Exercises

EXERCISES

7.7 Compared to TOFD, what might be considered a limitation of radiography?

(A) Need for two sided access
(B) Speed of inspection
(C) Safety hazards
(D) All of the above
L.2 What equation would be used to determine the velocity of ultrasound if you knew the
frequency and material it was propagating in?
(A) 7 : v/f
(B) u : L/zat2
(C) E = mcz
(D) Y:mx+b
1.3 What form of wave mode does not result in a mode-conversion upon interaction with a
boundary?
(A) Compression mode
(B) Longitudinal mode
(C) Horizontally polarised shear mode
(D) Vertically polarised shear mode
1.4 At what angle does an incident compression wave result in a transmitted shear wave having a
refracted angle of 90'?
(A) 37"
(B) The Rayleigh angle
(C) The first critical angle
(D) The second critical angle
1.5
In the equation in pressure given by P = P,,€
* what are the units of a?
(A) Nepers per unit length
(B) dB
(C) cm
(D) It is a constant without units
7.6 What are the units of Acoustic Impedance?
(A) Mr{z
(B) MRayls
(C) mSv
(D) dB/cm

206
Chapter (13): Industrial Applications Of TOFD

Non-fusion flaws can be seen in the HDPE scans with a similar characteristic to non-fusion in steel
fusion welds. See Figure 13-11.

f2 5 a L I
TB
IV o3u3dal31 'G}
1 o a L s ? ? € z 1 tu
ll
il l
I I ttitrrrrl??
Figure 13-11 Non-fusion flaws detected in HDPE weld (60)

205
Exercises

EXERC]SES

7.7 Compared to TOFD, what might be considered a limitation of radiography?

(A) Need for two sided access
(B) Speed of inspection
(C) Safety hazards
(D) All of the above
7.2 What equation would be used to determine the velocity of ultrasound if you knew the
frequency and material it was propagating in?
(A) 7 : v/f
(B) v : a/zat2
(C) E = mcZ
(D) Y=mx+b
1.3 What form of wave mode does not result in a mode-conversion upon interaction with a
boundary?
(A) Compression mode
(B) Longitudinal mode
(C) Horizontally polarised shear mode
(D) Vertically polarised shear mode
7.4 At what angle does an incident compression wave result in a transmitted shear wave having a
refracted angle of 90'?
(A) 37"
(B) The Rayleigh angle
(C) The first critical angle
(D) The second critical angle
1.5 In the equation in pressure given by P = what are the units of a?
P o€-o*
(A) Nepers per unit length
(B) dB
(C) cm
(D) It is a constant without units
7.6 What are the units of Acoustic Impedance?
(A) MHz
(B) MRayls
(C) mSv
(D) dB/cm

206
Exercises

1.7 In pulse-echo ultrasonic testing there is a useful range of working distance called the focal
zone. Where is it located?
(A) 25-100mm from the face of the probe
(B) Within 50mm of the near zone
(C) A third of the near field distance before the near zone to two thirds the near field
distance after the near zone
(D) It is not possible to estimate and must be assessed by immersion testing and beam
profiling using a ball target
1.8 The useful working region away from the beam centre axis can be estimated using the angle of
divergence to a line drawn along the points where the pressure drops to have the pressure on
the centre axis. What is the dB drop being assessed for a circular probe as measured in pulse-
echo when using the constant in the equation sin (i) :
)#,
(A) 3dB
(B) 6dB
(c) 72dB
(D) 24dB
7.9 What is the product of the acoustic velocity of a material times its density?
(A) Acoustic impedance
(B) Acousticreluctance
(C) The DenVol value
(D) A constant for all materials
1.10 Of the various electro-mechanical methods of generating ultrasound pulses, which is the most
commonly used in industrial UT?
(A) Magnetostrictive
(B) Electromagnetic
(C) Piezoelectric
(D) Capacitive
Chapter 2
2.1 TOFD came to prominence as a result of the need to
(A) Distinguish geometry from real defects
(B) Improve detection of non-fusion
(C) Characteriseporosity
(D) Improve flaw sizing
2.2 Who is generally credited with the introduction of the TOFD technique?
(A) j.A.G.Temple
(B) M. Silk
(C) j.P. Charlesworth
(D) H. Harwell

207
 Exercises

2.3 PISC I, PISC II, and DDT are commonly referenced when discussing benefits of TOFD. What
are these abbreviated items?
(A) Round-robin trials
(B) Digital processing techniques
(C) TOFD electronic systems from the 1970s
(D) TOFD severity ratings for flaws
2.4 In the NIL/KINT thin plate project, what did TOFD have the lowest "percentage" score in?
(A) Probability of detection
(B) Sizing accuracy
(C) False Call
(D) Reliability
2.5 Which is not a "beam boundary" technique for sizing?
(A) -20dB drop
(B) -6dB drop
(C) Max. Amp.
(D) AVG/DGS
2.6 The ability of a wave to spread around corners is termed
(A) Diffraction
(B) Dispersion
(C) Diffusion
(D) Scattering
2.7 In the basic 2-probe TOFD setup, with probes opposing on either side of a weld, four
characteristic signals are seen. Which would not be considered the product of diffraction?
(A) Lateral wave
(B) Flaw upper tip
(C) Flaw lower tip
(D) Back-wall
2.8 In a TOFD weld inspection on a flat plate, the lateral wave moves along just under the surface
making a glancing incidence with the plate surface. This produces a secondary wave mode
called:
(A) Bulk wave
(B) Shear head wave
(C) Rayleigh wave
(D) Creeping wave
2.9 Beam boundary sizing (e.g., 6dB or 20dB drop) techniques suffer from _.
(A) Flaworientationconsiderations
(B) Flaw surface texture considerations
(C) Flaw size relative to beam size
(D) A11of the above

208
Exercises

2.10 A B-scan has been customarily referred to as an ultrasonic data display, where time is on one
axis and probe displacement is on the axis perpendicular to the time axis. What TOFD scan-
type sometimes uses the term D-scan for the same time/probe-position data display?
(A) Parallel scan
(B) Non-parallel scan
(C) Helical scan
(D) Radial scan
Chapter 3
3.1 Display linearity is a function typically assessed in UT instruments Why might this be
considered less critical in TOFD equipment?
(A) All TOFD displays are now digitised images of the A-scan
(B) TOFD is a non-amplitude-based UT technique
(C) Time-base accuracy in TOFD is not critical
(D) TOFD amplifiers are logarithmic so they cannot be linear
3.2 Which type of pulser would not likely be used in a TOFD system?
(A) Square wave
(B) Spike
(C) Tone-burst
(D) Square wave with variable pulse-duration
3.3 Given a probe with a centre frequency of 9MF{z and the upper and lower -5dB frequencies of
72MHz and 5MHz respectively, what is the probe bandwidth?

(A) 56%
(B) 78%
(c) el%
(D) 113%
3.4 How is the probe's pulse energy optimised?
(A) By use of a tuneable amplifier
(B) By use of a tuneable pulser
(C) By the half wave matching plate
(D) It is not possible to optimise pulse energy

209
Exercises

3.5 What is the function of a pre-amp in a TOFD equipment setup?

(A) Improve signal to noise ratio
(B) Stop cross-talk between the transmit and receive probes
(C) Make the instrumentation package smaller
(D) Provide higher frequency content
3.6 What is NOT a recommended requirement of probes used for TOFD?
(A) Matched sizelfrequency (and usually angle) for Tx/Rx
(B) Wide divergence
(C) Highly damped (broadband)
(D) Built-in electrical impedance matching circuits
3.7 What item of TOFD equipment would not be considered essential?
(A) 1 Probe pair & Probe holder & couplant
(B) Pulser-receiver and cabling
(C) Data acquisition system (computer with data display)
(D) Calibration block
3.8 What aspect of encoders allows them to determine the direction of scan?
(A) The Reference pulse every rotation
(B) Phase difference between quadrature outputs
(C) Pulse duration differences between LED pulses
(D) No mechanism is available, the operator needs to enter a sign (+ er -)
3.9 Semi-automated scanning is common in TOFD applications. This involves an operator pushing
the probe pair with an attached encoder along the scan length. What is used to maintain
constant probe spacing and a constant centring of the probes relative to the weld centreline?
(A) Scanner to hold the probes (and encoder)
(B) A magnetic strip or similar guide-bar
(C) Both a and b
(D) No mechanism is required other than the probes and encoder
3.10 What is the normal function of the pre-amplifier in a TOFD setup?
(A) Improve the signal to noise ratio
(B) Re-construct the pulse striking the transmitter
(C) Prevent the scanner operator from receiving an electrical shock
(D) Prevent "wrap-around" signals due to long cable lengths
Chapter 4
4.1 \44ren dealingwith TOFD, SAFT is
(A) A form of data compression
(B) A form of digital signal processing
(C) The name for software gain
(D) The term for split-spectrum noise reduction

