersen graph
[5]


2

2 ,S ∩ T = ∅ .
{1, 2}

{4, 5} {3, 5} {3, 4}

{1, 3} {2, 5}
{1, 4} {2, 4}

{2, 3} {1, 5}
• for a natural number k, k ≤ n, the Kneser graph K(n, k) as the (unlabeled) Kneser graph,
graph isomorphic to K(n, k)
     
[n] [n]
, {S, T } : S, T ∈ ,S ∩ T = ∅ .
k k

Note that K(5, 2) is the Petersen graph.

• the n-dimensional hypercube Qn as the (unlabeled) graph isomorphic to hypercube, Qn


2[n] , {S, T } : S, T ∈ 2[n] , |S4T | = 1 .

Vertices are labeled either by corresponding sets or binary indicators vectors.

For example the vertex {1, 3, 4} in Q6 is coded by (1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0).

Q1 Q2 Q3
(1,1,1)

(1,1)
(1,0,1)
(1,1,0) (0,1,1)
1
(0,1) (1,0)
0 (1,0,0) (0,0,1)
(0,1,0)
(0,0)
(0,0,0)

6
 Qn : (1, . . . , 1)
n weight n-1
(n− 1)

( nn ) 1001
2
0001
(n3 ) Q n −1
weight 2 Q n −1
(n2 )
weight 1 (# 1’s in a binary tuple)
n
(0, . . . , 0)

Basic graph parameters and degrees

Definition. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. We define the following parameters of

G.
• The graph G is non-trivial if it contains at least one edge, i.e., E 6= ∅. non-trivial
Equivalently, G is non-trivial if G is not an empty graph.
• The order of G, denoted by |G|, is the number of vertices of G, i.e., |G| = |V |. order, |G|
• The size of G, denoted by kGk, is the number of edges of G, i.e., kGk =
|E|. size, kGk
Note that if the order of G is n, then the size of G is between 0 and n2 .
• Let S ⊆ V . The neighbourhood of S , denoted by N (S), is the set of vertices neighbourhood,
in V that have an adjacent vertex in S. The elements of N (S) are called N (v)
neighbours of S. Instead of N ({v}) for v ∈ V we usually write N (v). neighbour
• If the vertices of G are labeled v1 , . . . , vn , then there is an n × n matrix A
with entries in {0, 1}, which is called the adjacency matrix and is defined adjacency matrix
as follows:
vi vj ∈ E ⇔ A[i, j] = 1
 
0 1 1 0
v1  
 
1 0 1 1
v3 v2 v4 A=  

1 1 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
A graph and its adjacency matrix.
• The degree of a vertex v of G, denoted by d(v) or deg(v), is the number of degree, d(v)
edges incident to v.
v1
v3 v2 v4
deg(v1 ) = 2, deg(v2 ) = 3, deg(v3 ) = 2, deg(v4 ) = 1

7
 • A vertex of degree 1 in G is called a leaf , and a vertex of degree 0 in G is leaf
called an isolated vertex . isolated vertex
• The degree sequence of G is the multiset of degrees of vertices of G, e.g. in degree sequence
the example above the degree sequence is {1, 2, 2, 3}.
• The minimum degree of G, denoted by δ(G), is the smallest vertex degree minimum degree,
in G (it is 1 in the example). δ(G)

• The maximum degree of G, denoted by ∆(G), is the highest vertex degree maximum degree,
in G (it is 3 in the example). ∆(G)

• The graph G is called k-regular for a natural number k if all vertices have regular
degree k. Graphs that are 3-regular are also called cubic . cubic
P

• The average degree of G is defined as d(G) = v∈V deg(v) /|V |. Clearly,
average degree,
we have δ(G) ≤ d(G) ≤ ∆(G) with equality if and only if G is k-regular for d(G)
some k.
Lemma 1 (Handshake Lemma, 1.2.1). For every graph G = (V, E) we have
X
2|E| = d(v).
v∈V

Corollary 2. The sum of all vertex degrees is even and therefore the number of
vertices with odd degree is even.

Subgraphs

Definition.
• A graph H = (V 0 , E 0 ) is a subgraph of G, denoted by H ⊆ G, if V 0 ⊆ V subgraph, ⊆
and E 0 ⊆ E. If H is a subgraph of G, then G is called a supergraph of H , supergraph, ⊇
denoted by G ⊇ H. In particular, G1 = G2 if and only if G1 ⊆ G2 and
G1 ⊇ G2 .
v1 v1
⊆
v3 v2 v3 v2 v4

• A subgraph H of G is called an induced subgraph of G if for every two induced subgraph

vertices u, v ∈ V (H) we have uv ∈ E(H) ⇔ uv ∈ E(G). In the example
above H is not an induced subgraph of G. Every induced subgraph of G
can be obtained by deleting vertices (and all incident edges) from G.
Examples:
v1 v1 v1 v1

v3 v2 v4 v3 v2 v2 v4 v2 v4
v3 v4 v3

• Every induced subgraph of G is uniquely defined by its vertex set. We write

8
 
G[X] for the induced

subgraph of G on vertex set X, i.e., G[X] = X, xy : G[X]
x, y ∈ X, xy ∈ E(G) . Then G[X] is called the subgraph of G induced by
the vertex set X ⊆ V (G).
Example:
 
G 2 G {1, 2, 3, 4} 2

4 1 3 5 4 1 3

• If H and G are two graphs, then an (induced) copy of H in G is an (induced) copy

subgraph of G that is isomorphic to H.
• A subgraph H = (V 0 , E 0 ) of G = (V, E) is called a spanning subgraph of G spanning
if V 0 = V . subgraph

• A graph G = (V, E) is called bipartite if there exists natural numbers m, n bipartite

such that G is isomorphic to a subgraph of Km,n . In this case, the vertex
set can be written as V = A∪B ˙ such that E ⊆ {ab | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}. The
sets A and B are called partite sets of G. partite sets
• A cycle (path, clique) in G is a subgraph H of G that is a cycle (path, clique
complete graph).
• An independent set in G is an induced subgraph H of G that is an empty independent set
graph.
• A walk (of length k) is a non-empty alternating sequence v0 e0 v1 e1 · · · ek−1 vk walk
of vertices and edges in G such that ei = {vi , vi+1 } for all i < k. If v0 = vk ,
the walk is closed . closed walk
• Let A, B ⊆ V , A ∩ B = ∅. A path P in G is called an A-B-path if P = A-B-path
v1 . . . vk , V (P ) ∩ A = {v1 } and V (P ) ∩ B = {vk }. When A = {a} and
B = {b}, we simply call P an a-b-path. If G contains an a-b-path we say
that the vertices a and b are linked by a path.
• Two paths P, P 0 in G are called independent if every vertex contained in independent paths
both P and P 0 (if any) is an endpoint of P and P 0 . I.e., P and P 0 can share
only endpoints.
• A graph G is called connected if any two vertices are linked by a path. connected
• A subgraph H of G is maximal , respectively minimal , with respect to some maximal, minimal
property if there is no supergraph, respectively subgraph, of H with that
property.
• A maximal connected subgraph of G is called a connected component of G. component
• A graph G is called acyclic if G does not have any cycle. Acyclic graphs are acyclic
also called forests . forest
• A graph G is called a tree if G is connected and acyclic. tree

Proposition 3. If a graph G has minimum degree δ(G) ≥ 2, then G has a path of

9
length δ(G) and a cycle with at least δ(G) + 1 vertices.
Proposition 4. If a graph has a u-v-walk, then it has a u-v-path.

Proposition 5. If a graph has a closed walk of odd length, then it contains an

odd cycle.
Proposition 6. If a graph has a closed walk with a non-repeated edge, then the graph
contains a cycle.

Proposition 7. A graph is bipartite if and only if it has no cycles of odd length.

