Stage Lighting Design A History of Light and Lighting

2017519 A History of Light and Lighting
A History of Light and Lighting
Edition: 2.2 (1999)
Copyright (c) 19901999 by Bill Williams
IN THE BEGINNING (c 4.5 Billion BC)
Let There Be Light!
In the beginning it was dark and cold. There was no sun, no light, no earth, no solar
system. There was nothing, just the empty void of space. Then slowly, about 4.5
billion years ago, a swirling nebula, a huge cloud of gas and dust was formed.
Eventually this cloud contracted and grew into a central molten mass that became our
sun. At first the sun was a molten glow. As the core pressure increased, and the temperature rose to millions
of degrees a star was born. Through the process of thermonuclear hydrogen fusion, the sun began to shine.
This was the nebular hypothesis, first proposed in 1755 by the great German philosopher, Immanuel Kant.
THE SUN (c 4 Billion BC)
Our sun is an atomic furnace that turns mass into energy. Every second it converts
over 657 million tons of hydrogen into 653 tons of helium. The missing 4 million
tons of mass are discharged into space as energy. The earth receives only about one
twobillionths of this. Scientists calculate that the sun should keep burning for
another 10 to 30 billion years. It has been estimated that in 15 minutes our sun
radiates as much energy as mankind consumes in all forms, during an entire year.
The sun is approximately 93,000,000 miles from the earth, 864,000 miles in diameter, and is only an
'average' star in size, brilliance and age. There are more than 100 billion other stars in our sun's own galaxy,
the Milky Way. Energy, with a color temperature of approximately 6500 degrees Kelvin, is received on earth,
from the sun. It takes light from the sun approximately 8 minutes to reach the earth. The illumination on the
earth's surface by the sun may exceed 100,000 lux, (10,000 fc) in mid summer.
THE EARTH (c 4 Billion BC)
About 4 billion years ago, soon after the Sun was formed, the Earth and our other
planets were formed from violent explosions and spinoffs from the process that
created the Sun. The nine planets created are now known as Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, (arranged in order, from the sun).
As rocks and other particles collided forming the Earth, it became molten. The rocks
liquefied and the heavier elements sank to the core of the planet. The surface of the
Earth cooled and hardened. Gradually oceans appeared and sunlight and water gave birth to life, eventually,
intelligent life.
The earth has a diameter of 7,900 miles (compared to the sun's diameter of 864,000 miles).
EARLY LIFE (c 3 Billion BC)
http://billwilliams.ca/resources/history/hol.htm 1/76
Without light, there would be no life. Life was dependent on three things being
present: a.) the basic long molecule building block, carbon, b.) water, and c.) light.
The Earth had all three. Eventually the oceans formed a rich organic soup that
ultimately bore life. The oldest verified evidence of life comes from Rhodesia, where
rocks formed approximately 3 billion years ago, bear 'stromatolites', the fossilized
remains of algae.
Originally our atmosphere contained; hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, methane, ammonia
and water vapor. For millions of years, the waste product of oxygen, from the ocean's
algae, bubbled up out of the sea and into the atmosphere. Gaseous oxygen reacted strongly with the methane
and ammonia in the atmosphere, turning it into carbon dioxide and water vapor. Over time, methane,
ammonia and carbon dioxide were almost eliminated from the atmosphere. As oxygen began to build up in
the atmosphere, the usual oxygen module (02) began to absorb ultraviolet wavelengths from the sun to form
three atom molecules (03). In time a layer of poisonous ozone had built up high in the atmosphere, about 30
miles above the surface of the Earth. This ozone layer effectively blocked much of the damaging ultraviolet
rays from reaching the Earth. Paleontological records show that life moved from the sea to land, only after
the ozone layer had formed, providing a 'sunscreen' to protect the land from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Today, the air we breath today is approximately 78 percent nitrogen, 20 percent oxygen and 2 percent noble
gases, carbon dioxide and water vapor.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS (c 2 Billion BC)
Somehow, as the primitive ocean organisms developed, one managed to develop a molecule that could use
the energy of sunlight to produce food for itself. Sunlight, water, carbon dioxide and simple inorganic
elements were all that was needed to sustain itself. No longer did ocean creatures have to eat other ocean
creatures to survive. This was the birth of the first 'autotroph', a creature that could manufacture its own food.
The plant was born and the process of photosynthesis had begun.