270
Exercises

4.2 What do Synchronous TOFD systems use to trigger data acquisition?

(A) UT instrument's PRF
(B) Computer clocks
(C) Encoder pulses
(D) The lateral wave arrival time
4.3 What is the purpose of SAFT DSP on TOFD displays?
(A) A form of TCC
(B) To determine flaw height
(C) To determine flaw length
(D) For Sequenced Analysis of Frequency Technique
4.4 For an Sbit digitisation, what display has the highest dynamic range in dB?
(A) TOFD RF display
(B) Full wave rectified display
(C) C-scan display
(D) 64 level greyscale B-scan
4.5 What ADC (Analogue to Digital Conversion) rate provides the best reproduction of an RF
waveform used in TOFD?
(A) 25MF{z
(B) 50MHz
(C) TGHz
(D) 10 bit
4.6 Encoder output to the TOFD instrument is in the form of pulses. What is the name of the type
of voltage pulse format called?
(A) Rectified
(B) Analogue
(c) rrl
(D) Post-Processed
4.7 Given a UT system having a 10 bit digitisation capability, what is its dynamic range when
using the unrectified display in TOFD?
(A) 42dB
(B) 48dB
(c) s4dB
(D) 60dB
4.8 What is the minimum equivalent distance resolution that can be achieved with a 100MHz ADC
sample rate, in a compression mode pulse-echo setup, on a steel block with acoustic velocity
6000mis?
(A) 0.03mm
(B) 0.06mm
(C) 0.3mm
(D) 0.6mm

217
Exercises

4.9 A 12 bit TOFD UT system could have the ability to avoid signal saturation. How would this be
done?
(A) Setting the back-wall signal to 100o1, screen height
(B) Setting the gain to a leve1 low enough to not allow signals to reach 100% screen height
(C) Carrying out analysis using software gain
(D) Both b and c
4.10 When using a logarithmic amplifier and a signal is set to 50% screen height, what will the
signal height be when 6dB are added to the receiver gain setting?
(A) r00%
(B) s6%
(c) 53%
(D) e4%
4.77 A TOFD setup is made for a single probe pair scan of a 20mm thick weld using a probe with a
nominal frequency of 10MHz. If an FFT is carried out on the lateral wave, what is the centre
frequency likely to be?
(A) Higher than the nominal
(B) Equal to the nominal
(C) Lower than the nominal
(D) Exactly half of the nominal
4.12 Why does signal averaging not work to improve the Signal to Noise Ratio in coarse-grained
weld structures in a TOFD inspection?
(A) Averaging is only effective if the noise is random and not coherent
(B) Grain structure is not considered noise
(C) Log amplifiers are required for TOFD inspections of coarse-grain welds and averaging is
not available for log-amp units
(D) Averaging could work, but it would require several hundred averages per sample and
thereby make the scanning too slow
4.73 The image illustrates a lateral wave subtraction process has been performed to expose the
upper tip of a flaw. \zVhy does the signal to the left of the flaw still indicate traces of the lateral
wave?

(A) Lateral wave equalisation was not carried out to ensure all the lateral wave amplitudes
were identical to the reference A-scan
(B) Lateral wave straightening had not been performed
(C) There was inadequate averaging run during acquisition
(D) The lateral wave was adequately removed; the indication is that of another flaw

212
Exercises

4.14 What factor, if increased, could require a lower scanning speed to avoid missing lines of data
in a TOFD scan?
(A) Length of A-scan collected
(B) Digitisingfrequency
(C) Signal averaging
(D) All of the above
Chapter 5
5.1
The equaLio", = x (r - 2to)2 - s2 is used to determine what parameter in TOFD?
JO'
(A) Lateral wave ring-time
(B) Spatial resolution
(C) Depth to an indication
(D) Focal distance
5.2 Uncertainties in timing, PCS and sound velocity provide uncertainties in TOFD determination
of_.
(A) Indication depth
(B) Indicationamplitude
(C) Indication phase
(D) Refracted angle
5.3 \A/hat might be considered the 3 "DeadZones" of a TOFD configuration?
(A) Probe face, Wedge and coupling
(B) Lateral wave, back-wall and spatial (flaw)
(C) Near, Fresnel and Fraunhofer
(D) Attenuatiory scatter and absorption
5.4 Why are flaws near the test surface more difficult to size for vertical extent?
(A) Upper and lower tips are less separated in time
(B) No diffraction is occurring near the test surface
(C) Flaws near the surface are usually smaller than deeper flaws
(D) The assumption is wrong...a11 flaws are equal for vertical sizing difficulty
5.5 TOFD is always quoted as having accurate flaw vertical sizing as an advantage. When is this
not true?
(A) When the flaw is IP
(B) \zVhen the flaw is LoF
(C) \Alhen the upper and lower tip signals are not resolved
(D) Never, TOFD is always the best option for sizing
5.6 As a result of the effects of the locus of equal time, flaws detected in a nonparallel scan that are
not directly below the PCS midpoint will be assessed as
(A) Shallower than they actually are
(B) Deeper than they actually are
(C) Lack of fusion instead of incomplete penetration
(D) Thread-like instead of planar

213
Exercises

Chapter 5
6.1, Probes used in TOFD applications are used as a "pair" and should have the same
(A) Frequency
(B) Dimensions
(C) Damping and ring-time
(D) All of the above should be matched
6.2 Usually, when setting up a TOFD configuration the crossing point of the centreline of the
centre of beam ray for the pulser and receiver elements should be at what depth (as a
percentage of wall thickness) for a single zone TOFD setup?
(A) 16%
(B) 45%
(c) 66%
(D) e8%
6.3 What, approximately, is the maximum thickness of a butt weld that should be attempted using
a single zone TOFD?
(A) 25mm
(B) 50mm
(C) 75mm
(D) 100mm
6.4 What is the approximate beam spread divergence that is used to estimate the volume coverage
by a TOFD probe?
(A) 6dB
(B) 72-14d8
(c) 20-24d8
(D) 22'half-angle
6.5 When inspecting a heavy-wall (100mm thick) section by TOFD, the lateral wave may not be
visible on all TOFD scans. Why not?
(A) Deeper zones are scanned using smaller angles (e.9., 45')
(B) Deeper zones are scanned using larger PCSs
(C) Both a) and b) can account for this
(D) None of the above, lateral waves are always seen
6.6 "Offset" scans are required for what reason?
(A) Inadequate beam divergence to address the HAZ on the far surface
(B) Inadequate beam divergence on the near surface
(C) Both a) and b)
(D) None of the above, offset scans are not required in TOFD

214
Exercises

6.7 An approximation of the preferred angle and PCS combination has been recommended based
on the included angle between the centre rays of the transmitter and receiver at the flaw tip.
What is the recommended included angle for maximum diffracted pressure?
(A) 45'
(B) 90"
(c) 120"
(D) 140"
6.8 When doing the TOFD scan of a longitudinal weld seam on a cylinder of relatively small
diameter (e.g., 30cm), a larger than calculated near surface ring-time occurs. Why?
(A) The actual refracted angle is greater than the nominal on a plate
(B) A late-arriving creeping wave signal occurs due to curvature
(C) Both a and b
(D) None of the above, the lateral wave on a longitudinal weld inspection is not greater than
on a flat plate
6.9 In a 3 zone TOFD setup, what would the approximate crossing point be when using 45'
refracted L mode for the lowermost zone?
(A) Two thirds thickness (67%t)
(B) Five sixths thickness (83%0
(C) Eight ninths thickness (89%t)
(D) Full thickness (100%t)
6.10 When performing a TOFD inspection on the long seam of a cylindrical vessel with the probes
positioned either side of the weld on the OD surface, what correction for depth is required if a
flaw is detected?
(A) The flar,v depth relative to the vessel surface must be decreased by the probe elevations
(B) The flaw depth relative to the vessel surface must be increased by the probe elevations
(C) The flaw depth calculated is not affected by the geometry
(D) It is not possible to correct for this geometric effect
Chapter 7
7.7 When setting gain for TOFD by using grass level what is used as the reference?
(A) Electrical noise prior to the lateral wave is 10%
(B) Grass level prior to the lateral wave is 10%
(C) Grass level after the lateral wave so that acoustic grain-scatter is set to about 10%
(D) Grass level after the compression mode back-wall is less than 20%
7.2 What can be used to assess the need for "Offset" scans?
(A) Use notches simulating the extent of the HAZ on the far surface
(B) Us a parallel scan to assess the beam divergence on the far surface
(C) Both a) and b)
(D) None of the above, offset scans are not required in TOFD

275
Exercises

most useful for TOFD probes to ensure system accuracy?