Definition. An Eulerian tour of G is a closed walk containing all edges of G, Eulerian tour
each exactly once.

Theorem 8 (Eulerian Tour Condition, 1.8.1). A connected graph has an Eulerian

tour if and only if every vertex has even degree.

Lemma 9. Every tree on at least two vertices has a leaf.

Lemma 10. A tree of order n ≥ 1 has exactly n − 1 edges.

Lemma 11. Every connected graph contains a spanning tree.

Lemma 12. A connected graph on n ≥ 1 vertices and n − 1 edges is a tree.
Lemma 13. The vertices of every connected
 graph can be ordered (v1 , . . . , vn ) so that
for every i ∈ {1, . . . , n} the graph G {v1 , . . . , vi } is connected.

Operations on graphs

Definition. Let G = (V, E)
and G0 = (V 0 , E 0 ) be two graphs, U ⊆ V be a subset

of vertices of G and F ⊆ V2 be a subset of pairs of vertices of G. Then we define
• G ∪ G0 := (V ∪ V 0 , E ∪ E 0 ) and G ∩ G0 := (V ∩ V 0 , E ∩ E 0 ). Note that G ∪ G0 , G ∩ G0
G, G0 ⊆ G ∪ G0 and G ∩ G0 ⊆ G, G0 . Sometimes, we also write G + G0 for
G ∪ G0 .
• G − U := G[V \ U ], G − F := (V, E \ F ) and G + F := (V, E ∪ F ). If U = {u} G − U, G − F ,
or F = {e} then we simply write G − u, G − e and G + e for G − U , G − F G+F
and G + F , respectively.
• For an edge e = xy in G we define G ◦ e as the graph obtained from G by G◦e
identifying x and y and removing (if necessary) loops and multiple edges.
We say that G ◦ e arises from G by contracting the edge e. contract

10
 v3 v3
v4
v2 y v2 v xy v4
x

v5
v1 v5 v1
V


• The complement of G, denoted by G or GC , is defined as the graph (V, 2 \ complement, G
E). In particular, G + G is a complete graph, and G = (G + G) − E.

More graph parameters

Definition. Let G = (V, E) be any graph.

• The girth of G, denoted by g(G), is the length of a shortest cycle in G. If girth, g(G)
G is acyclic, its girth is said to be ∞.
• The circumference of G is the length of a longest cycle in G. If G is acyclic, circumference
its circumference is said to be 0.
• The graph G is called Hamiltonian if G has a spanning cycle, i.e., there is a Hamiltonian
cycle in G that contains every vertex of G. In other words, G is Hamiltonian
if and only if its circumference is |V |.
• The graph G is called traceable if G has a spanning path, i.e., there is a traceable
path in G that contains every vertex of G.
• For two vertices u and v in G, the distance between u and v , denoted by distance, d(u, v)
d(u, v), is the length of a shortest u-v-path in G. If no such path exists,
d(u, v) is said to be ∞.
• The diameter of G, denoted by diam(G), is the maximum distance among diameter,
all pairs of vertices in G, i.e. diam(G)

diam(G) = max d(u, v).

u,v∈V

• The radius of G, denoted by rad(G), is defined as radius, rad(G)

rad(G) = min max d(u, v).

u∈V v∈V

• If there is a vertex ordering v1 , . . . , vn of G and a d ∈ N such that

|N (vi ) ∩ {vi+1 , . . . , vn }| ≤ d,

for all i ∈ [n − 1] then G is called d-degenerate . The minimum d for which d-degenerate
G is d-degenerate is called the degeneracy of G. degeneracy

11
 ≤d ≤d ≤d
v1 v2 v3 vn

We remark that the 1-degenerate graphs are precisely the forests.

• A proper k-edge colouring is an assignment c0 : E → [k] of colours in [k] proper edge
to edges such that no two adjacent edges receive the same colour. The colouring
chromatic index of G, or edge-chromatic number, is the minimal k such chromatic index,
that G has a k-edge colouring. It is denoted by χ0 (G). χ0 (G)

• A proper k-vertex colouring is an assignment c : V → [k] of colours in [k] proper vertex

to vertices such that no two adjacent vertices receive the same colour. The colouring
chromatic number of G is the minimal k such that G has a k-vertex colour- chromatic
ing. It is denoted by χ(G). number, χ(G)

Proposition 14. For any graph G = (V, E) the following are equivalent:
(i) G is a tree, that is, G is connected and acyclic.
(ii) G is connected, but for any edge e ∈ E in G the graph G − e is not
connected.
(iii) G is acyclic, but for any edge e ∈
/ E not in G the graph G + e has a
cycle.
(iv) G is connected and 1-degenerate.
(v) G is connected and |E| = |V | − 1.
(vi) G is acyclic and |E| = |V | − 1.
(vii) G is connected and every non-trivial subgraph of G has a vertex of
degree at most 1.
(viii) Any two vertices are joined by a unique path in G.

12
4 Matchings

Definition.
• A matching (independent edge set) is a vertex-disjoint union of edges, i.e., matching
the union of pairwise non-adjacent edges.
...

• A matching in G is a subgraph of G isomorphic to a matching. We denote

the size of the largest matching in G by ν(G). ν(G)
• A vertex cover in G is a set of vertices U ⊆ V such that each edge in E vertex cover
is incident to at least one vertex in U . We denote the size of the smallest
vertex cover in G by τ (G). τ (G)

• A k-factor of G is a k-regular spanning subgraph of G. k-factor

• A 1-factor of G is also called a perfect matching since it is a matching of perfect matching
largest possible size in a graph of order |V |. Clearly, G can only contain a
perfect matching if |V | is even.

Theorem 15 (Hall’s Marriage Theorem, 2.1.2). Let G be a bipartite graph with

partite sets A and B. Then G has a matching containing all vertices of A if and
only if |N (S)| ≥ |S| for all S ⊆ A.

A S S

bad

B N (S) N (S)

Theorem 16 (Tutte’s Theorem, 2.2.1). For S ⊆ V define q(S) to be the number

of odd components of G − S, i.e., the number of connected components of G − S
consisting of an odd number of vertices. A graph G has a perfect matching if and
only if q(S) ≤ |S| for all S ⊆ V .

13
 odd

S odd

odd
|S| ≥ odd components of G − S

Corollary 17.
• Let G be bipartite with partite sets A and B such that |N (S)| ≥ |S| − d for all
S ⊆ A, and a fixed positive integer d. Then G contains a matching of size at
least |A| − d.
• A k-regular bipartite graph has a perfect matching.
• A k-regular bipartite graph has a proper k-edge coloring.

Definition. Let G = (V, E) be any graph.

• For all functions f : V → N ∪ {0} an f -factor of G is a spanning subgraph H f -factor
of G such that degH (v) = f (v) for all v ∈ V .
• Let f : V → N ∪ {0} be a function with f (v) ≤ deg(v) for all v ∈ V . We can
construct the auxiliary graph T (G, f ) by replacing each vertex v with vertex T (G, f )
sets A(v) ∪ B(v) such that |A(v)| = deg(v) and |B(v)| = deg(v) − f (v). For
adjacent vertices u and v we place an edge between A(u) and A(v) such that
the edges between the A-sets are independent. We also insert a complete
bipartite graph between A(v) and B(v) for each vertex v.
B ( v1 )
A ( v1 ) B ( v2 )
3 v1 ∅
1 v2
A ( v2 )
3 2 →
2 1

• Let H be a graph. An H-factor of G is a spanning subgraph of G that is H-factor

a vertex-disjoint union of copies of H, i.e., a set of copies of H in G whose
vertex sets form a partition of V .

14
 H= G=

Lemma 18. Let f : V → N ∪ {0} be a function with f (v) ≤ deg(v) for all v ∈ V .
Then G has an f -factor if and only if T (G, f ) has a 1-factor.