FIRST MAN HOMO ERECTUS EMERGES (c 1 Million BC)
EARLY MAN (c 500,000 BC)
For people that lived before the dawn of history, there was no such thing as a solar system. The world as they
understood it, was a small patch of land bounded perhaps by hills and by the blue line of the sea. Overhead
was the sky, and across it rode the sun, a god, giving light and warmth. The moon was a lesser god, shining
with a lesser light, and with it at night, rode the brilliant innumerable stars. Outside of this little universe, lay
unimagined mystery.
FIRE, FLAME and TORCH (c 400,000 BC)
Homo erectus probably discovered fire by accident. Fire was most likely given to man as a 'gift from the
heavens' when a bolt of lightning struck a tree or a bush, suddenly starting it on fire.
The flaming touch and the campfire probably constituted early man's first use of 'artificial' lighting. For the
first time man gained some small degree of freedom from the blindness of night, and some small degree of
safety from the fear of unseen prowling beasts. As early as 400,000 BC, fire was kindled in the caves of
Peking man.
The torch was the first portable lamp. One of the earliest developments was the discovery that a bundle of
sticks tied together made a blazing torch, producing a brighter and longer lasting light. Man had finally
learned to control fire and the human race was on the road to civilization.
The discovery of fire has had such a profound effect on humankind that all early societies constructed a myth
to commemorate it. Years later, to the ancient Greeks, the fire bringer was Prometheus.
ANCIENT ART (c 28,000 BC)
In the Ice Age snow and cold of 30,000 years ago, CroMagnon artists used natural pigments to create
primitive paintings. Excellent examples of early art have been found in the cave at Lascaux, in France.
Clearly man must have been using fire to provide the necessary light to create his art, as many painting have
been found deep within caves, far beyond the reach of daylight.
PRIMITIVE LAMPS (c 13,000 BC)
Prehistoric man, used primitive lamps to illuminate his cave. These lamps, made from naturally occurring
materials, such as rocks, shells, horns and stones, were filled with grease and had a fiber wick. Lamps
typically used animal or vegetable fats as fuel. Hundreds of these lamps (hollow worked stones) have been
found in the famous Lascaux caves (France), dating to about 15,000 years ago.
The Sumerians of 2600 BC left behind them alabaster lamps so close to shell form that it is indisputable that
shells themselves must have been used long before. Early man also realized that a crude reflector would help
direct and intensify the light. Niches have been found carved into cave walls that are thought to have served
this purpose.
In the Mediterranean area, hand fabricated lamps appear in Palestine, before 2000 BC.
Additional Reading: Greek and Roman Pottery Lamps, Donald Bailey, British Museum, 1972.
WORLD POPULATION (8000 BC) 100,000 people.
AGRICULTURE (c 8000 BC)
About ten thousand years ago, man made an incredible discovery. For hundreds of thousands of years before,
man has been a hunter/gatherer. Once man realized that he could actually plant crops and harvest them at
specific times he now had a stable food supply. Man had discovered agriculture and now was able to settle
down and farm a small patch of land. The knowledgeable use of light and other important factors brought
man new freedom.
Successful agriculture meant for the most part predicting the seasons. Whoever could predict the coming of
spring, the flooding of fertile river planes and the proper time to harvest was certainly a god or a magician.
It is possible that many ancient monuments were built to predict the coming of the seasons. The
[STONEHENGE] is an example.
ANIMAL LAMPS (c 5000 BC)
Animals were also used as lamps. Oily birds and fish needed only be threaded with a wick to produce a
working lamp.
There are also records of the early use of fireflies to provide man with a source of convenient light. In the
West Indian Islands (and also in Japan) fireflies were imprisoned in primitive cages to provide illumination
through the process of bioluminescence. See also: [BIOLUMINESCENCE].
(REF: Lighting 1, Early Oil Lamps, British Science Museum, 1966).
EARLY LAMP FUELS (c 5000 BC)
The fuel used in ancient lamps, depended largely on availability. Olive oil was probably the principal fuel
employed in the Mediterranean countries, and was exported to areas where the olive did not grow. Other oils
which were probable used in lamps include sesame oil (mainly in the East), nut oil, fish oil, castor oil and
other plant oils.
Lamp fuels were editable, so lamps were more likely to be used by the wealthy than the poor. In times of
hunger, fats would be consumed by the poor, and they would have less fuel available for their lamps.
(REF: Greek & Roman Pottery Lamps, Donald Bailey, British Museum,1972).
WORLD POPULATION (3000 BC) 100 million people.