(A) Dominant frequency
(B) Refracted angle
(C) Exit point
(D) Wedge incident angle
8.2 What is the maximum recommended pulse-duration of a TOFD probe?
(A) Lateral wave not to exceed 1 cycle
(B) Lateral wave not to exceed 1.5 cycles
(C) Lateral wave and back-wall signals not to exceed 2 cycles
(D) There are no recommended maximum limits
8.3 Part of a TOFD setup is to calibrate the positional encoder. What are the units used, when the
unit is caiibrated?
(A) mm/pulse
(B) Pulses/mm
(C) Cycles/second

(A) Linearised cursors

(B) Linearised data displays
(C) Either a or b
(D) None of the above
9.2 Hyperbolic curves are used for what purpose in TOFD displays?
(A) Flaw height sizing
(B) Flaw depth determination
(C) Flaw length measurement
(D) No reason at all, they just look nice
9.3 What is a reasonable option to the SAFT processing used on TOFD images?
(A) Hyperbolic cursors
(B) Soft gain
(C) Split Spectrum Processing
(D) Lengthlinearisation
9.4 What is the purpose of signal averaging?
(A) Flaw amplitude sizing
(B) To reduce electrical noise effects
(C) To reduce grain noise effects
(D) To establish a mean error for length sizing from baseline measurements

276
Exercises

9.5 What is the purpose of split-spectrum processing?

(A) Flaw height sizing
(B) To reduce electrical noise effects
(C) To reduce grain noise effects
(D) To assess the flaw type
9.6 What the purpose of lateral wave subtraction?
is
(A) Noise reduction
(B) To assess if flaws are present near the test surface
(C) Aesthetics
(D) Both a and c
9.7 Lateral wave subtraction is a post-processing algorithm applied to a TOFD B-scan. What is it
usually preceded by?
(A) SAFTing
(B) Addition of soft gain
(C) Lateral wave straightening
(D) Nothing, it is done immediately
after data acquisition
9.8 When available for TOFD, what is amplitude equalisation used on?
(A) The lateral wave signal
(B) The back-wall signal
(C) The amplitude response from side-drilled holes at two different depths
(D) The ID and OD V notch diffractor signals
Chapter 10
10.1 As used in the linear scanning configurations (non-parallel), what characteristic of a weld
condition can TOFD not identify?
(A) Laminations in the pipe near the weld
(B) Which side of the bevel LoF occurs
(C) Porosity
(D) Silica inclusions
70.2 What is the biggest cause of TOFD inability to detect defects on the ID surface in spite of that
region being the point at which TOFD has the maximum temporal resolution?
(A) Mismatch geometry
(B) Poor signal to noise characteristics in that region
(C) Insensitivity of TOFD to volumetric type flaws commonly associated with the ID root
region
(D) There are no impediments to flaw detection in the ID regions of the weld
10.3 When a Lateral wave is suddenly shifted later in time and the back-wall is undisturbed, what
is the likely origin of the signal change?
(A) rP
(B) Misalignment
(C) Missed edge
(D) Porosity

217
Exercises

10.4 When does TOFD indicate an upper and lower tip signal for IP?
(A) Never
(B) For Double V prep welds
(C) For Single V prep welds
(D) When it is detected between the back-wall and mode-converted signals
10.5 A shift of the back-wall arrival time to an earlier arrival would be indicative of_.
(A) Root erosion
(B) rP
(C) Concave root
(D) Any of the above
70.5 In TOFD flaw detectiory which of the following welding flaws is not truly detected by
"diffuacted" waves?
(A) LoF
(B) Inter-runnon-fusion
(C) Porosity
(D) rP
70.7 What is the risk of testing a thick weld section with a single zone?
(A) Multiple imaging of a flaw
(B) Missed flaws due to pronounced dead zones
(C) Missed flaws due to poor divergence
(D) All of the above
10.8 In a single zone TOFD setup what is the effect of too much gain
(A) Inability to detect porosity
(B) Excess scatter losses in grain structure
(C) Excessive lateral wave ringing
(D) Insensitivity to coupling loss
70.9 Which aspect of an incorrect TOFD setup would cause the Back-wall signal to be distorted?
(A) Use of a beam with refracted angle less than 60'
(B) PCS too small
(C) PCS too large
(D) Testing at temperatures of 80'C
10.10 When viewing a TOFD image from a single zone TOFD setup, what would cause the back-wall
signal to be smaller than the lateral wave?
(A) Use of a beam with refracted angle less than 60.
(B) PCS too small
(C) PCS too large
(D) Both a and b

218
Exercises

10.11 Identify the flaw in the Figure lelow:

(A) Interpassnon-fusion
(B) Mismatch
(C) Surface breaking planar flaw
(D) Near surface porosity
70.72 Identify the flaw in the Figure be1owl

(A) Side wall non-fusion

(B) Mismatch
(C) Surface breaking planar flaw
(D) Near surface porosity
10.13 Identify the flaw in the Figure below:

(A) Interpassnon-fusion
(B) Mismatch
(C) Surface breaking planar flaw
(D) Near surface porosity

219
Exercises

Identify the flaw in the Figure below:

(A) Interpassnon-fusion
(B) Mismatch
(C) Surface breaking planar flaw
(D) Near surface porosity
10.15 Identify the incomplete root penetration of the single V butt weld scanned from the cap side

(A) 7

(B) 2
(c) 3
(D) 4

220
Appendix (A): Glossary Of Terms

APPENDIX (A): GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Back-Wall Echo: a specular reflection from the back-wall of the component being examined.
Creeping Wave: term sometimes used to describe the lateral wave (divergent compression wave) that
follows the contour of a curved surface.
Diffraction: when a wave front direction has been changed by an obstacle or other in-,Jromogeneity in
a medium, other than by reflection or refraction.
Free Run: taking data, without the movement of the probes (e.g., held stationary), using "timed"
acquisition of the lateral wave and back-wall reflection to check system software output
Head Wave: a shear wave that is generated by mode conversion when a compression wave travels at
a grazing angle on a free solid surface.

Lateral Wave: a compression wave that travels by the most direct route from the transmitting probe to
the receiving probe in a TOFD configuration. Term usually used when testing plate butt welds (where
both transmitter and receiver are at the same elevation).
Parallel/Transverse Scan: a scan whereby the probe pair motion is parallel to the ultrasonic beam
(e.9., perpendicular to the weld axis).

Probe Centre Spacing (PCS): the distance between the marked exit points of a pair of TOFD probes
for a specific application.
Non-Parallel/Longitudinal Scan: a scan whereby the probe pair motion is perpendicular to the
ultrasonic beam (e.g., parallel to the weld axis).

227
 Appendix (B): TOFD Depth Uncertainty Error Accumulation

APPENDIX (B): TOFD DEPTH UNCERTAINTY ERROR

ACCUMULATION

TOFD is considered an accurate method to provide sizing and depth estimates of subsurface
indications. Errors in depth estimates are a result of uncertainties in the parameters used to calculate
the time of arrival of the signals. Listing all possible errors could result in significant.depth estimates,
if treating the errors as cumulative. However, errors are rarely cumulative in a measurement system.
Instead, errors are random so the assessment uses the standard deviation of error of all the error
possible.

To obtain a feel for the degree of depth uncertainty in a TOFD setup the equations are solved for the
conditions of a TOFD setup with a PCS of 100mm, for an indication of depth 16mm, in a steel with
velocity 5.9mm/ps. For the equations for delta depth (depth uncertainty) this would provide a time
t=17.7958ys and a value of S (half the PCS) of 50mm. The uncertainties of depth for each error are
calculated.

Depth error due to timing uncertainty:

cxotrf7ar+s1
6d: 2d
(0.1)

Timing Uncertainty: 0.02 prs (typically + the time intenal of one sample, e.g., 0.01prs at 100MHz ADC
rate), therefore, depth error (timing) 6d:0.19mm.

