ENERGY AND FIRE SAFETY NOTES

LIGTHING ARRESTERS

 A lightning arrester (alternative spelling lightning arrestor) (also called lightning diverter)
is a device used on electric power systems and telecommunication systems to protect
the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The
typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a
lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to
the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrester, in most cases to
earth.
 Smaller versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are
connected between each electrical conductor in power and communications systems and
the Earth. These prevent the flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but
provide a path over which high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected
equipment. Their purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power
line is struck by lightning or is near to a lightning strike.
 If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces
thousands of kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe
damage to transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced
extreme voltage spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances
or even produce death [citation needed].
 The lightning arrester protects the electrical equipment from lightning. It is placed very
near to the equipment and when the lightning occurs the arrester diverts the high voltage
wave of lightning to the ground. The selection of arrester depends on the various factors
like voltage, current, reliability, etc. The lightning arrestor is mainly classified into twelve
types. These types are:
 Road Gap Arrester
• Sphere Gap Arrester
• Horn Gap Arrester
• Multiple-Gap Arrester
• Impulse Protective Gap
• Electrolytic Arrester
• Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester
• Valve Type Lightning Arresters
• Thyrite Lightning Arrester
• Auto valve Arrester
• Oxide Film Arrester
• Metal Oxide Lightning Arresters

• Rod Gap Arrester:

• It is one of the simplest forms of the arrester. In such type of arrester, there is an air gap
between the ends of two rods. The one end of the arrester is connected to the line and the
second end of the rod is connected to the ground. The gap setting of the arrester should be
such that it should break before the damage. When the high voltage occurs on the line,
the gap sparks and the fault current passes to the earth. Hence the equipment is protected
from damage.
• The difficulty with the rod arrester is that once the spark having taken place it may
continue for some time even at low voltages. To avoid it a current limiting reactor in
series with the rod is used. The resistance limits the current to such an extent that it is
sufficient to maintain the arc. Another difficulty with the road gap is that the rod gap is
liable to be damaged due to the high temperature of the arc which may cause the rod to
melt.

• Sphere Gap Arrester:

• In such type of devices, the air gap is provided between two different spheres. One of the
spheres is connected to the line, and the other sphere is connected to the ground. The spacing
between the two spheres is very small. A choking coil is inserted between the phase winding
of the transformer and spheres is connected to the line.
• The air gap between the arrester is set in such a way so that the discharge must not take
place at normal operating condition.The arc will travel up the sphere as the heated air near
the arc tend to rise upward and lengthening till it is interrupted automatically.

• Horn Gap Arrester:

• It consists of two horns shaded piece of metal separated by a small air gap and connected
in shunt between each conductor and earth. The distance between the two electrodes is
such that the normal voltage between the line and earth is insufficient to jump the gap.
But the abnormal high voltage will break the gap and so find a path to earth.

• Multiple- Gap Arrester:

• The multiple gap arrester consists a series of small metal cylinder insulated from one
another and separated by an air gap. The first and the last of the series is connected to
ground. The number of gaps required depends on the line voltage.
• Impulse Protective Gap:
• The protective impulse gap is designed to have a low voltage impulse ratio, even less
than one and to extinguish the arc. Their working principle is very simple as shown in the
figure below. It consists of two sphere electrode S1 and S2 which are connected
respectively to the line and the arrester.
• The auxiliary needle is placed between the mid of two sphere S1 and S2. At normal
frequency, the impedance of the capacitance C1 is quite large as compared to the
impedance of resistor R. If C1 and C2 are equal the potential of the auxiliary electrode
will be midway between those of the S1 and S2 and the electrode has no effect on the
flash over between them.
• When the transient occurs the impedance of capacitor C1 and C2 decrease and the
impedance of the resistor now become effective. Due to this, the whole of the voltage is
concentrated across the gap between E and S1. The gap at once breakdown, the rest of the
length between E and S2 immediately follow.