Theorem 19 (König’s Theorem, 2.1.1). Let G be bipartite. Then ν(G) = τ (G),

i.e., the size of a largest matching is the same as the size of a smallest vertex
cover.

Theorem 20 (Hajnal and Szemerédi). If G satisfies δ(G) ≥ (1 − 1/k)n, where k is a

divisor of n, then G has a Kk -factor.
Theorem 21 (Alon and Yuster). Let H be a graph. If G satisfies
 
1
δ(G) ≥ 1 − n,
χ(H)


then G contains at least 1 − o(1) · n/|V (H)| vertex-disjoint copies of H.

15
5 Connectivity

Definition.
• For a natural number k ≥ 1, a graph G is called k-connected if |V (G)| ≥ k+1 k-connected
and for any set U of k − 1 vertices in G the graph G − U is connected. In
particular, Kn is (n − 1)-connected.
• The maximum k for which G is k-connected is called the connectivity of G, connectivity, κ(G)
denoted by κ(G).
v1

κ( v3 v2 v4 ) = 1, κ(Cn ) = 2, κ(Kn,m ) = min{m, n}.

• For a natural number k ≥ 1, a graph G is called k-linked if for any 2k distinct k-linked
vertices s1 , s2 , . . . , sk , t1 , t2 , . . . , tk there are vertex-disjoint si -ti -paths, i =
1, . . . , k.
s1 t1 s1 t10 = t2
s2 t2 s2 t20 = t3
s3 t3 s3 t30 = t1

• For a graph G = (V, E) a set X ⊆ V ∪ E of vertices and edges of G is called

a cut set of G if G − X has more connected components than G. If a cut set cut set
consists of a single vertex v, then v is called a cut vertex of G; if it consists cut vertex
of a single edge e, then e is called a cut edge or bridge of G. cut edge, bridge
• For a natural number ` ≥ 1, a graph G is called `-edge-connected if G is `-edge-connected
non-trivial and for any set F ⊆ E of fewer than ` edges in G the graph
G − F is connected.
• The edge-connectivity of G is the maximum ` such that G is `-edge-connected. edge-connectivity,
It is denoted by κ0 (G) or λ(G). κ0 (G)

G non-trivial tree ⇒ λ(G) = 1, G cycle ⇒ λ(G) = 2.

Clearly, for every k, ` ≥ 2, if a graph is k-connected, k-linked or `-edge-connected,

then it is also (k − 1)-connected, (k − 1)-linked or (` − 1)-edge-connected, respectively.
Moreover, for a non-trivial graph is it equivalent to be 1-connected, 1-linked, 1-edge-
connected, or connected.

Lemma 22. For any connected, non-trivial graph G we have

κ(G) ≤ λ(G) ≤ δ(G).

16
 K100 K100

A graph G with κ(G), λ(G)  δ(G).

Definition. For a subset X of vertices and edges of G and two vertex sets A, B in G
we say that X separates A and B if each A-B-path contains an element of X. separate

v1 e1 v 2 e2 v3
e5
A u 1 e3 u3 B
u e4
2

Some sets separating A and B: {e1 , e4 , e5 }, {e1 , u2 }, {u1 , u3 , v3 }

Note that if X separates A and B, then necessarily A ∩ B ⊆ X.

Theorem 23 (Menger’s Theorem, 3.3.1). For any graph G and any two vertex
sets A, B ⊆ V (G) we have

min #vertices separating A and B = max #independent A-B-paths.

Corollary 24. If a, b are vertices of G, {a, b} ∈

/ E(G), then

min #vertices separating a and b = max #independent a-b-paths

a b

A B

Theorem 25 (Global Version of Menger’s Theorem, 3.3.6). A graph G is k-

connected if and only if for any two vertices a, b in G there exist k independent
a-b-paths.
Note that Menger’s Theorem implies that if G is k-linked, then G is k-connected.
Moreover, Bollobás and Thomason proved in 1996 that if G is 22k-connected, then G
is k-linked.

Definition. For a graph G = (V, E) the line graph L(G) of G is the graph L(G) = line graph L(G)
(E, E 0 ), where
   
E
E 0 = {e1 , e2 } ∈ : e1 adjacent to e2 in G .
2

17
 e2
v2 e1
e2 v3
e1 e3
e3 e4 e5
v1
v4 e5
e4
A graph and its line graph.

Corollary 26. If a, b are vertices of G, then

min #edges separating a and b = max #edge-disjoint a-b-paths

A
B

a b

Moreover, a graph is k-edge-connected if and only if there are k edge-disjoint paths

between any two vertices.

Definition. Given a graph H, we call a path P an H-path if P is non-trivial (has H-path

length at least one) and meets H exactly in its ends. In particular, the edge of
any H-path of length 1 is never an edge of H.
An ear of H is a non-trivial non-seperating path P in H whose internal vertices ear
have degree 2 and whose ends have degree at least 3 each. In particular, if P is
an ear of H, then P is an H 0 -path for the graph H 0 obtained from H by removing
all edges and internal vertices of P . Conversely, if both ends of an H-path P lie
in the same connected component of H, then P is an ear of H + P .
An ear-decomposition of a graph G is a sequence G0 ⊆ G1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Gk of graphs, ear-decomposition
such that
• G0 is a cycle,
• for each i = 1, . . . , k the graph Gi arises from Gi−1 by adding a Gi−1 -path
Pi , i.e., Pi is an ear of Gi , and
• Gk = G.

18
 Gi

Theorem 27 (3.1.1). A graph is 2-connected if and only if it has an ear-decomposition.

Lemma 28. If G is 3-connected, then there exists an edge e of G such that G ◦ e is
also 3-connected.

Theorem 29 (Tutte, 3.2.3). A graph G is 3-connected if and only if there exists

a sequence of graphs G0 , G1 , . . . , Gk , such that
• G0 = K4 ,
• for each i = 1, . . . , k the graph Gi has two adjacent vertices x0 , x00 of degree
at least 3, so that Gi−1 = Gi ◦ x0 x00 , and
• Gk = G.

x0
x x 00
y00

y
y0

Definition. Let G be a graph. A maximal connected subgraph of G without a

cut vertex is called a block of G. In particular, the blocks of G are exactly the block
bridges and the maximal 2-connected subgraphs of G.
The block-cut-vertex graph or block graph of G is a bipartite graph H whose partite block-cut-vertex
sets are the blocks of G and the cut vertices of G, respectively. There is an edge graph
between a block B and a cut vertex a if and only if a ∈ B, i.e., the block contains
the cut vertex.

v1 v2 v3 B1 B2
B1 B3
...
B2 B4

B5
v4
B6 v1 v2
v5

The leaves of this graph are called block leaves . block leaf

Theorem 30. The block-cut-vertex graph of a connected graph is a tree.

19
6 Planar graphs
This section deals with graph drawings. We restrict ourselves to graph drawings in
the plane R2 . It is also feasible to consider graph drawings in other topological spaces,
such as the torus.