EARLY LIGHTING (3000 BC)
In the ancient civilizations of Babylonian and Egypt, light was a luxury. The Arabian Nights were far from
the brilliance of today. The palaces of the wealthy were lighted only by flickering flames of simple oil lamps.
These were usually in the form of small open bowls with a lip or spout to hold the wick. Animal fats, fish
oils or vegetable oils (palm and olive) furnished the fuels.
ORIGIN OF THEATRE (c 3000 BC)
Ancient theatre is as old as man's need to tell stories. The origins of theatre go far back into the past, to the
religious rites of the earliest civilizations. Throughout the history of mankind there can be found traces of
songs and dances in honor of a god, performed by priests and worshipers. The earliest civilization in which
primitive rituals developed into truly elaborate performances was the Egyptian. It has been argued however,
that the earliest existent Egyptian texts for funerals and coronations, some dating as far back as 3000 BC are
really plays. See also: [EARLY THEATRE, GREEK], [EARLY THEATRE, ROMAN].
EARLY GLASS (c 2500 BC)
The most reliable research places the invention of glass in the third millennium before the birth of Christ, in
Mesopotamia, (or presentday Iraq and Syria). The earliest known glass makers worked in Mesopotamia, as
far back as 2500 BC, crafting beads and other small objects. Hollow vessels do not appear before about 1500
BC.
Mix sand, soda and lime, cook and cool, the results: glass. Natural glass can sometimes be created with little
more than a strike of lightning on a sand beach. It appears in the form of thin tubes called fulgurites. There
are also tektites: small, rounded bodies of glass formed as a result of meteorites crashing to earth. Among
natural glass, the most prevalent is obsidian. Shiny and dark, it is born in the fires of volcanoes and was first
used by humans to make tools, more than a million years ago. The Romans introduced glass blowing, about
50 BC. See also: [MEDIEVAL STAINED GLASS].
RE (THE SUN GOD) (c 2300 BC)
(Also: RA) The Egyptians believed that at night the sun god, Re, would travel through dark regions beneath
the world where his ship faced destruction by a dragon named Apophis. A papyrus in the British Museum
records a ceremony based on this theme, dating from about 2300 BC. Although Egyptian art survives in
some quantity, direct illustrations of early rituals do not. Dancing and music, however, the secular
entertainment of the pharaoh's courts are well illustrated by paintings and other artifacts.
STONEHENGE (c 2000 c 1500 BC)
Early man considered himself to be a child of the sun. Worship of the sun became part of early civilization.
Stonehenge was built on the Salisbury Plain (England) between about 20001500 BC. From the stones and
other existing landmarks, archeologists have long puzzled over its meaning. Dr. Gerald S. Hawkins,
(astronomer) showed in 1963 (with the aid of computers) that the stones were aligned to indicate the solstices
and the beginning of seasons, and to predict eclipses of the sun and moon.
SUNDIAL (c 1500 BC)
The sundial is an instrument for measuring time, by means of location of a sun shadow, cast by a marker. A
sundial consists of two parts; a gnomon and a dial plane. The gnomon is the shadow producing device. The
principal of the sundial was discovered about 1500 BC and allowed early man to divide the day into hours.
The first hemispherical sundial was described about the 3rd Century BC by Chaldean astronomer Berossus.
Sundials were used for determining the time until the 18th. Century, when clocks and watches became
available.
TEMPLES (1000 BC)
Although early Roman temples date as far back as 2000 BC, Greek temples were built after the Dorian
immigration (before 1000 BC). One of the best examples is the Parthenon, from the 5th Century BC.
Most Greek temples were usually oriented to the east to illuminate the statues within through the doorways at
sunrise.
OIL POTTERY LAMPS GREEK (600 BC)
After the natural oil lamp, then the crude worked lamp, pottery lamps followed. Early Greek pottery and
were handmodeled. Handles first appeared on Minoan lamps, and on the first Athenian lamps of the 7th
Century BC. In addition to handmodeling, later lamps were also manufactured by pottery wheel and
molding techniques. Both of these techniques became far more popular than the handmodeling method.
Pottery lamps were a cheap and practical means of illumination, easy to produce, easy to use, but rather
messy to handle. The oil would often ooze from the wick hole and run down the outside of the lamp.
During the 6th, 5th and 4th centuries BC, Athens was a major manufacturer and exporter of high quality
poetry lamps. Lamps similar in basic design may still be used today, in some parts of the world.