Depth error due to velocity uncertainty:

^ d2 + s2 - srf1az + szj
od=ocT (0.2)

Velocity Uncertainty: 0.10 (mm/prs) (typically 0.05-0.1mm/ps, i.e. 50 to 100m/s), therefore, depth error
(velocity) 6d-0.14mm.
Depth error due to PCS uncertainty:

6d "lTdr+v\-s
: 65:---- (0 3)
d--:-
PCS Uncertainty: 3mm (typically not more than about 3-4mm), therefore, depth error (PCS)
5d=0.47mm.

Depth error due to lateral uncertainty:

IVT,=
vL L -TJ+9
x) - "9i
c't"-
-^2
(0.4)
46v'
7V

222
Appendix (B): TOFD Depth Uncertainty Error Accumulation

Lateral Uncertainty: 27mm (up to S, i.e. half PCS, but typically not more than about S/2), therefore,
depth error (lateral) 6d=2.12mm.
Depth error due to couplant uncertainty:
6Wud
6d:4c,,ldz+y (o'5)

Couplant velocity (v)=1.Smm/ps (typically water at 1.Smm/ps).

Couplant thickness (6W): 0.5mm (rare that this value should exceed 0.2mm and at over 0.5mm a
strong double lateral wave can occur), therefore, depth error (couplant): 6d=0.010mm. -
o Maximum possible depth error is 2.93mrn. Statistically probable depth error is 0.87mm.
o Maximum error is the sum of all the individual errors (very unlikely such an error could occur).
. Statistical error is the result of random errors. (Statistical error is the standard deviation of
error).

223
 Appendix (C): Sample TOFP Written Instruction

APPENDIX (C): SAMPTE TOFD WRITTEN INSTRUCTION

In the ISO and EN-Style exam process, such as found in CSWP certification examinations, a Level 2
candidate writes a Written Instruction for a given tested specimen. Flowever, an NDT instruction may
be contained within, or referenced from, an NDT procedure. If the latter, it must provide all
information necessary to carry out the test and refer to the parent procedure.
A Written Instruction is used to allou. the inspection to be performed bv someone qualified to Level 1
without any guesswork or interpretation of the standards. It is also assumed that the person working
to this instruction has the knowledge required by ISO 9772 at Level 1. ISO 9772 requires that a Level 1
be directed and under the supervision of a Level 2. It also states that a Level 1 be authorised to set up
equipment, perform tests in accordance with written instructions and record and report on results.
Responsibilities of a Level 2 as per ISO 9772 require that they be able to translate codes, standards and
procedures into written instructions. This document also defines the minimum information that
should be included in this written instruction.
Producing a Level 1 Written Instruction is part of the Level 2 qualification process and is sometimes
part of the practical exam. When preparing a Level 1 Written Instruction, consideration should be
given to the fact that the Level t has reached a certain expertise. This means that it is not necessarv to
list in precise detail every step in the instruction. As an example, a Level 1 should be fully conversant
with the concerns of missing A-scans that form the B-scans; therefore the written instruction need only
specify that the scan may contain a maximum number of missing data samples.

With a stand-alone instruction, as might be provided by the Level 2 to a Ler.el 1, the following items
are expected to be found in the document.
"f
{TI- E, SI'ATUS, AUTHORISAT IO\
o A title and unique reference number and revision
r Originator's name, signature and date
o Authorising person's name, signature and date As a controlled document the written
instruction should be traceable via an individual identification (including rer,,ision or date) and
reference to the owner and authoriser (Level 3)

224
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction

FOREI&OIID AND SCOPE

o This section identifies the reason for the written instruction and sets the requirements regarding
what par! or parts, it is applicable to and when it shall be used. Any other relevant information
that has a direct affect on the quality of the inspection should be included here. This could
include:
. Previous defect history
. Critical or highly stressed areas
. Manufacturing processes used
. In-service operating conditions

REF E REN CED DOCU\,{EI{TS

. Referenced documents in the Level 1 Written Instruction are to allow the inspection to be
controlled by an internationally recognised standard. Use of referenced documents is also to
control aspects of the inspection procedure not necessarily included within the written
instruction
o In addition to international standards, references may be made to internal procedures or client
specification documents. Reference should be made to the most current revision

PERSONNEL
r The minimum level of certification required to apply the instruction

APPARATUS TO BE USED
. Equipment to be used, together with settings
o A list of the specific equipment to be used should be included. The Level 1 should not be
allowed to choose between any items such as probes, wedges or PCS. This section should also
make reference to any required pre-calibrations such as linearity verifications

PRODUCT/AREATO BE TESTED
. Component identification, brief description and a drawing if appropriate
TEST CONDITIOI.iS
o Pre-test preparation of the test area
r Post-test cleaning and preservation of test object
. Ambient temperature and safety equipment are other conditions that would be mentioned here,
if appropriate
DETA]LED INSTRL'CTIONS FOR APPLICATION OF TEST
. Step-by-step instructions in the application of the NDT technique, with reference to sketches if
appropriate

225
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction

o Statement instructing the operator on actions to be taken in the event that the instruction cannot
be applied

ITECORDINC AND CLASSIFYINC RESULTS

r Action to be taken when defects are detected
RETORTINC THE RESULTS
o Not part of the actual technique (written instruction), but should follow the details provided in
the Procedure
. Written instruction shouid include the need for a test report and identify the specific items
required to be included; along with the requirement to document all recordable indications
including datums.

226
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction

ACME Inspection
TOFD Written Instruction to Inspect Butt Welds

Written Instruction Identification: TOFD-WI-101

Responsibility Name/Signature Date Revision

Writer Name 1 2012.02.30 Rea 0

Acme Inspection Orisinal cLpprooal
Approval/Authorisation I'lame 2 2012.02.30 Rev 0
QA manager Original approval

Name and Qualification of Level 2 Preparer:

Name 1 CSWP Leve12

Revisions Record
Revision No. Page Description/Section Revised Approved by Date
by
Rev 0 NA Original Approved Procedure NA NA 2072.06.01

227
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction

1.0 SCOPE
1,.L This procedure describes the method and techniques to carry out time of flight
diffraction (TOFD) ultrasonic testing on circumferential welded joints in a low carbon
steel storage tank
1..2 Welds applicable to this Written Instruction are 25mm thick double V submerged arc
welds (SAW). Welds inspected are new construction fabrication shop welds with only
weld fabrication flaws expected (i.e. not in-service)
1.3 TOFD inspection shall be in accordance with ISO 10863 and client-supplied
acceptance criteria

2.0 REFERENCES
2.7 Documents referenced in the development of this procedure include:
2.1..1 ISO 10863 Welding - Use of time-of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD) for
testing of welds
2.1.2 EN 473 Qualification and certification of NDT personnel - General principles
2.7.3 EN-12668-3 Non-destructive testing - Characterisation and verification of
ultrasonic - Part 3 combined equipment
3.0 PERSONNEL
3.1 Minimum qualification of personnel performing TOFD data collection in accordance
with this Written Instruction is CSWP Level 1 TOFD certification (or equivalent
ISO/EN-9712 qualification)
3.2 Personnel collecting data may be certified at a CSWIP Level 1 and shall have received
training in the details of data acquisition requirements. Equipment used by the data
acquisition technicians shall have been configured, calibrated and verified by the
Level 2
3.3 OnIy personnel qualified to CSWP Level 2 shall be allowed to analyse TOFD data
against acceptance criteria
4.0 EQUTPMENT:

Equipment used will include:

4.1 Company XYZ TOFD Pocketscan data acquisition system
4.2 2 TOFD probes,7.5MHz 3mm diameter on 60oL refracting wedges
4.3 Optical encoder (wheel version model ABC)
4.4 Company XYZ TOFD Scanner frame that fixes the probes at a set PCS and provides
mounting for the encoder
4.5 Associated encoder cabling, probe co-axial cables and irrigation for the probes
4.6 Couplant will be water

4.7 Instruments and Probes

228
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction

4.7.1. Weld inspection using TOFD shall be carried out using the Company XYZ-
TOFD system model 123 with system software Version 1.1R1
4.7.2 The TOFD probes shall have a nominal bandwidth of 80%
4.7.3 The refracting wedges used will provide a nominal 60o refracted angle for the
compression mode assumed at 5920m/s acoustic velocity
4.7.4 The ultrasonic instrument shall have a current annual calibration cer-tificate
indicating compliance with EN-12668-3 for time base and calibrated gain
linearity
4.7.5 Equipment failing functional calibration checks shall be taken out of service
and sent for repair
4.7.6 Ultrasonic probes used for the TOFD technique on welds shall comply with
EN 12688-3
4.7.7 Company XYZ-Scanner (probe holder) equipped with encoder shall provide
accurate positioning within better than 2"/. of the length of a weld scan and
not greater than 10mm

4.8 Calibration Reference Blocks

4.8.1 The reference block required for setting range and sensitivity shall be TOFD-
BLK-1 as per Figure 1

4.9 Reference Targets

4.9.7 Reference targets used in the calibration blocks for the welds inspected to this
Written Instruction shall be side-drilled holes & notches specified in Figure 1

Key

r' llirtih
,'. leftqth
'. llqt.h *dlh

Figure 1 Reference Block TOFD-BLK-1

229
 le TOFD Written Instruction

4.10 Equipment settings:

Inspection will be made using a non-parallel scan to ensure the entire volume of the weld is inspected.
Probes will be arranged symmetrically either side of the weld centreline with the PCS defined in the
scan plan (Figure 2).