Definition.
• The straight line segment between p ∈ R2 and q ∈ R2 is the set {p+λ(q−p) : straight line
0 ≤ λ ≤ 1}. segment

• A homeomorphism is a continuous function that has a continuous inverse homeomorphism

function.
• Two sets A ∈ R2 and B ∈ R2 are said to be homeomorphic if there is a homeomorphic
homeomorphism f : A → B.
• A polygon is a union of finitely many line segments that is homeomorphic polygon
to the circle S 1 := {x ∈ R2 : kxk = 1}.
• An arc is a subset of R2 which is the union of finitely many straight line arc
segments and is homeomorphic to the closed unit interval [0, 1]. The images
of 0 and 1 under such a homeomorphism are the endpoints of the arc . If P endpoint of arc
is an arc with endpoints p and q, then P links them and runs between them.
The set P \ {p, q} is the interior of P , denoted by P̊ . interior of arc
2
• Let O ⊆ R be an open set. Being linked by an arc in O is an equivalence
relation on O. The corresponding equivalence classes are the regions of O. region
A closed set X ⊆ R2 is said to separate O if O \ X has more regions than separate
O. The frontier of a set X ⊆ R2 is the set Y of all points y ∈ R2 such frontier
that every neighbourhood of y meets both X and R2 \ X. Note that if X is
closed, its frontier lies in X, while if X is open, its frontier lies in R2 \ X.
• A plane graph is a pair (V, E) of finite sets with the following properties plane graph
(the elements of V are again called vertices, those in E edges):
1. V ⊆ R2 ;
2. every e ∈ E is an arc between two vertices;
3. different edges have different sets of endpoints;
4. the interior of an edge contains no vertex and no point of any other
edge.

A plane graph (V, E) defines a graph G on V in a natural way. As long as

no confusion can arise, we shall use the name G of this abstract graph also

20
 S
for the plane graph (V, E), or for the point set V ∪ E.
2
• For any plane graph G, the set R \ G is open; its regions are the faces of G. faces, F (G)
• The face of G corresponding to the unbounded region is the outer face of G; outer face
the other faces are its inner faces . The set of all faces is denoted by F (G). inner face
• The subgraph of G whose point set is the frontier of a face f is said to bound
f and is called its boundary ; we denote it by G[f ]. boundary of f ,
G[f ]
• Let G be a plane graph. If one cannot add an edge to form a plane graph
G0 ) G with V (G0 ) = V (G), then G is called maximally plane . If every face maximally plane
in F (G) (including the outer face) is bounded by a triangle in G, then G is
called a plane triangulation . triangulation
• A planar embedding of an abstract graph G = (V, E) is an isomorphism planar embedding
between G and a plane graph G0 . The latter is called a drawing of G. We
shall not distinguish notational between the vertices of G and G0 . A graph
G = (V, E) is planar if it has a planar embedding. planar graph

• A graph G = (V, E) is outerplanar if it has a plane embedding such that outerplanar graph
the boundary of the outer face contains all of the vertices V .

Theorem 31 (Fáry’s Theorem). Every planar graph has a plane embedding with
straight line segments as edges.
Lemma 32 (Jordan Curve Theorem for Polygons, 4.1.1). Let P ⊆ R2 be a polygon.
Then R2 \ P has exactly two regions. One of the regions is unbounded, the other is
bounded. Each of the two regions has P as frontier.

Lemma 33. Let P1 , P2 and P3 be internally disjoint arcs that have the same end-
points. Then
1. R2 \ (P1 ∪ P2 ∪ P3 ) has exactly three regions with boundaries P1 ∪ P2 , P1 ∪ P3
and P2 ∪ P3 , respectively.
2. Let P be an arc from the interior of P1 to the interior of P3 whose interior lies
in the region of R2 \ (P1 ∪ P3 ) containing the interior of P2 . Then P contains a
points of P2 .

21
 P1 P3
P2

Lemma 34. Let G be a plane graph and e be an edge of G. Then the following hold.
• The frontier X of a face of G either contains e or is disjoint from the interior
of e.
• If e is on a cycle in G, then e is on the frontier of exactly two faces.
• If e is on no cycle in G, then e is on the frontier of exactly one face.
Lemma 35. A plane graph is maximally plane if and only if it is a triangulation.

Theorem 36 (Euler’s Formula, 4.2.9). Let G be a connected plane graph with

v vertices, e edges and f faces. Then

v − e + f = 2.

Corollary 37. Let G = (V, E) be a plane graph. Then

• |E| ≤ 3|V | − 6 with equality exactly if G is a plane triangulation.
• |E| ≤ 2|V | − 4 if no face in F (G) is bounded by a triangle.

Lemma 38 (Pick’s Formula). Let P be a polygon with corners on the grid Z2 , let A
be its area, I be the number of grid points strictly inside of P and B be the number
of grid points on the boundary of P . Then A = I + B/2 − 1.

Definition. Let G and X be two graphs.

• We say that G is an M X , denoted by G = M X, if V (G) can be partitioned M X, G = M X
as {Vx | x ∈ V (X)} such that G[Vx ] is connected for every x ∈ V (X) and
there is an Vx –Vy edge in G if and only if xy ∈ E(X).
• We say that X is a minor of G if H = M X for some subgraph H of G. minor, X 4 G

G
G X
X

G = MX G = MX

Alternatively, X is a minor of G if and only if X can be obtained from G

by successive vertex deletions, edge deletions and edge contractions.

22
 G = MX

X
• The graph G is a single-edge subdivision of X if V (G) = V (X) ∪ {v} subdivision
and E(G) = E(X) − xy + xv + vy for some edge xy ∈ E(X) and v 6∈ V (X).
We say that G is a T X , denoted by G = T X, if G can be obtained from X T X, G = T X
by a series of single-edge subdivisions.
• We say that X is a topological minor of G, if H = T X for some subgraph topological minor
H of G.

X
G G = TX
G = TK4

Theorem 39 (Kuratowski’s Theorem, 4.4.6). A graph is planar if and only if it

does not have K5 or K3,3 as topological minors.

Definition.
• Let X be a set and ≤ ⊆ X 2 be a relation on X, i.e., ≤ is a subset of all
ordered pairs of elements in X. Then ≤ is a partial order if it is reflexive, partial order
antisymmetric and transitive. A partial order is total if x ≤ y or y ≤ x for total order
every x, y ∈ X.
• Let ≤ be a partial order on a set X. The pair (X, ≤) is called a poset poset
(partially ordered set). If ≤ is clear from context, the set X itself is called
a poset. The poset dimension of (X, ≤) is the smallest number d such that poset dimension,
there are total orders R1 , . . . , Rd on X with ≤ = R1 ∩ · · · ∩ Rd . dim(X, ≤)
x y
dim( ) = 1, dim( x y ) = 2 since x y = y ∩ x
• The incidence poset (V ∪ E, ≤) on a graph G = (V, E) is given by v ≤ e if incidence poset
and only if e is incident to v for all v ∈ V and e ∈ E.
v2
e2 e1 e2 e3
e1
v3
v1
e3
v4 v1 v2 v3 v4

Theorem 40 (Schnyder). Let G be a graph and P be its incidence poset. Then G is

planar if and only if dim(P ) ≤ 3.

23
 Theorem 41 (5-Color Theorem, 5.1.2). Every planar graph is 5-colorable.
The more well-known 4-coloring theorem is much harder to prove. Interestingly, it
is one of the first theorems that has been proved using computer assistance. The
computer-generated proof uses an enormous case distinction. Some mathematicians
have philosophical problems with this approach since the resulting proof cannot be
easily verified by humans. A shorter proof is still outstanding.
Theorem 42 (4-Color Theorem, 5.1.1). Every planar graph is 4-colorable.

Definition.
• Let L(v) ⊆ N be a list of colors for each vertex v ∈ V . We say that G
is L-list-colorable if there is coloring c : V → N such that c(v) ∈ L(v) for L-list-colorable
each v ∈ V and adjacent vertices receive different colors.
• Let k ∈ N. We say that G is k-list-colorable or k-choosable if G is L-list- k-list-colorable
colorable for each list L with |L(v)| = k for all v ∈ V .
• The choosability , denoted by ch(G), is the smallest k such that G is k- choosability,
choosable. ch(G)

• The edge choosability , denoted by ch0 (G), is defined analogously. edge choosability,
ch0 (G)
Theorem 43 (Thomassen’s 5-List Color Theorem, 5.4.2). Every planar graph is 5-
choosable.

