EBT 2401: Energy Transmission and Storage

Transmission Line (continued)

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Line Support
• The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are various types of poles and towers
called line support.
In general, the line supports should have the following properties :
• High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors, insulators, and wind loads
etc.
• Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
• Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.
• Longer life,
• Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.

• The choice of supporting structure for a particular case depends upon the line span, X-sectional
area, line voltage, cost and local conditions.

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(Line Support) Structure types in use
Structures come in a wide variety of styles:
• Lattice towers (electricity pylon or simply a pylon)
• Cantilevered or guyed poles and masts
• Framed structures
• Combinations of the above

They are available in a wide variety of materials:

• Metal
• Galvanized steel and aluminum rods, bars, and rolled shapes
• Fabricated plate
• Tubes
• Concrete
• Spun with pre-tensioned or post-tensioned reinforcing cable
• Statically cast non tensioned reinforcing steel
• Single or multiple piece
• Wood
• As grown
• Glued laminar
• Plastics
• Composites
• Cross-arms and braces
• Variations of all of the above 3
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STEEL TOWERS
• Used for lines of 66kV and above.
• Very long life and high degree of reliability.
• Can withstand very severe weather conditions.
• Overhead HV, EHV and UHV lines mostly use self
supporting steel tow

• The alternating current (AC) transmission voltage

classes are usually classified into high voltage (HV),
extra-high voltage (EHV), and ultra-high voltage
(UHV). Internationally, HV usually refers to a nominal
voltage from 35 kV to 220 kV, EHV from 330 kV to
below 1000 kV, and UHV 1000 kV and above.

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During design of transmission tower the following points to be considered in mind,
•The minimum ground clearance of the lowest conductor point above the ground level.
•The length of the insulator string.
•The minimum clearance to be maintained between conductors and between conductor and
tower.
•The location of a ground wire with respect to outermost conductors.
•The mid-span clearance required from considerations of the dynamic behavior of the conductor
and lightning protection of the power line.

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WOODEN POLES
• Made of chemically treated wood.
• Used for distribution lines especially in areas where
good quality wood are available.
• Very economical but susceptible to decay.
• To protect from decay, poles have zinc or aluminum
cap at the top and Bitumen coating at the bottom

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RCC POLES
• Made of reinforced concrete cement.
• Stronger than wood poles but more costly.
• Very long life and need little maintenance.
• Bulky and heavy.
• Widely used for distribution lines up to 33kV.
• Can be manufactured at site
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• STEEL TUBULAR POLES
• Stepped pole manufactured from a single tube , the
diameter being reduced in parallel steps.
• More costly than RCC and wood poles.
• Have light weight , high strength to weight ratio and
long life.
• Widely used for lines upto33kV.

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Harmful effects of lightning
(i) The travelling waves produced due to lightning surges
will shatter the insulators and may even wreck poles.
(ii) While the normal voltage between the turns in
transformer is never enough to start an arc, once the
insulation has broken down and an arc has been started
by a momentary overvoltage, the line voltage is usually
sufficient to maintain the arc long enough to severely
damage the machine
(iii) If the arc is initiated in any part of the power system by
the lightning stroke, this arc will set up very disturbing
oscillations in the line. This may damage other equipment
connected to the line.

Protection
• Earth screen => equipment at substations
• Overhead ground wire => intercept lightning strokes,
grounded at every pole
• Lightning arrestors or surge diverter => conduct high
voltage surges to the ground

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Skin effect
• When a conductor is carrying steady direct current (d.c.), this current is uniformly distributed
over the whole X-section of the conductor.
• However, an alternating current flowing through the conductor does not distribute uniformly,
rather it has the tendency to concentrate near the surface of the conductor as shown in the
Figure.
• The tendency of alternating current to concentrate near the surface of a conductor is known as
skin effect.