Sensitivity will be set using the response from the lateral wave when the probes are coupled to the test
piece. The response from the lateral wave shall be set to 40% FSH.

4.77 Essential Parameter Settings of the Data Acquisition

Pulser -
Voltage 200V

Pulse length 70ns

Receiver

High Pass Filter 0.5 MHz

Low Pass Filter 10 MHz
Gain set by lateral wave response at 40% screen height

Digitiser
Bit rate 8

ADC 100 MHz

PRF 10 kHz

Averaging 2 x (maximum 8)
A-scan window start 0.5us prior to lateral end 1us after BW

Encoder

Pulses per mm Calibrated over 300mm

Sample rate 1 A-scan sample per mm

A magnetic guide strip shall be used to ensure the PCS centreline does not deviate by more than +/-
5mm from the weld cap centre.

230
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written lnstruction

Figure 2 PCS and Probe Positioning

5.0 WELD IDENTIFICATION AND ZERO DATUM AND EXTENT OF EXAMINATION

5.1 The circumferential and longitudinal seams of the Oil Storage Tank are welded using
a double V submerged arc process. The weld preparation is as illustrated in Figure 3.

-
f
=
I
I
I
*.."..<

rnnl
JU
l,/1,,
UI I ---l\lI .jndo
1U.U
f- 20.00mm ---l

Figure 3 Weld Bevel

5.2 Welds are numbered from the bottom to the top of the vessel. Circumferential welds
are identified as CS-1 and CS-2. TOFD on Longitudinal welds is addressed in a
separate Written Instruction.
5.3 The scan start position shall be indicated on the weld using a permanent marker or
hard-stamp. The start position and scanning direction shall be established based on
the weld identification reference points.
5.4 The Storage Tank coordinate system references the components relative to the
geographic North. The reference zero for the circumferential scan will be made at the
"Site North" location and scans will be made in 2 metre sections starting at the North
reference and moving clockwise (easterly) when looking down on the Tank. See
Figure 4 for Tank layout.

231
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction

u>-l
t-5- I

t
Figure 4 Tank Layout

6.0 SCAN SURFACE PREPARATION

6.1 The minimum distance of clear surface either side of the weld centreline will be
determined by the PCS for the applicable technique. Scanning surfaces shall be even
and free from foreign matter likely to interfere with probe coupling (e.g., rust, loose
scale, weld spatter, notches, grooves). The tank inspection is to be made prior to
painting.
6.2 Scan surfaces of the calibration block used for setting beam position and sensitivity
shall be of a condition similar to the plate being inspected. It shall be free of rust, scale
grease or any other material that would impede ultrasound from being coupled into
the metal.

6.3 Scanning surfaces of the reference block and tested component shall be within the
range of 10' C to 40' C.

6.4 Scanning from scaffolding will require use of safety harnesses. TOFD operators will
also comply with any other safety equipment stipulated by the site supervisor.
7.0 DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERFORMING THE TEST
7.7 Range and sensitivity settings
7.1.1 The probes shall be set in the scanner to provide the PCS indicated in Figure 2
7.1,.2 Setting of range and sensitivity shall be carried out prior to each testing in
accordance with this document. Any change of the TOFD setup, e.g., probe
centre separation (PCS), requires a new setting.
7.2 Time window
7.2.1 The time window shall start at least 0.5 prs prior to the time of arrival of the
lateral wave and extend up to the first mode-converted back-wall signal.
7.2.2 The start and extent of the time windows shall be verified on the test object.

232
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction

,/ .J Time-to-depth conversion
7.3.7 For a given PCS, setting of time-to-depth conversion is carried out using the
lateral wave signal and the back-wall signal with a known material velocity.
This setting shall be verified by placing the probes on the reference block and
recording minimum of 20 A-scans.
a

7.3.2 The measured thickness or depth shall be within 0.2 mm of the actual or
known thickness.
7.4 Sensitivity settings
7.4.1. For all examination levels the sensitivity shall be set on the test object. The
amplitude of the lateral wave shall be set at 40 % full screen height (FSH).
7.4.2 The sensitivity shall be verified by use of the reference block TOFD-BLK-1.
Sensitivity is verified by resolving the side-drilled holes and far and near
surface notches.
7.5 Distance Encoder Calibration

7.5.1, The encoder shall be calibrated to ensure that the number of "counts" per mm
correctly indicates the surface distance traversed on the pipe. The encoder
shall be verified to correctly indicate scan distance by comparing the encoded
reading at the 500mm and 1000mm positions using a tape measure. The
reading indicated shall be correct within 2% of the actual distance to a
maximum of 10mm over 1000mm.

7.5.2 The scan increment shall be 1mm

7.6 Weld scanning
7.6.1 Scanning speed shall not be greater than 150mm per second.
7.6.2 If the operator observes unacceptable amounts of "missing data lines" the
scan shall be redone and the scanner moved at lower speeds. Unacceptable
amounts of missing data are considered to be more than 1 line in 25mm or
two adjacent lines.
7.6.3 Longitudinal welds shall be scanned in a single scan length (i.e. the full 2m)
7.6.4 Circumferential scans shall be scanned in 3m sections. An overlap of at least
50 mm between the adjacent scans is required. \zVhen scanning circumferential
welds, the same overlap is required for the end of the last scan with the start
of the first scan.
7.6.5 Reduction of signal amplitude of lateral wave, back-wall-signal, grain-noise,
or mode-converted signals during a scan by more than 12dB may indicate loss
of coupling. If coupling loss is suspected, the area shall be rescanned. If the
results are still not satisfactory, appropriate action shall be taken.

L33
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction

7.6.6 Saturation of the lateral wave or excessive grain noise (> 20 % FSH) during
scanning requires gain reduction and rescanning.
7.6.7 The Level 1 TOFD data acquisition operatorwill verify that each scan section
collected has met the amplitude and missing data line requirements of this
section prior to saving the raw data to files.
7.6.8 Saved files will be numbered with the Tank number, weld number and scan
positions as part of the file name.
7.6.9 Prior to submitting data for analysis, the Level 1 shall verify that all weld data
files are complete and included with the report package.

Main Inspection Steps

a) Mark off tank circumferential welds in 2m increments starting at 0 reference

b) Assemble probe pair irrigation and encoder in the probe holder with the encoder
mounted to encode in the direction of the scan
c) PCS shall be con{irmed by use of a steel rule to be 57mm (See Figure 3 for PCS and
probe positioning parameters)
d) Switch on data acquisition system and set parameters for data acquisition as per
essential parameters details
e) Calibrate encoder over 300mm distance
0 Place probes on Tank beside weld and initiate couplant
flow
g) Locate Lateral Wave and Back-wall signals (approximately 18us to lateral wave
and approximately 25us to BW)
h) window to start 0.5ps prior to lateral wave and end 1ps after BW
Set A-scan
i) Adjust gain to bring lateral wave amplitude to 40"/o FSH (peak to peak)
j) Place probe pair over weld to ensure signal is unchanged (if Lateral wave signal
deviates from amplitude or arrival time by more than 10% investigate source of
problem before proceeding)
k) When signals are suitable configure data acquisition for 2100mm scan distance and
scan from 0 to 2100mm
l) Review B-scan image for quality (if poor, rescan until acceptable qualify is
achieved)
m) When scan is acceptable, save to file and name with weld number and position
(e.g., CS-#1-0-2100)
n) Repeat steps j-m for each 2m increment marked on the tank (note, scan lengths are
2100mm long so starting at 2, 4,6 and 8m will ensure scan overlaps). When saving

234
Appendix (C): Sample TOFD Written Instruction

the scan file, change the name for each scan increment to match the scan interval
(e.g., LS-7-2000-4100, LS-1-4000-6100, etc.)
o) Note any scan restrictions or scanning problems (such as long seam weld caps or
nozzles)
8.0 RECORDING
8.1 Inspection results are stored in electronic form as data files. At a minimum, affer each
day's scanning the data shall be saved in two locations. The storage media may be
either magnetic or optical (e.g., hard drives or CD ROM or DVD).
9.0 REPORTING
9.7 Reports shall be produced after data analysis of the TOFD records by the Level 2
TOFD analyst. All report items in the ISO 10863 shall be included in the report.
9.2 \rVhen a weld is rejected, the nature and location of the rejected flaw shall be included
in the report. The report will include a B-scan image of each rejectable condition.