24
7 Colorings
Lemma 44 (Greedy estimate for the chromatic number).
Let G be a graph. Then χ(G) ≤ ∆(G) + 1.

Theorem 45 (Brook’s Theorem, 5.2.4). Let G be a connected graph.

Then χ(G) ≤ ∆(G) unless G is a complete graph or an odd cycle.

Definition.
• The clique number ω(G) of G is the largest order of a clique in G. clique number,
ω(G)
• The co-clique number α(G) of G is the largest order of an independent set co-clique number,
in G. α(G)

• A graph G is called perfect if χ(H) = ω(H) for each induced subgraph H perfect graph
of G. For example, bipartite graphs are perfect with χ = ω = 2.

Lemma 46 (Small Coloring Results).

• χ(G) ≥ max{ω(G), n/α(G)} since each color class is an empty induced subgraph
and χ(Kk ) = k.

p
• kGk ≥ χ(G)
2 ⇔ χ(G) ≤ 1/2 + 2kGk + 1/4 since there must be at least one
edge between any two color classes.
• The chromatic number χ(G) of G is at most one more than the length of a
longest directed path in any orientation of G.
Theorem 47 (Lovász’ Perfect Graph Theorem, 5.5.4). A graph G is perfect if and
only if its complement G is perfect.
Theorem 48 (Strong Perfect Graph Theorem, Chudnovsky, Robertson, Seymour &
Thomas, 5.5.3). A graph G is perfect if and only if it does not contain an odd cycle
on at least 5 vertices (an odd hole) or the complement of an odd hole as an induced
subgraph.

Definition. For an integer k ≥ 1 we define k-constructible graphs recursively as k-constructible

follows:
• Kk is k-constructible.
• If G is k-constructible and x, y ∈ V (G) are non-adjacent, then also (G + xy)/xy
is k-constructible.
• If G1 , G2 are k-constructible and there are vertices x, y1 , y2 such that G1 ∩ G2 =
{x}, xy1 ∈ E(G1 ) and xy2 ∈ E(G2 ), then also (G1 ∪ G2 ) − xy1 − xy2 + y1 y2 is
k-constructible.
Theorem 49 (Hajós Theorem, 5.2.6). Let G be a graph and k ≥ 1 be an integer.
Then χ(G) ≥ k if and only if G has a k-constructible subgraph.

25
Example (Mycielski’s Construction).

We can construct a family Gk = (Vk , Ek ) k∈N of triangle-free graphs with χ(Gk ) = k
as follows:
• G1 is the single-vertex graph, G2 is the single-edge graph, i.e., G1 = K1 and
G2 = K2 .


• Vk+1 := Vk ∪ U ∪ {w} where Vk ∩ U ∪ {w} = ∅, Vk = {v1 , . . . , vn } and
U = {u1 , . . . , un }.
 Sn 
• Ek+1 := Ek ∪ wui : i = 1, . . . , k ∪ i=1 ui v : v ∈ NGk (vi ) .

G1 G2 G3

Example (Tutte’s Construction). We can construct a family (Gk )k∈N of triangle-free

graphs with χ(Gk ) = k as follows: G1 is the single-vertex graph. To get from Gk
|U |


to Gk+1 , take an independent set U of size k(|Gk | − 1) + 1 and |G k|
vertex-disjoint
copies of Gk . For each subset of size |Gk | in U then introduce a perfect matching to
exactly one of the copies of Gk .

(32) · G2
G1 G2 G3
U

Theorem 50 (König’s Theorem, 5.3.1).

Let G be a bipartite graph. Then χ0 (G) = ∆(G).

Theorem 51 (Vizing’s Theorem, 5.3.2).

Let G be a graph. Then χ0 (G) ∈ {∆(G), ∆(G) + 1}.

Lemma 52. We have ch(Kn,n ) ≥ c · log(n) for some constant c > 0. In particular,
 
ch K(2k−1),(2k−1) ≥ c · k.
k k

Theorem 53 (Galvin’s Theorem, 5.4.4).

Let G be a bipartite graph. Then ch0 (G) = χ0 (G).

26
8 Extremal graph theory
In this section c, c1 , c2 , . . . always denote unspecified constants in R>0 .

Definition.
• Let n be a positive integer and H a graph. By ex(n, H) we denote the ex(n, H)
maximum size of a graph of order n that does not contain H as a subgraph;
EX(n, H) is the set of such graphs. EX(n, H)
• Let n and r be integers with 1 ≤ r ≤ n. The Turán graph T (n, r) is the Turán graph,
unique complete r-partite graph of order n whose partite sets differ by at T (n, r)
most 1 in size. It does not contain Kr+1 . We denote kT (n, r)k by t(n, r). t(n, r)

T (5, 2) T (6, 2) T (7, 3)

• In the special case that n = r · s, for positive integers n, r, s with 1 ≤ r ≤ n,

the Turán graph T (n, r) is also denoted by Krs . Krs

Example.
• ex(n, K2 ) = 0, EX(n, K2 ) = {En }
• ex(n, P3 ) = bn/2c, EX(n, P3 ) = {bnc · K2 + (n mod 2) · E1 }

H= EX (n, H ) ...

Lemma 54 (On Turán Graphs).

• Among all r-partite graphs on n vertices the Turán graph T (n, r) has the largest
number of edges.
• We have the recursion
 
r
t(n, r) = t(n − r, r) + (n − r)(r − 1) + .
2

• A Turán graph lacks a ratio of 1/r of the edges of a complete graph:

 
t(n, r) 1
lim n

= 1− .
n→∞
2
r

Theorem 55 (Turán’s Theorem, 7.1.1). For all integers r > 1 and n ≥ 1, any
graph G with n vertices, ex(n, Kr ) edges and Kr 6⊆ G is a Tr−1 (n).
In other words EX(n, Kr ) = {T (n, r − 1)}.

27
 Definition. Let X, Y ⊆ V (G) be disjoint vertex sets and  > 0.
• We define kX, Y k to be the number of edges between X and Y and the
density d(X, Y ) of (X, Y) to be density, d(X, Y )

kX, Y k
d(X, Y ) := .
|X||Y |

• For  > 0 the pair (X, Y ) is an -regular pair if we have |d(X, Y )−d(A, B)| ≤ -regular pair
 for all A ⊆ X, B ⊆ Y with |A| ≥ |X| and |B| ≥ |Y |.

X A B Y

• An -regular partition of the graph G = (V, E) is a partition of the vertex -regular partition
˙ 1 ∪˙ · · · ∪V
set V = V0 ∪V ˙ k with the following properties:
1. |V0 | ≤ |V |
2. |V1 | = |V2 | = · · · = |Vk |
3. All but at most k 2 of the pairs (Vi , Vj ) for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ k are -regular.

V0
Vi
Vk

Vj

Theorem 56 (Szemerédi’s Regularity Lemma, 7.4.1). For any  > 0 and any
integer m ≥ 1 there is an M ∈ N such that every graph of order at least m has
an -regular partition V0 ∪˙ · · · ∪V
˙ k with m ≤ k ≤ M .

Theorem 57 (Erdős-Stone Theorem, 7.1.2). For all integers r > s ≥ 1 and

any  > 0 there exists an integer n0 such that every graph with n ≥ n0 vertices
and at least
tr−1 (n) + n2
edges contains Krs as a subgraph.

n


Corollary 58. Erdős-Stone together with limn→∞ t(n, r)/ 2 = 1 − 1/r yields an

28
asymptotic formula for the extremal number of any graph H on at least one edge:
ex(n, H) χ(H) − 2
lim n

=
n→∞
2
χ(H) − 1

n


For example, ex(n, ) ' 2/3 · 2 since χ( ) = 4.