• Electrolyte Arrester:
• In such type of arrester have high a large discharge capacity. It operates on the fact that
the thin film of aluminium hydroxide deposits on the aluminium plates immersed in the
electrolyte. The plate acts as a high resistance to a low value but a low resistance to a
voltage above a critical value.
• Voltage more than 400 volts causes a puncture and a free flow of current to earth. When
the voltage remains its normal value of 440 volts, the arrester again offers a high
resistance in the path and leakage stops.
• Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester:
• Expulsion type arrester is an improvement over the rod gap in that it seals the flow of
power frequency follows the current. This arrester consists of a tube made up of fibre
which is very effective, isolating spark gap and an interrupting spark gap inside the fibre
tube.
• During operation, the arc due to the impulse spark over inside the fibrous tube causes
some fibrous material of the tube to volatile in the form of the gas, which is expelled
through a vent from the bottom of the tube. Thus, extinguishing the arc just like in circuit
breakers.
• Valve Type Lightning Arrester:
• Such type of resistor is called nonlinear diverter. It essentially consists a divided spark
gap in series with a resistance element having the nonlinear characteristic.
• The divided spark gap consists of some identical elements coupled in series. Each of
them consists two electrodes with the pre-ionization device. Between each element, a
grading resistor of high ohmic value is connected in parallel.
• During the slow voltage variations, there is no sparks-over across the gap. But when the
rapid change in voltage occurs, the potential is no longer evenly graded across the series
gap. The influence of unbalancing capacitance between the sparks gaps and the ground
prevails over the grounded resistance. The impulse voltage is mainly concentrated on the
upper spark gap which in spark over cause the complete arrester to spark over to.

• Thyrite Lightning Arrester:

• Such type of arrester is most commonly used for the protection against dangerous high
voltage. It consists the thyrite which is an inorganic compound of ceramic material. The
resistance of such material decreases rapidly from high value to low value and for current
from a low value to high value.
• It consists a disc whose both the side is sprayed so as to give the electric contact between
the consecutive disc. The disc is assembled inside the glazed porcelain container. It is
used in conjunction with the container.
• When the lightning takes place, the voltage is raised, and breakdowns of the gaps occur,
the resistance falls to a very low value, and the wave is discharged to earth. After the
surge has passed the thyrite again come back to its original position.
• Autovalve Arrester:
• Such type of arrester consists some flat discs of a porous material stacked one above the
other and separated by the thin mica rings. The disc material is not homogenous and
conducting material also have been added. Therefore the glow discharge occurs in the
capillaries of the material and voltage drop to about 350 volts per unit. The discs are
arranged in such a way that normal voltage may not cause a discharge to occur.
• Oxide Film Arrester:
• It consists of pellets of lead peroxide with a thin, porous coating of litharge arranged in a
column and enclosed in a tube of diameter. Out of the two lead, the upper is connected to
the line, while the lower is connected to the earth. The tube contains a series spark gap.
• When an overvoltage occurs an arc passes through the series spark gap and an additional
voltage is applied to the pellet column and a discharge takes place. After the discharge,
the resistance of the pellet gun increases till only very small current flow through it. This
small current is finally interrupted by the series spark gaps.
• Metal Oxide Lightning Arrester:
• Such Types of diverter are also known as gapless surge diverters, or Zinc oxide diverter.
The base material used for manufacturing metal oxide resistor is zinc oxide. It is a
semiconducting N-type material. The material is doped by adding some fine power of
insulating oxides. The powder is treated with some processes and then it is compressed
into a disc-shaped. The disc is then enclosed in a porcelain housing filled with nitrogen
gas or SF6.
• This arrester consists a potential barrier at the boundaries of each disc of ZNO. This
potential barrier controls the flow of current. At normal operating condition, the potential
barrier does not allow the current to flow. When an overvoltage occurs, the barrier
collapse and sharp transition from insulating to conducting take place. The current start
flowing and the surge is diverted to ground.
 GRID STATIONS/ ELECTRIC GRIDS