235
 List of Fi

IIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 Components of the Wave.... ..........................6

Figure 1-2 Components of the pulse shape.......... .........2
Figure 1-3 Typical ultrasonic wave packet or pulse.... ......................7
Figure 1-4 Frequency content of a wave group ............7
Figure 1-5 Generation of a plane wavefront ..........:-...........................8
Figure 1-6 Phase reversal at steel to water interface .......................12
Figure l-7 Wave modes and boundary interactions................ .......13
Figure L-8 Horizontal shear wave (SH) polarised in the plane of the reflecting surface..........................13
Figure 1-9 Critical angles and Snell's Law ............ ...........................14
Figure 1-10 Echo transmittance for the pulse-echo transverse mode at an aluminium-water interface (1) 14
Figure 1-11 Formation of a spherical wavefront ........15
Figure 1-12 Formation of a cylindrical wavefront... ........................15
Figure 1-13 Single versus multiple scattering... ..........16
Figure 1-14 Crystal axes of quartz ...........I9
Figure '!.-15 Qtartz crystal orientations for X and Y cuts ...............20
Figure l-'1.6 Quartz crystal deformations for X and Y cuts.............. ....................20
Figure 1-17 Un-poled ferroelectric materials................... ................21
Figure 1-18 Poled ferroelectric material...... .................22
Figure 1-19 Construction of an ultrasonic probe........ .....................24
Figure 1-20 Pulse-Echo (PE) versus Transmit-Receive (TR) connections ..........24
Figure 1-21 Sound field of a 5 MHz 1Omm diameter probe on steel............ ..........................25
Figure 1-22 Working field of the probe(4).................. ........................27
Figure 1-23 Principles of beam spread(sl ......................2g
Figure 1-24 Rectangular element divergence angles..... ..................29
Figure 2-L Beam Boundary Sizingbasis ........... ...........32
Figure 2-2Length sizing by the dB drop method ...........................32
Figure 2-3 Standard DGS diagram (6) ............. ..............33
Figure 2-4 Ermolov equivalent target curves......... ..........................34
Figure 2-5 Amplitude vs. diffraction sizing methods from DDT plate 1 (left: all sizing techniques,

Figure 2-6 NIL/KINT thin plate project results (8).................. ..........35

Figure 2-7 Diffraction effects in a ripple tank simulation ............. ......................37
Figure 2-8 Photoelastic image of a compression mode pulse diffracting at a flaw.......... ..........................22
Figure 2-9 Tip-echo sizing principles for backscatter sizing.... ...........................3g

Figure 2-11 TOFD process step 1.......... ........................40

Figure 2-12 TOFD process step 2.......... ........................41
Figure 2-13 TOFD process step 3.......... ........................47

236
List of Figures

Figure 2-'1.4TOFD process step 4.......... ........................42

Figure A-scans.......
2-15 A version of isometric ..........42
Figure 2-15 Basis for the TOFD greysca1e..... ...............43
Figure 2-17 Accumulating A-scans to build the TOFD display ................
(10) .........................43
Figure 2-18 TOFD scan types (11)................ ...................44
Figure 3-1 Krautkramer USIP1O circa 1950rs(12)...... ..................;.......49
Figure 3-2 Single channel UT system 170mm x 50mm format board for ROV - subsea application (13).........50

Figure 3-5 Tone burst pulser waveforms. ..................... ....................52

Figure 3-5 Pulse width effect on transducer excitation ..................53
Figure 3-7 Transducer bandwidths - narrowband (left), broadband (right;ttal .....................55
Figure 3-8 Signal shape/ring-time (left) vs. bandwidth (righQ..... ......................55
Figure 3-9 Pulse-echo (PE) versus Transmit-Receive (TR) connections ............56

Figure 3-11Video signal smoothing.. ......58

Figure 3-12 An automated scanning ri9............... .......60
Figure 3-13 Manually operated scanner ......................61
Figure 3-14 Manually operated scanner - magnetic guide strip used to keep probes tracking

Figure 3-15 Motorised system - Eclipse Scientific TDPipe-Runned16)............... ..........................62

Figure 3-16 Optical encoder circuit(18) ..........................63
Figure 3-17 Optical encoder components(1e)................ .....................63
Figure 3-18 Optical encoder - quadrature pulse patterns ................ ...................64
Figure 3-19 Magnetic encoder components(2o) ................ .................64

Figure 3-21Basic TOFD equipment(22).................. .......65

Figure 3-22 Enhanced TOFD system performing TOFD inspection during TIG welding@)....................66

Figure 4-1 Multiplexed inputs and outputs via ADCs and DACs.. ...................70
Figure 4-2 Multi element scanning system - Asynchronous (upper), Slmchronous (lower) ...................70
Figure 4-3 TTL voltage rise and fall times.... ...............77
Figure 4-4 Analogue to digital shaping{zs) ...................73
Figure 4-5 Digitising effects on oscilloscope waveform quality........ .................74
Figure 4-6 Sbit digitising effects on dynamic range.......... ..............75
Figure 4-7 9bit digitising gate display to increase dynamic ran9e........... ..........77
Figure 4-8 P-Scan logarithmic display .........................78
Figure 4-9 P-Scan linear display ..............78
Figure 4-10 P-Scan log amp display of a TOFD scan (80dB full screen left and 50dB full screen right).79
Figure 4-1L P-Scan linear amp display of a TOFD scan (30% lateral wave using 60'beam) ...................80

237
 List of Figures

Figure 5-1 Calculating depth to upper tip................ ........................86

Figure 5-2 Flaw height from TOFD .........86
Figure 5-3 Lateral wave pulse duration..... ..................87
Figure 5-4 Position resolution limits for TOFD ..........89
Figure 5-5 Confirmation of dead zone calculations for TOFD ......89
Figure 5-6 Modelled dead zones for TOFD.......... .......90
Figure 5-7 Lateral uncertainty of flaw position ..........92
Figure 5-8 Constant time locus ................93

Figure 5-10 Three basic conic sections Q7\ ................ ..............................................95

Figure 5-L1 Seven notches, non-parallel scan (left) and parallel scan (right) ........................96
Figure 5-12 Coordinate layout for calculating hyperbolic arcs ..........................96
Figure 5-13 Hyperbolic curve plots for Non-Parallel scan (left) and Parallel scan (right). .......................97
Figure 5-1 TOFD far surface detection verification. ......................101
Figure 6-2 TOFD volume detection verification. ......102
Figure 6-3 Reflection & diffraction directivity 12s1........... ...............102
Figure 5-4 TOFD Tip signal amplitudes vs. Angle of Incidence (7) ................. ......................103
Figure 6-5 Single V 20mm wall technique................... ...................104
Figure 5-6 Single V 50mm wall technique................... ...................104
Figure 5-7 Double V 100mm wall technique................... ...............105
Figure 6-8 Double V 25mm wall with 2mm toe-crack on opposite wa1l, not detected ......L06
Figure 6-9 offset scan with 2mm toe-crack on opposite wall detected...... .....707
Figure 5-10 Same-side TOFD layout and responses ................. ....108
Figure 6-11 PA TOFD layout withTMHz probe and 4 elements at 0.6mm pitch........... ....109
Figure 6-12 Sample B-scan from PA TOFD setup (not noticeably different from mono-element)........109
Figure 5-13 Gap testing options....... ......711
Figure 6-'l,4Lateral wave multiple due to excessive gap.............. .....................111
Figure 6-15 TOFD on cylinder long seam outside surface ...........772
Figure 5-16 TOFD on plate to achieve same crossing and angle as in Figure 6-15..................................113
Figure 6-17 General case for TOFD calculations on curved surface ................113
Figure 6-18 Extended near side dead zone due to cylindrical shape........ .......11S
Figure 6-19 Calculated as compared to observed near side dead zone... ........115
Figure 6-20 TOFD scan from inside curvature .........11,6
Figure 6-21 TOFD scan from tapered surface ...........1,17
Figure 6-22TOFD scan from opposite tapered surface........ ........L17
Figure 5-23 Immersion TOFD setup for T-section..... ....................119
Figure 6-248-scan of T-section ..............11g
Figure 5-2iMulti-zone focussed TOFD(30)...... ...........779
Figure 6-26 40",50o, 60" and70" TOFD (sectorial TOFD) (30)................. ............120
Figure 7-1 Side-drilled holes with saw cuts to surface .................126
Figure 7-2 ASME section V, article 4two zone TOFD block (33)...... ..................126
Figure 7-3 Suggested TOFD reference block design from EN TS 14751(34) ................ .........127