Chvátal and Szemerédi proved a more quantitative version of the Erdős-Stone theorem.
Theorem 59 (Chvátal-Szemerédi Theorem). For any 
>
0 and any integer r ≥ 3,
any graph on n vertices and at least 1 − 1/(r − 1) +  n2 edges contains Krt as a
subgraph. Here t is given by
log n
t= .
500 · log(1/)



Furthermore, there is a graph G on n vertices and 1 − (1 + )/(r − 1) n2 edges that
does not contain Krt for
5 · log n
t= ,
log(1/)
i.e., the choice of t is asymptotically tight.

Definition. The Zarankiewicz function z(m, n; s, t) denotes the maximum num- Zarankiewicz,
ber of edges that a bipartite graph with parts of size m and n can have without z(m, n; s, t)
containing Ks,t .

m s X
forbidden
n t Y

Theorem 60 (Kővári-Sós-Turán Theorem).

We have the upper bound
z(m, n; s, t) ≤ (s − 1)1/t (n − t + 1)m1−1/t + (t − 1)m
for the Zarankiewicz function. In particular,
z(n, n; t, t) ≤ c1 · n · n1−1/t + c2 · n = O(n2−1/t )
for m = n and t = s.
Corollary 61.
For t ≥ s ≥ 1 we can bound the extremal number of Kt,s using the Kővári-Sós-Turán
theorem
1
ex(n, Kt,s ) ≤ · z(n, n; s, t) ≤ cn2−1/s .
2

29
For t = s = 2 this bound yields
n √
ex(n, C4 ) ≤ (1 + 4n − 3).
4
This bound is actually tight, i.e., ex(n, C4 ) = 1/2 · n3/2 · (1 + o(1)).
Lemma 62. ex(n, Kr,r ) ≥ cn2−2/(r+1) for all n, r ∈ N.


Theorem 63. For all n ∈ N we have ex(n, Pk+1 ) ≤ n · (k − 1) /2.

Conjecture (Hadwiger Conjecture). Let r be a natural number and G be a graph.

Then χ(G) ≥ r implies M Kr ⊆ G.
For r ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4} this is easy to see. For r ∈ {5, 6} the conjecture has been proven
using the 4-color-theorem. It is still open for r ≥ 7.
Theorem 64 (Bollobás-Thomason 1998, 7.2.1). Every graph G of average degree at
least cr2 contains Kr as a topological minor.
Theorem 65 (7.2.4). Let G be a graph of minimum degree δ(G) ≥ d and girth g(G) ≥
8k + 3 for d, k ∈ N and d ≤ 3. Then G has a minor H of minimum degree δ(H) ≥
d(d − 1)k .
Theorem 66 (Thomassen’s Theorem, 7.2.5). For all r ∈ N there exists a function
f : N → N such that every graph of minimum degree at least 3 and girth at least f (r)
has a Kr minor.

Theorem 67 (Kühn-Osthus, 7.2.6). Let r ∈ N. Then there is a constant g ∈ N such

that we have T Kr ⊆ G for every graph G with δ(G) ≥ r − 1 and g(G) ≥ g.

30
9 Ramsey theory
In every 2-coloring in this section we use the colors red and blue.

Definition.
• In an edge-coloring of a graph, a set of edges is
– monochromatic if all edges have the same color, monochromatic
– rainbow if no two edges have the same color, rainbow
– lexical if two edges have the same color if and only if they have the lexical
same lower endpoint in some ordering of the vertices.
• Let k be a natural number. Then the Ramsey number R(k) ∈ N is the small- Ramsey, R(k)
est n such that every 2-edge-coloring of Kn contains a monochromatic Kk .

or

Color E(Kn ) in 2 colors.

• Let k and l be natural numbers. Then the asymmetric Ramsey num-
ber R(k, l) is the smallest n ∈ N such that every 2-edge-coloring of a Kn asymmetric
contains a red Kk or a blue Kl . Ramsey, R(k, l)

• Let G and H be graphs. Then the graph Ramsey number R(G, H) is the graph Ramsey,
smallest n ∈ N such that every 2-edge-coloring of Kn contains a red G or a R(G, H)
blue H.
• Let r, l1 , . . . , lk be natural numbers. Then the hypergraph Ramsey number

Rr (l1 , . . . , lk ) is the smallest n ∈ N such that for every k-coloring of [n]
r
hypergraph
there
is an i ∈ {1, . . . , k} and a V ⊆ [n] with |V | = li such that all sets Ramsey,
in Vr have color i. Rr (l1 , . . . , lk )

• Let G and H be graphs. Then the induced Ramsey number Rind (G, H) is induced Ramsey,
the smallest n ∈ N such that there is a graph F on n vertices every 2-coloring Rind (G, H)
of which contains a red G or a blue H.
• For n ∈ N and a graph H, the anti-Ramsey number AR(n, H) is the max- anti-Ramsey,
imum number of colors that an edge-coloring of Kn can have without con- AR(n, H)
taining a rainbow copy of H.

Lemma 68.
• R(3) = 6, i.e., every 2-edge-colored K6 contains a monochromatic K3 and there
is a 2-coloring of a K5 without monochromatic K3 ’s.

31
 • Clearly, R(2, k) = R(k, 2) = k.

√ k
Theorem 69 (Ramsey Theorem, 9.1.1). For any k ∈ N we have 2 ≤ R(k) ≤
4k . In particular, the Ramsey numbers, the asymmetric Ramsey numbers and
the graph Ramsey numbers are finite.

Theorem 70. For
any k, l ∈ N we have R(k, l) ≤ R(k − 1, l) + R(k, l − 1). This implies
R(k, l) ≤ k+l−2
k−1 by induction.


Lemma 71. For any r, p, q ∈ N we have Rr (p, q) ≤ Rr−1 Rr (p−1, q), Rr (p, q −1) +1.
Lemma 72. We have c1 · 2k ≤ R2 (3, . . . , 3) ≤ c2 · k! for some constants c1 , c2 > 0.
| {z }
k

Applications of Ramsey theory

Theorem 73 (Erdős-Szekeres). Any sequence of (r−1)(s−1)+1 distinct real numbers
contains an increasing subsequence of length r or a decreasing subsequence of length s.
Theorem 74 (Erdős-Szekeres). For any m ∈ N there is an N ∈ N such that every
set of at least N points in general position in R2 contains the vertex set of a convex
m-gon.
Theorem 75 (Schur). Let c : N → [r] be a coloring of the natural numbers with r ∈ N
colors. Then there are x, y, z ∈ N of the same color with x + y = z.

Definition. Let r ∈ N and A ∈ Zn×k .

• Matrix A is said to be r-regular if there is a monochromatic solution of r-regular matrix
Ax = 0 for any r-coloring c : N → [r] of N.
• Matrix A fulfils the column condition if there is a partition ˙ ˙
P C1 ∪ · · · ∪Cl of
column condition
the columns of A such that the following holds: Let si := c∈Ci c for i ∈ [l]
be the sum of columns in Ci . Then s1 = 0 and every si for i ∈ {2, . . . , l} is
a linear combination of the columns in C1 ∪˙ . . . ∪C
˙ i−1 .
For example, 2x1 + x2 + x3 − 4x4 fulfils the column condition since 2 + 1 +
32
 1 − 4 = 0.

Theorem 76 (Rado). Let A ∈ Zn×k . If A fulfils the column condition, then A is

r-regular for every r ∈ N.
Lemma 77. For any s, t ∈ N with s ≥ t ≥ 1 we have R(sK2 , tK2 ) = 2s + t − 1.

t−1
2s − 1

Lemma 78. For any s, t ∈ N with s ≥ t ≥ 1 and s ≥ 2 we have R(sK3 , tK3 ) = 3s+2t.
Theorem


(Chvátal, Harary). Let G and H be graphs. Then R(G, H) ≥ χ(G) −
79
1 c(H) − 1 + 1 where c(H) is the order of the largest component of H.