• General layout of electricity networks. Voltages and depictions of electrical lines are
typical for Germany and other European systems.
• An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from producers
to consumers. It consists of
• Generating stations that produce electrical power
• high voltage transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand centers
• Distribution lines that connect individual customers.
• Power stations may be located near a fuel source, at a dam site (to take advantage of
renewable energy sources), and are often located away from heavily populated areas. The
electric power which is generated is stepped up to a higher voltage at which it connects to
the electric power transmission net.
• The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances, sometimes
across international boundaries, until it reaches its wholesale customer (usually the
company that owns the local electric power distribution network).
• On arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from a transmission level
voltage to a distribution level voltage. As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution
wiring. Finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again
from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage(s).
• Electrical grids vary in size from covering a single building through national grids which
cover whole countries, to transnational grids which can cross continents.
• Although electrical grids are wide spread, 1.4 billion people are not connected to an
electricity grid.
ELECTRIC GRID

• The electrical grid is the electrical power system network comprised of the generating
plant, the transmission lines, the substation, transformers, the distribution lines and the
consumer.
• Traditionally, electricity generation facilities have been developed in locations far from
consumption centres with the electric grid connecting the two
• The electrical grid is divided into three main components:
• GENERATION - There are two types of generation - centralized and decentralized.
Centralized generation refers to large-scale generation far from consumption. This
includes coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydro, wind farms and large solar arrays. The grid
connects centralized power to consumers. Decentralized generation occurs close to
consumption, for example rooftop solar.
• TRANSMISSION and DISTRIBUTION- Transmission includes transformers,
substations and power lines that transport electricity from where it is generated to points
of consumption. When electricity is at high voltages, transmission losses are minimized
over long distances and resistive transmission lines. Therefore, at the point of
 generation, substations contain transformers that step-up the voltage of electricity so that
it can be transmitted. Transmission is achieved via powerlines and can occur either
overhead or underground. When it arrives at points of consumption, another substation is
found to step-down the voltage for end-use consumption.
• CONSUMPTION - There are various types of consumers; namely industrial,
commercial and residential consumers. Each of these consumers has different needs but
in general electricity delivers important energy services like light and power for
appliances.
POLYPHASE CIRCUIT
• Polyphase supply systems have a number of advantages over single-phase systems
including the fact that, for a given amount of electrical power transmitted, the total power
loss is lower in the polyphase system; moreover, the total volume of conductor material
needed in the cable is less. For these and other reasons, power is transmitted across the
nation by a three-phase system. Another feature is that the torque produced by a single-
phase motor is pulsating rather than rotating; that is, an ideal single-phase motor has no
starting torque! In order to cause the rotor of a single-phase motor to begin to rotate, it is
necessary (at starting) to convert it to a two-phase motor. On the other hand, polyphase
motors produce a smooth torque, and their speed can be controlled using relatively
straightforward methods. Industry uses many other types of multi-phase system. For
example, many control systems use two-phase supplies to drive servomotors, and many
rectifier systems use a six-, twelve- or twentyfour-phase supply. In this chapter we shall
concentrate on three-phase systems. The US notation for phase markings has been
adopted, so that the phases in a three-phase system are called A, Band C rather than R, Y
and B, respectively.
• Three-phase generation :
• The usual method of producing a three-phase set of voltages is to have three separate, but
identical, windings on the rotor of an alternator , each winding being physically displaced
from the next winding by 120°. Since the windings are displaced in space by 120°, and
are moving through the same magnetic field system, the net result is three single-phase
voltages (referred to as the phase voltages) having an angular displacement of 120°
between them. Alternatively, the voltages can be produced electronically, the phase
displacement being controlled either by R-C circuits and operational amplifiers, or by
integrated circuits. While 3-phase voltage sources are widely used, the reader should note
that 3-phase current sources are very uncommon.
• Star-connection or Y -connection :
• Imagine an alternator with three separate windings with ends marked A and A', Band B',
and C and C', respectively having the time-varying voltage VAA, , VBB, and VCC'
induced in them, the respective waveform diagrams being shown in Figure
• Advantages of three phase system:
• Constant power
• Greater output
• Cheaper
• Power transmission economics
• Three phase rectifier service etc