238
List of Figures

Figure 7-4TOFD resolution reference block as per ISO 10863 (31) ....................1.27
Figure 7-5 TOFD calibration blocks - custom application (3s)................ ...........728
(36) ................
Figure 7-6 Grain structure seen in TOFD ..................729
Figure 7-7 Corrbined calibration and qualification block (38)...... ......................131
Figure 7-8 Frame holder and dynamic calibration/demonstration blocks(16) .......................131
Figure 8-1, A-scan display for horizontal linearity ........................L34
Figure 8-2 Display height linearity verification. .......135
Figure 8-3 Pulse-echo A scan of IIW block with first back-wall echo set to 40%... .............136
Figure 8-4 Determining exit point of an angle beam probe in the IIW block (3e)................,:.....................138
Figure 9-1 UT setup window for A-scan display (40)................ .....739
(40) ................
Figure 9-2 TOFD acquisition menus .....741,
Figure 9-3 TOFD probe and part entry menu (a0)..... ......................747
Figure 9-4 TOFD Scanner entry menu (40)................ .......................742
Figure L0-1Good TOFD scan (a2)........ .........................148
Figure L0-2 Incorrect gain - gain too levT (az)......... .....748
Figure L0-3 Incorrect gain - gain too high (42)................. ................148
Figure L0-4 Incorrect gate start- too early (42) ............149
Figure L0-5 Incorrect gate start- too late (42).......... .....149
Figure 10-5 Incorrect gate length- too long (42)................. ..............749
Figure 10-7 Incorrect PCS- too long (42)................. .....150
Figure L0-8 Incorrect PCS- too short @2)................. .........................150

Figure 10-ll Trigger threshold level problems (42)........... ..............151

Figure 10-12 Coupling gap too large @2)................. .........................151
Figure 10-13 TOFD analysis displays...... ...................1.52
Figure 10-14 TOFD primary (reference) and secondary (measurement) cursors (43)
...............................154
Figure 10-15 Non-linear relationship of depth with time ............155
Figure 10-16 TOFD Cursor Linearisation.................. .....................155
Figure 10-17 TOFD data 1inearisation............ ............156
Figure 10-18 TOFD Linearisation Data Entry Windows ............. ......................156
Figure 10-19 Palette adjustment................... ...............757
Figure 10-20 TOFD image 2oom........... ......................158
Figure L0-21TOFD image labelling...... ......................158
Figure 10-22Point diffractor (pore).......... ..................160
Figure 10-23 Far side flaw - concave root or burn-through (44)................. ........L61
Figure 10-24Far side flaws - incomplete penetration single V weld (44)................ ..............161

Figure 10-26 Incomplete penetration in double V (44)............. .......762

Figure 10-27 Lack of side wall fusion (44)................. ........................163
Figure 10-28 Transverse flaw (44)................ .................164
Figure 10-29 Lack of interpass fusion (44)................. ........................764

239
Figure 10-31Copper Cracking.. .............165
Figure 10-32 High-Low soundpaths ............. .............766
Figure 10-33 High-Low TOFD B-scan......... ...............767
Figure 1G34 Mode-conversion at flaws........ ...................1,62
Figure 10-35 Mode-converted arrival times........... ................,.......16g
Figure 10-35 Double image of the same indication... .........................................16g
Figure 10-37 TOFD Analysis of flaw in 25mm double V weld........ .................769
Figure 10-38 TOFD analysis of flaw ......!:............. .........720
Figure 10-39 TOFD Analysis for flaw height and ligament................... ...........720
Figure 10-40 Tandem TOFD for true depth assessment. ..............171
Figure 10-41 Automatic flaw identification of TOFD flaw indicatisns (46) ......773
Figure 11-1 Digital signal processing options........ ........................178
Figure ll-2Software gain added to TOFD signals .......................126
Figure 11-3 Fast Fourier transform (F-Scan) .............177
Figure 11-4 Comparing Fast Fourier transform (F-Scan) on lateral wave and back-wal|... ....................727
Figure 11-5 Bandpass filtering by DSP ......................179
Figure 11-5 Lateral wave straightening (50)................ .....................72g
Figure 11.-7 Laterul wave removal (s0)............ .............1g0
Figure 11-8 Lateral wave equalisation, Weaker signals (right) made uniform amplitude (left) (s0).......181
Figure 11-9 DSP by SAFT on a Parallel scan over side-drilled holes (51)...... ....7g2
Figure 11-10 Data compression with 4:1 reduction of data in an A-scan ........1g3
Figure 11-11 Split spectrum filtering process........ ....1g4
Figure 1'T..-12Civa modelled image of setup with flaws embedded ................1,g7
Figure 11-13Initial TOFD scan (raw data)........... .....1gg
Figure 11-14 A-scans aligned to lateral wave amplitude at +10% threshold............... ........1gg
Figure 11-15 Variation of all lateral wave amplitudes along scan ............. ......1g9
Figure 11-16 B-scan with lateral wave signals equalised to 50"/" positive displacement........................189
Figure 1-J"-17 Average A-scan from straightened data se1............... ..................190
Figure 11-18 TOFD B-scan after subtraction of the mean A-scan ....................190
Figure 11.-19 Analysis with lateral wave removed................ ........797
Figure 11-20 Analysis of just lack of fusion indication at 32mm scan path using phase analysis.........191
Figure 1l-2lLack of fusion indication at 32mm scan path using HP filter and averaging... .................1g2
Figure L3-1 Butane sphere TOFD inspection (53)................ ............1gg
Figure 13-2 Weld lssf slesisn (54)
Figure 13-3 Cladding interface inspection (5s)................. ................200
Figure 13-4 Turbine disk inspection (inspection arm (left), techniques used, (right)) (56)............. ..........201
Figure 13-5 Turbine rotor shaft (57) .........202
Figure 13-6 Reference targets for rotor inspection by TOFD (58)................ .......202
Figure 13-7 Immersion shear mode TOFD to size hydride blister cracks in 4mm thick Zr-Nb pressure
tubes (contacting tubes - left, detail of TOFD - right) ..................203
Figure 13-8 HDPE fusion butt weld cross section (60)................ ....204

240
List of Figures

Figure 13-9 TOFD wheel probe mounted on HDPE weld sample(16)............... .....................204
Figure L3-10 Schematic representation of dual TOFD beam paths in TOFD wheel Probe(16).................204
Figure 13-11Non-fusion flaws detected in HDPE weld (60) .........205

247
 List of Tables

LIST OF TABLES

Table L-3 Acoustic properties of some materials .........9

Table 1-4 Piezoelectric transducer materials (2)............... .................22

Table 5-1 Recommended TOFD setups for simple butt welds dependent on wall thickness...............100
Table 8-l Amplitude control linearity allowance ....lZZ
Table 9-L UT setup parameters............ .......................140

242
Works Cited

IryORKS CITED

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8. Verkooijery Jan; Mclay, Alex. Advances with the Time of Flight Diffraction Technique. [Online]
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18. Tandy, Michael. Rotary encoder. s.1. : Wikipedia.org.

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20. Deem Controls Inc. [Online] www.deemencoders.com.