Kc(h)−1
χ( G ) − 1

Theorem 80 (Induced Ramsey Theorem, Deuber, Erdős, Hajnal & Pósa, 9.3.1).
We have that Rind (G, H) is finite for all graphs G and H.
Theorem 81 (Canonical Ramsey Theorem, Erdős-Rado 1950). For all k ∈ N there
is an n ∈ N such that any edge coloring of Kn with arbitrarily many colors contains a
Kk that is monochromatic, rainbow or lexical.

Theorem 82 (Chvátal-Rödl-Szemerédi-Trotter, 9.2.2). For any positive inte-

ger ∆ there exists a c ∈ N such that for every graph H with ∆(H) = ∆ we
have R(H, H) ≤ c|V (H)|.

Corollary 83. For any n-vertex graph H with maximum degree 3 we have R(H, H)√ n≤
cn for some constant c > 0. This number grows much slower than R(Kn , Kn ) ≥ 2 .
Theorem 84 (Anti-Ramsey

Theorem,

Erdős-Simonvits-Sós).

For all n, r ∈ N we have
AR(n, Kr ) = n2 1 − 1/(r − 2) 1 − o(1) .

33
10 Flows

Definition. Let H be an Abelian semigroup, let G = (V, E) be a multigraph and

let Ẽ := {(x, y) : xy ∈ E}.
P
• For f : Ẽ → H and X, Y ⊆ V we define f (X, Y ) := (x,y)∈(X×Y )∩Ẽ f (x, y).
• A function f : Ẽ → H is a circulation on G if circulation
(C1 ) f (x, y) = −f (y, x) for all xy ∈ E and
(C2 ) f (v, V ) = 0 for all v ∈ V .
x1 x1
1 1 1 −1
x4 x2 x4 x2
1 1 1 1
x3 x3

• If H is an Abelian group, then a circulation f is also called an H-flow on G. H-flow

If f (x, y) 6= 0 for all xy ∈ E, then f is a nowhere-zero flow . nowhere-zero

1 −7

3 1

A nowhere-zero Z2 -flow.
• For k ∈ N a k-flow is a Z-flow f such that 0 < |f (x, y)| < k for all xy ∈ E. k-flow
The flow number ϕ(G) of G is the smallest k such that G has a k-flow. flow number,
ϕ(G)
• Let s ∈ V and t ∈ V be two distinct vertices, c : Ẽ → Z≥0 be a function
on Ẽ with non-negative integer values. Then the tuple (G, s, t, c) is called
a network with source s, sink t and capacity function c. network, source,
sink, capacity,
• A network flow is a function f : Ẽ → R with the following properties for network flow
all x, y ∈ V :
(F1 ) f (x, y) = −f (y, x)
(F2 ) f (x, V ) = 0 if x 6∈ {s, t}
(F3 ) f (x, y) ≤ c(x, y)

34
 x1
f =2 f =2
2 5

s f =0 1 t

7 3
f =3 f =3
x2

For any S ⊆ V with s ∈ S and t 6∈ S the pair (S, V \ S) is called a cut . Its cut
capacity is c(S, V \ S).
The value f (s, V ) is also called the value of f and is denoted by |f |. value, |f |

Lemma 85.
• For any circulation f and X ⊆ V we have f (X, X) = 0, f (X, V ) = 0 and
f (X, V \ X) = 0
• For any network flow f and cut (S, S̄) we have f (S, S̄) = f (s, V ).

Theorem 86 (Ford-Fulkerson Theorem, 6.2.2). In any network the maximum

value of a flow is the same as the minimum capacity of a cut and there is an
integral flow f : Ẽ → Z≥0 with this maximum flow value.

Theorem 87 (Tutte, 6.3.1). For every multigraph G there is a polynomial P ∈

Z[X] such that for
any finite Abelian group H the number of nowhere-zero H-flows
on G is P |H| − 1 .

Corollary 88. If an H-flow on G exists for some finite Abelian group H, then there
is also an H̃-flow on G for all finite Abelian groups H̃ with |H̃| = |H|. For example,
if a Z4 -flow exists, then a Z2 × Z2 -flow also exists.

Theorem 89 (Tutte, 6.3.3). A multigraph admits a k-flow if and only if it admits a

Zk -flow.
Theorem 90 (Tutte, 6.5.3). For a planar graph G and its dual G∗ we have χ(G) =
ϕ(G∗ ).

Lemma 91. A graph has a 2-flow if and only if all of its degrees are even.
Lemma 92. A cubic (3-regular) graph has a 3-flow if and only if it is bipartite.
Conjecture (Tutte’s 5-Flow Conjecture). Every bridgeless multigraph has flow num-
ber at most 5.

Theorem 93 (Seymour, 6.6.1). Every bridgeless graph has flow number at most 6.

35
11 Random graphs
In this section we deal with randomly chosen graphs. We will often use the “prob-
abilistic method”, a proof method for showing existence: By proving that an object
with some desired properties can be chosen randomly (in some probability space) with
non-zero probability, we also show that such an object exists.

Definition.
• G(n, p) is the probability space on all n-vertex graphs that

results from
independently deciding whether to include each of the n2 possible edges
with fixed probability p ∈ [0, 1]. This model is called the Erdős-Rényi
model of random graphs. Erdős-Rényi
• A property P is a set of graphs, e.g. P = {G : G is k-connected}. property

Let (pn ) ∈ [0, 1]N be a sequence. We
say that G ∈ G(n, pn ) almost always almost always
has property P if Prob G ∈ G(n, pn ∩ P) → 1 for n → ∞. If (pn ) is
constant p, we also say in this case that almost all graphs in G(n, p) have
property P.
• A function f (n) : N → [0, 1] is a threshold function for property P if: threshold function
n→∞
– For all (pn ) ∈ [0, 1]N with pn /f (n) −→ 0 the graph G ∈ G(n, pn )
almost always does not have property P.
n→∞
– For all (pn ) ∈ [0, 1]N with pn /f (n) −→ ∞ the graph G ∈ G(n, pn )
almost always has property P.
Note that not all properties P have a threshold function.

Lemma 94.
• For a given graph G on n vertices and m edges we have

n
Prob G = G(n, p) = pm (1 − p)( 2 )−m .

• For all integers n ≥ k ≥ 2 we have

 

n k
Prob G ∈ G(n, p), α(G) ≥ k ≤ (1 − p)(2)
k

and
 

n (k2)
Prob G ∈ G(n, p), ω(G) ≥ k ≤ p .
k

36
 Theorem 95 (Erdős, 11.1.3). Erdős proved the lower bound R(k, k) ≥ 2k/2 on
Ramsey numbers by applying the probabilistic method to the Erdős-Rényi model.

Lemma 96 (11.1.5). We have

nk k
Exp #k-cycles in G ∈ G(n, p) = ·p
2k
where nk = n · (n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1).

Theorem 97 (Erdős, 11.2.2). For any k ∈ N there is a graph H with g(H) ≥ k

and χ(H) ≥ k.
Lemma 98 (11.3.1). For all p ∈ (0, 1) and any graph H almost all graphs in G(n, p)
contain H as an induced subgraph.