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Skin effect
• Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross-section of the conductor through which current flows is
reduced. Consequently, the resistance of the conductor is slightly increased when carrying an
alternating current.
• The cause of skin effect can be easily explained:- A solid conductor may be thought to be consisting of a
large number of annular filamenst, each carrying a small part of the current. The inductance of each
strand will vary according to its position. Thus, the strands near the centre are surrounded by a greater
magnetic flux and hence have larger inductance than that near the surface. The high reactance of inner
strands causes the alternating current to flow near the surface of conductor. This crowding of current
near the conductor surface is the skin effect.
• The skin effect depends upon the following factors :
• Nature of material
• Diameter of wire − increases with the diameter of wire.
• Frequency − increases with the increase in frequency.
• Shape of wire − less for stranded conductor than the solid conductor.
• It may be noted that skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is low (< 50 Hz) and conductor
diameter is small (< 1cm).
• In the stranded conductors like ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced) the current flows mostly
in the outer layer made of aluminum, while the steel near the center carries no current and gives high
tensile strength to the conductor. 12
Corona
• When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose spacing is
large as compared to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the condition of
atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the applied voltage is low.
• However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical disruptive voltage,
the conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow called corona.
• The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone, power
loss and radio interference.
• The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the luminous envelope becomes, and
greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio noise. If the applied voltage is increased to
breakdown value, a flash-over will occur between the conductors due to the breakdown of air
insulation.
• The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead
transmission line is known as corona.
• If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow will be uniform throughout the
length of the conductors, otherwise the rough points will appear brighter.
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Corona
• With d.c. voltage, there is difference in the appearance of the two wires. The positive wire has
uniform glow about it, while the negative conductor has spotty glow.
Theory of corona formation.
• Some ionization is always present in air due to cosmic rays, UV radiations and radioactivity.
Therefore, under normal conditions, the air around the conductors contains some ionized
particles (i.e., free electrons and +ve ions) and neutral molecules.
• When p.d. is applied between the conductors, p.d. is set up in the air which will have maximum
value at the conductor surfaces. Under the influence of potential gradient, the existing free
electrons acquire greater velocities.
• The greater the applied voltage, the greater the potential gradient and more is the velocity of
free electrons. When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about 30 kV per
cm (max. value), the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral
molecule with enough force to dislodge one or more electrons from it.
• This produces another ion and one or more free electrons, which is turn are accelerated until
they collide with other neutral molecules, thus producing other ions. Thus, the process of
ionization is cumulative. The result of this ionization is that either corona is formed or spark
takes place between the conductors. 14
Corona
Factors upon which corona depends:
• Atmosphere. As corona is formed due to ionization of air surrounding the conductors,
therefore, it is affected by the physical state of atmosphere. In the stormy weather, the number
of ions is more than normal and as such corona occurs at much less voltage as compared with
fair weather.
• Conductor size. The corona effect depends upon the shape and conditions of the conductors.
The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more corona because unevenness of the
surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage. Thus a stranded conductor has irregular
surface and hence gives rise to more corona that a solid conductor.
• Spacing between conductors. If the spacing between the conductors is made very large as
compared to their diameters, there may not be any corona effect. It is because larger distance
between conductors reduces the electro-static stresses at the conductor surface, thus avoiding
corona formation.
• Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low, there is no change in the
condition of air surrounding the conductors and hence no corona is formed. However, if the
line voltage has such a value that electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor surface
make the air around the conductor conducting, then corona is formed. 15
Corona
Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona
Advantages
• Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence
virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the
electrostatic stresses between the conductors.
• Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.

Disadvantages
• Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the line.
• Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical
action.
• The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal
voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighbouring
communication line
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Corona
The corona effects can be reduced by the following methods :
• By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona occurs
is raised and hence corona effects are considerably reduced. This is one of the reasons that
ACSR conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area are used in transmission lines.
• By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the spacing between conductors, the voltage at
which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be eliminated. However, spacing
cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure (e.g., bigger cross
arms and supports) may increase to a considerable extent.

What are Bundled Conductors?

• We can often see the transmission lines where instead of a single conductor per phase multiple
conductors per phase are being used. A metallic structure called spacers groups the conductors
of a phase. These spaces help to maintain a constant distance between the conductors
throughout their length, avoid clashing of conductors amongst themselves and also allowing
them to be connected in parallel. Each phase can have two, three, or four conductors.
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• The most important advantage of bundled conductors is its ability to reduce
corona discharge. When power is being transferred at very high voltages using a
single conductor, the voltage gradient around it is high, and there is a high chance
that the corona effect will occur – especially in bad weather conditions. However,
using several conductors nearby instead of one conductor, forming a bundled
conductor which leads to a reduction of voltage gradient and hence the
possibility of corona formation.

The increase in critical corona voltage depends upon the following-

• Number of conductors in the group,
• Clearance between them, and
• The distance between the groups forming separate phases.
It has been found out that the optimum spacing between the conductors in a
group is of the order of 8-10 times the diameter of each conductor, irrespective of
the number of conductors in the bundle.
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Underground cables
• Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by
underground cables.
• The underground system of electrical distribution of power in large cities is
increasingly being adopted.
• The under ground cables have several advantages such as less liable to damage
through storms or lightning, low maintenance cost, less chances of faults, smaller
voltage drop and better general appearance.
• Major drawback is that they have greater installation cost and introduce
insulation problems at high voltages compared with the equivalent over head
system. For this reason, underground cables are employed where it is
impracticable to use overhead lines.
• An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered
with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover.
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Underground cables
• Although several types of cables are available, the type of cable to be used depends upon the
working voltage and service requirements.
In general, a cable must fulfil the following necessary requirements:
• The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminum of high
conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and carry more current.
• The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current without
overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
• The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of safety and
reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.
• The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may withstand the
rough use in laying it.
• The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is complete
chemical and physical stability throughout.