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243
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43. F or c e T e chnolo gy . [Online] www' f orcetechnolo gy' com'

Canada : olympus NDT, 2007' ISBN 0-
44. Introduction to Phased Array l)ltrasonic Technolosy. Quebec,
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Dffiaction Interpretation - Fundamentsls and
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46. Recent deaelopments for automatic on-line TOFD
September 1997,Yo1.2.
: Thdse de Doctorat' INSA de Lyory'
47. Corneloup, G. Traitement Numdrique d'images ultrasonores.
s.1.

1988.
en Contr\le non Destructif'
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s.1. : thEse de l'institut national des sciences appliqu6es
deLyon' 1992'
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nondestructiae inspection Bolland, Patrice, et al. s.l.
Processing.

50. User Guide and Technical Reference Manual.

Cheshire, UK: Technology Design'
wang, zicheng' z}Jloa' Youpeng
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52. CIVA lJser Manual. Paris : CEA, 2010'

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55. Combqting Unscheduled Shutdowns

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58. Sizing of Surface-breaking cracks in complex geometry components by ultrasonic TOFD' Nath' S'K' 49'
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246
 Index

INDEX

718, 126, 129, 134, 135, 136, focussing..... 26, 27, 95, 110, 719,
A 137, 147, 765, 167, 168, 183, 159,181
200, 203, 206, 208, 270, 271,
acceptance criteria . 85, 121, 147,
)1\ ))1 ))q .G
169,193, 794, 195,197, 228
acoustic velocity... 10, 77, 59, 85, couplant..... 1 8, 39, 62, 65, 66, 94,
9s,tt1, 127, 751, 172, 270, geometry..... 46, 82, 99, 100, 107,
87,90, 91,97, 734,754, 156,
))? ))R )?4 fi5, il7, 125, 153, 187, 202,
203,204,207, 277,229
crack..... 5, 82, 702, 106, 107, 728, 203,207,217
applications ..1,2,3, 4, 6, 12,77,
163, Ib5, 172, 187, 201, 202,
18,79, 27,25,29,34, 47, 50,
59, 85, 94, 99, 100, 109, 711,
203 H
128, 734, 137, 739, 741, 143,
creeping wave 109, 208, 215, 221
HAZ (Heat Affected Zone)...46,
t5e, ts4, t95, t99,20t,203, cswlP........... ......2, 224, 227, 228
93, 120, 137, 197, 214, 215
270,274 height sizing .......................... 276
ASTM ........... ..133, 135,137, 195 D hyperbola ..95,187
attenuation 75, 77, 1.8, 36, 56, 82,
dead zone ..47, 53, 54, 85, 87,88,
99,723
89, 90, 94, 106, 115, 763, 779, !
190,278
B indication.4, 7, 31, 38, 85, 95, 99,
diffraction 2, 7, 26,37,35,36, 37,
l0B, I 18, t23, t24,139, t47,
backscatter ... .................... 38, 194 38, 39, 10, 14, 85, 99, 100, 102,
148,754, 757,759, 760, 761,
back-wall... 33, 40, 41, 47,79,85, 103, 71.2, \25, 126, 762, 767,
163, 165, 766, 167, 768, 169,
17 0, 195, 208, 213, 227, 228
87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 95, 100, 106, 170,171, 172, 173, t87, 190,
107, 108, 178, 723, 125, 129,
digitisation 39, 49, 50, 58, 65, 69,
191, 192, 196, 197,272,273,
1.36, 1.37, 148, 149, 150, 155,
73, 7 4, 75, 7 6, 87, 90, 91, 724,
))) ))A
156,160, t62, 166,167, 168, 135, 158, 209, 21,7
interference.. .52, 54, 56, 67, 726,
772,177, 178, 179,789, 200, 137, 750, 179, 187
202, 208,212, 213,215, 216, E
interpretation ... 42, 46, 147,149,
217, 278, 221, 232, 233, 234 150,1,60,224
EDM (electro discharge
bandwidth .. 7, 23, 52, 53, 54, 55, IP (incomplete penetration) 160,
machining.... ......125, 727, 131
121,137,209,229 163,213,217, 2t8
encoder ..7, 67,62,63,64, 65,66,
beam size 27,83,208 ISO i0863 ...... 723, 127, 795, 196,
67,70,77, 84, 91, 138,142,
byte ............... ......................7 4, 81 ))R )?^
753, 159, 182, 210, 211, 276,
228, 229, 230, 233, 234
c L
calibration. 18, 33, 64, 65, 76, 82, F
lateral wave .... 40, 41, 47,79, 80,
102, 127, 123, 125, 728, 130, 85, 87, 88, 89, 92, 95, 702, 704,
FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) .7,
131, 733,138, 142, 195, 197, 707, 108, 177, 116, 118, 123,
54,183,212
)1fi ))9 ??) )77 124,125, 129, 137, t43, 748,
focal length... ......................27, 28
compression. .7 , 8, 79, 25, 37 , 39, 149, 150, 151, 153, 755, 156,
focal spot si2c................ .......5, 27
40, 4t, 47,81, 84,91, 702, 108, 160, 161, 162, 163, 166,767,

247
 Index

169, 170,172, 776, 777, 778, 97, L00, 1.01., 1.03, 104, 1.06, sample rate .............. 81, 277, 230
179, 180,187, 188, 189, 190, 112, 113, 114, L19, I21, 126, scanner.l, 61, 62, 64, 67, 83, 131,
'1.30,
191, 208, 211, 212, 213, 214, 137,138, 141., 148, 150, 138, 140, 742, 157, 171, 779,
215,2t6, 217, 2t8, 221,223, 154, 155, 156, 162, 1.69, 171, 182, 204, 270, 228, 229, 232,
230,232,233,234 187, 213, 2't5, 21 8, 221, 222, 1,) J
length sizing .............. 45, 84, 216 223, 225, 228, 230, 231, 232, SDH (side-dri1led hole) \26,127
LoF (lack of fusion) 48,163,172, 233,234 sizing 1, 27,37,32,34,35,36, 38,
187, 190, 191, 192,213 phased array2, 26, 34, 54, 62, 70, 44, 45, 47, 62,8s,705,118,
109,1.L9,134,1.59 134, 739, 749, 753,158, 165,
M PoD (probability of detection) 170,179, 180, 194, 195,197,
..35,45,148, L64 203, 207, 208, 213, 276, 222
manual UT .. 29, 45, 65, I20, 133, PRF (pulse repetition Si2ing............ ...... 32, 99, 202, 208
199,215 frequency)70, 83, 84, 141, 211, square wave pulser ................ 52
mismatch (high-low) ... 159, 766, 230
217, 279,220 Pythagorean ...85, 87, 90, 96, 1,54 T
mode conversion.. 12, 73,74,76,
36, 40, 41,79, 82,118,149, target ......33, 34, 53, 77, 702, 115,
167, 1 68, 789, 218, 221, 232,
a 720,121,123, 124, 125, 126,
111 qualification .130, 131, 196, 197,
. 127, 128, 130, 131, 136, 181,
224,227,228 )o) )o7 ))q
N tip diffraction .......................... 3B
R transverse 7,8,72,13, 14,15, 38,
noise4S, 47, 52, 56, 57, 60, 67,72, 40, 108, 778, 763, 764, 203, 227
82, 123, 124, 728, 729, 148, random error.............. ............223 true depth 94,735,771
149,750, 770,772, 175, 177, refracted ang\e....1,4, 29, 91, 100,
181, 183, 797, 192, 210,212, 1.03, 104, 105, 107, 109, 114,
V
275,216, 217, 233, 234 1'18, 124, 125, 126, 137, 206,
Normalised Focal Length 27,28 213,2t5,218,229 velocity.5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 26, 27, 28,
notch.... 37,38, 40, 41, 45,94,96, ring-time.... 47, 53, 54, 55, 85, 87, 29, 52, 60, 72, 87, 87, 97, 95,
175, 116, 125,127,128, 137, 88, 89, 99, 108, 112, 1.1.5, 1.62, 97, 1.35, 740, 1.67, 203, 206,
158, 167, 215, 2t7, 229,232, 179, 190, \92, 213, 21.4, 2't 5 )'t? ))? ))? )?1
1J3 RT (radiography)..31, 34, 46, 48,
167,194,199,206 W
P
wedge.......33, 40, 41, 85, 94, 101,
PCS (probe centre spacing)...85, 110, 111, 717, 138, 746, 751 ,
87, 88, 89, 90, 97, 92, 94, 96, saggita .,.,.,.,114 756,213,215

248