Lemma 99 (11.3.4). For all p ∈ (0, 1) and  > 0 almost all graphs G in G(n, p) fulfil


log 1/(1 − p) n
χ(G) > · .
2+ log n

Remark. Asymptotic behaviour of G(n, p) for some properties:

√
• pn = 2/n2 ⇒ G almost always has a component with > 2 vertices
• pn = 1/n ⇒ G almost always has a cycle
• pn = log n/n ⇒ G is almost always connected
• pn = (1 + ) log n/n ⇒ G almost always has a Hamiltonian cycle
• pn = n−2/(k−1) is the threshold function for containing Kk

Lemma 100 (Lovász Local Lemma). Let A1 , . . . , An be events in some proba-

bilistic space. If Prob(Ai ) ≤ p ∈ (0, 1), each Ai is mutually independent from all
but at most d ∈ N Ai s and ep(d + 1) ≤ 1, then
n
!
^
Prob Ai > 0.
i=1

Lemma 101. Van-der-Waerden’s number W (k) is the smallest n such that any 2-
coloring of [n] contains a monochromatic arithmetic progression of length k. We can
prove W (k) ≥ 2k−1 /(ek 2 ) with the Lovász Local Lemma.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

37
12 Hamiltonian cycles

Lemma 102 (Necessary condition for the existence of a Hamiltonian cycle). If

G has a Hamiltonian cycle, then for every non-empty S ⊆ V the graph G − S
cannot have more than |S| components.

Non-hamiltonian graph.

Theorem 103 (Dirac, 10.1.1). Every graph with n ≥ 3 vertices and minimum
degree at least n/2 has a Hamiltonian cycle.

δ = n/2 − 1
Kn Kn
2 2

Theorem 104. Every graph on n ≥ 3 vertices with α(G) ≤ κ(G) is Hamiltonian.

Theorem 105 (Tutte, 10.1.4). Every 4-connected planar graph is Hamiltonian.
Definition. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. The square of G, denoted by G2 , is the graph square, G2
G2 := (V, E 0 ) with E 0 := {uv : u, v ∈ V, dG (u, v) ≤ 2}.

Theorem 106 (Fleischner’s Theorem, 10.3.1). If G is 2-connected, then G2 is Hamil-

tonian.

Theorem 107 (Chvátal, 10.2.1). Let 0 ≤ a1 ≤ · · · ≤ an < n be an integer

sequence with n ≥ 3. A graph with the degree sequence a1 , . . . , an is Hamiltonian
if and only if ai ≤ i implies an−i ≥ n − i for all i < n/2.

38
References
[1] Béla Bollobás. Modern Graph Theory. Graduate texts in mathematics. Springer,
Heidelberg, 1998.
[2] John Adrian Bondy and Uppaluri S. R. Murty. Graph Theory with Applications.
Elsevier, New York, 1976.
[3] Gary Chartrand and Linda Lesniak. Graphs & Digraphs. Wadsworth Publ. Co.,
Belmont, CA, USA, 1986.
[4] Reinhard Diestel. Graph Theory, 4th Edition. Graduate texts in mathematics.
Springer, 2012.
[5] Lásló Lovász. Combinatorial Problems and Exercises. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1979.
[6] Douglas B. West. Introduction to Graph Theory. Prentice Hall, 2 edition, Septem-
ber 2000.

39
Index
=, see isomorphic |G|, see order
A-B-path, 9 |f |, see value
AR(n, H), see anti-Ramsey α(G), see co-clique number
Cn , see cycle ch0 (G), see edge choosability
En , see empty graph ch(G), see choosability
F (G), see faces χ0 (G), see chromatic index
G = M X, see M X χ(G), see chromatic number
G ∩ G0 , 10 deg(v), see degree
G ∪ G0 , 10 δ(G), see minimum degree
G, see graph diam(G), see diameter
G + F , 10 `-edge-connected, 16
G − F , 10 -regular pair, 28
G − U , 10 -regular partition, 28
G = T X, see T X ex(n, H), 27
G[X], see induced subgraph κ0 (G), see edge-connectivity
G[f ], see boundary of f κ(G), see connectivity
G ◦ e, 10 λ(G), see edge-connectivity
G2 , see square ν(G), see matching
H-factor, 14 ω(G), see clique number
H-flow, 34 G, see complement
H-path, 18 dim(X, ≤), see poset dimension
K(n, k), see Kneser graph rad(G), see radius
Krs , 27 ', see isomorphic
Kn , see complete graph ⊆, see subgraph
Km,n , see complete bipartite graph ⊇, see supergraph
L-list-colorable, 24 τ (G), see vertex cover
M X, 22 ϕ(G), see flow number
N (v), see neighbourhood d-degenerate, 11
Pn , see path d(G), see average degree
Qn , see hypercube d(X, Y ), see density
R(G, H), see graph Ramsey d(u, v), see distance
R(k), see Ramsey d(v), see degree
R(k, l), see asymmetric Ramsey f -factor, 14
Rr (l1 , . . . , lk ), see hypergraph Ramsey g(G), see girth
Rind (G, H), see induced Ramsey k-connected, 16
T (G, f ), 14 k-constructible, 25
T (n, r), see Turán graph k-factor, 13
T X, 23 k-flow, 34
X 4 G, see minor k-linked, 16
∆(G), see maximum degree k-list-colorable, see k-list-colorable
EX(n, H), 27 r-regular matrix, 32
kGk, see size t(n, r), 27

40
z(m, n; s, t), see Zarankiewicz degeneracy, 11
degree, 7
acyclic, 9 degree sequence, 8
adjacency matrix, 7 density, 28
adjacent, 4 diameter, 11
almost always, 36 directed graph, 4
anti-Ramsey, 31 distance, 11
arc, 4, 20
asymmetric Ramsey, 31 ear, 18
average degree, 8 ear-decomposition, 18
edge, 4
bipartite, 9 edge choosability, 24
block, 19 edge-connectivity, 16
block leaf, 19 empty graph, 5
block-cut-vertex graph, 19 endpoint of arc, 20
boundary of f , 21 Erdős-Rényi, 36
bridge, see cut edge Eulerian tour, 10

capacity, 34 faces, 21
choosability, 24 factor, see k-factor
chromatic index, 12 flow number, 34
chromatic number, 12 forest, 9
circulation, 34 frontier, 20
circumference, 11
clique, 9 girth, 11
clique number, 25 graph, 4
closed walk, 9 graph Ramsey, 31
co-clique number, 25
column condition, 32 Hamiltonian, 11
complement, 11 homeomorphic, 20
complete r-partite, 6 homeomorphism, 20
complete bipartite graph, 5 hypercube, 6
complete graph, 5 hypergraph, 4
component, 9 hypergraph Ramsey, 31
connected, 9
incidence poset, 23
connected component, see component
incident, 4
connectivity, 16
independent paths, 9
contract, 10
independent set, 9
copy, 9
induced copy, see copy
cubic, 8
induced Ramsey, 31
cut, 35
induced subgraph, 8
cut edge, 16
inner face, 21
cut set, 16
interior of arc, 20
cut vertex, 16
isolated vertex, 8
cycle, 5
isomorphic, 4

41
Kneser graph, 6 region, 20
regular, 8
leaf, 8
lexical, 31 separate, 17, 20
line graph L(G), 17 sink, 34
size, 7
matching, 13 source, 34
maximal, 9 spanning subgraph, 9
maximally plane, 21 square, 38
maximum degree, 8 straight line segment, 20
minimal, 9 subdivision, 23
minimum degree, 8 subgraph, 8
minor, 22 supergraph, 8
monochromatic, 31
multigraph, 4 threshold function, 36
topological minor, 23
neighbour, 7 total order, 23
neighbourhood, 7 traceable, 11
network, 34 tree, 9
network flow, 34 triangle, 5
non-trivial, 7 triangulation, 21
nowhere-zero, 34 Turán graph, 27
order, 7 unlabeled graph, 5
outer face, 21
outerplanar graph, 21 value, 35
vertex, 4
partial order, 23 vertex cover, 13
partite sets, 9
path, 5 walk, 9
perfect graph, 25
perfect matching, 13 Zarankiewicz, 29
Petersen graph, 6
planar embedding, 21
planar graph, 21
plane graph, 20
polygon, 20
poset, 23
poset dimension, 23
proper edge colouring, 12
proper vertex colouring, 12
property, 36

radius, 11
rainbow, 31
Ramsey, 31

42