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Cable structure
The various parts are:
• Cores or Conductors. A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending upon the type of
service for which it is intended.
• Insulation. Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the thickness of layer
depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The commonly used materials for insulation are
impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral compound.
• Metallic sheath. In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids (acids or alkalies) in
the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminum is provided over the insulation
• Bedding. Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a fibrous material like jute or
hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical
injury due to armouring.
• Armouring. Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire
or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injury while laying it and during the course of
handling. Armouring may not be done in the case of some cables.
• Serving. In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous material (like jute) similar
to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as serving.

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Armouring and serving are only applied to the cables for the
protection of conductor insulation and to protect the metallic
sheath from mechanical injury

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Cable structure
The various properties of insulation material:
• High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
• High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
• High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
• Non-hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The moisture tends to decrease the insulation
resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable. In case the insulating material is hygroscopic, it must be
enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead sheath.
• Non-inflammable.
• Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.
• Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action

The principal insulating materials used in cables are rubber, impregnated paper, varnished cambric and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC).

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Cable structure
The classification of cables:
Cables for underground service may be classified in two ways according to
• The type of insulating material used in their manufacture
• The voltage for which they are manufactured.

However, the latter method of classification is generally preferred, according to which cables can be divided into the
following groups :
• Low-tension (L.T.) cables — up to 1 kV
• High-tension (H.T.) cables — up to 11 kV
• Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
• Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV
• Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV

A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of service for which it is intended. It may be,
(i) Single-core. (ii) Two-core. (iii)Three-core. (iv)Four-core etc.

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What is a Geomagnetic Disturbance and How Can It Affect the Power Grid?
• A geomagnetic disturbance (GMD), also known as a geomagnetic storm, is a major event in
Earth’s magnetosphere. It’s caused by a very efficient transfer of energy from solar wind into
the space environment surrounding Earth. Solar wind shockwaves result from a solar flare that
is followed by coronal mass ejections (CMEs) of charged and magnetized particles into space.

Figure: Coronal mass ejection (CME)

approaching Earth

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What is a Geomagnetic Disturbance and How Can It Affect the Power Grid?

• Whether or not a solar flare will produce a geomagnetic disturbance is dependent on the
magnitude of the flare, the direction at which the particles are emitted, and the orientation of
the magnetic field.

• The reason that geomagnetic disturbances are of particular concern to the power grid is
geomagnetically induced current (GIC). GIC are caused by geomagnetic disturbance causing
electric current variations in the magnetosphere and the ionosphere which then cause effects
to the Earth’s magnetic field. This causes currents to be induced in conductors such as power
lines which will then effect the power grid transformers. GICs can cause “half-cycle saturation”
of high-voltage Bulk-Power System transformers, which can lead to increased consumption of
reactive power and creation of disruptive harmonics that can cause the sudden collapse of the
Bulk-Power System. 28
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What is a Geomagnetic Disturbance and How Can It Affect the Power Grid?

• CME -1989 event: the resulting storm collapsed the Hydro-Québec power grid. Six
million people were without power for nine hours.
• Geomagnetic storm of 1859- Known as the Carrington Event - Telegraph networks around the
globe catastrophically failed; operators received shocks and telegraph paper caught on fire.

• Bottom line: Coronal mass ejections – also knowns as CMEs – are powerful eruptions on the
sun’s surface. Caused by instabilities in the sun’s magnetic field, they can launch a billion tons
of superheated gas into space. Most drift harmlessly across the solar system, but occasionally
one is aimed at Earth. When that happens, the resulting magnetic storm can severely disrupt
electrical systems and produce brilliant auroral displays.
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Geomagnetic Disturbance counter-measures
There are several countermeasures to GIC impact on power system operation.
These involve modifying the paths where GIC flow, changing protection settings or
system operation routines:
• Installing series capacitors in a long transmission line blocks GIC in that line;
• Replacing solid earthing with a capacitor or a resistor between transformer
neutral point and earth blocks or reduces GIC;
• GIC withstand capability of transformers can be improved by selecting the right
core type and by increasing the cross-sectional area of the flux paths in the core;
• Protection settings or functioning principle that are less sensitive to harmonics
can be used to eliminate mis-operation;
• Operators can improve robustness to GMD by new routines where they use all
available lines to minimize line loading and put all reactive resources on-line;
• Real-time monitoring and prediction of GIC help operators to be aware of GMD.
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Assignment 3
1. Before installation of transmission line there is always a need for environmental impact
assessment carried out. Highlight and discuss the various environmental impacts of
transmission lines.
2. Briefly discuss why electrical energy is considered a superior form of energy in comparison to
other energy forms.
3. Discuss the safety and health concerns related to generation, transmission, and distribution
of power.

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