Additional Reading: Greek and Roman Pottery Lamps, by Donald M. Bailey, The British Museum, 1972.
PYTHAGORAS (c 582 c 500 BC)
Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher and mathematician who was born in Samos. He founded the
Pythagorean School that emphasized the study of musical harmony and geometry. He also put forth the
'Particle' theory of light. This assumed that every visible object emits a steady stream of particles, that
bombard the eye. Pythagoras suggested that "light consists of rays that acting like feelers, travel in straight
lines from the eye to the object, and the sensation of sight is obtained when these rays touch the object",
much like the sense of touch.
HERACLITUS (c 535 475 BC)
Heraclitus Greek philosopher "The world, an entity out of everything, was created neither by gods nor by
men, but was, is and will be eternally living fire, regularly becoming ignited and regularly becoming
extinguished" (The Cosmic Fragments #20, c 480 BC).
OIL RESERVOIR LAMP (500 BC)
Gradually the body of the oil lamp closed, forming a completely enclosed reservoir, by about 500 BC. The
oil reservoir lamp consisted of pottery or metal bowls with one or more wicks projecting through openings in
the spouts and a cover to keep the reservoir from being spilling or being ignited. The cover also helped keep
rats and mice from drinking the oil and prevented insects that were attracted to the light, from falling into the
oil.
Artisans of that day found in the oil lamp, an intriguing medium for their artistic expression. Early Greek,
Roman and Egyptian lamps are highly artistic in design.
Additional Reading: Greek and Roman Pottery Lamps, by Donald M. Bailey, The British Museum, 1972.
EARLY THEATRE, GREEK (500 BC)
The first great theatrical age in the history of Western civilization is that of Greece in the 5th Century BC. It
was there that tragedies and comedies were first performed by actors, not by priests, in special buildings. The
Greeks built open air theatres, and used natural daylight and sunlight for their lighting. In the Greek theatre,
lanterns were used to show that the scene was set at night. Early theatres were constructed from wood. Later,
theatres (300 B.C.) were constructed from stone.
Additional reading: Theatre Design & Technology, December 1991. Additional reading: A Concise History
of the Theatre, P.Hartnoll 1974.
EURIPIDES (484 406 BC)
Euripides (Greek) a contemporary of Sophocles was the last great writer of Greek tragedy. Eighteen plays
survive (out of a possible ninetytwo.)
PLATO (c 427 c 347 BC)
Plato was a Greek philosopher and one of the most creative and influential thinkers in Western philosophy.
Born to an aristocratic family in Athens, he eventually became a disciple of Socrates. The Platonic School
complicated the theory of light, by supposing that vision was produced by rays of light that originate in the
eye and then strike the object being viewed.
ROMAN LIFE & LIGHT (400 BC 80 AD)
From the earliest days, light became a part of religious ceremony. In the pagan temples of the Romans, The
Vestal Virgins tended the everlasting light. Apparently, any of the virgins who broke their vow of virginity,
would be buried alive.
In 264 BC, the first year of the war, gladiatorial combats were made part of the 'games', prisoners being
allowed to hack each other to death for the amusement of the people, instead of being executed. By the first
Century AD there were sixty days of games at various times of the year. Three centuries later, the figure had
risen to one hundred and seventyfive days a year. By then, the games had moved from temporary to
permanent buildings and started to offer more extravagant horrors. Crocodiles, bison, zebra, lions and tigers
were imported to fight each other or the gladiators. In 80 AD, Titus dedicated the 'Colosseum" in Rome with
games lasting a hundred days, in which some nine thousand animals were killed in 'hunting scenes'
ARISTOTLE (384 322 BC)
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist. He was also a pupil of [PLATO]. He had a different theory
of light from the Pythagorean School. Aristotle concluded that light travels in something like waves.
Regarding the relationship between color and sound (music), he wrote: "colors may mutually relate like
musical concords for their pleasantest arrangement like those concords mutually proportionate".
'The whole terrestrial region, (wrote Aristotle in his Meteorologica) was composed of four 'bodies': fire, air,
water and earth'.
According to Aristotle, a play is 'an imitation of an action, not the action itself".
Additional reading: "Aristotle's Works" were translated into English and edited by Sir David Ross and S.J.
Smith, 12 vols (New York & London, 19101952).
COLOR AND MUSIC (SOUND) (c 350 BC)
Many people over the years have tried to find a relationship between the color of light and music (or sounds).
See: [ARISTOTLE, NEWTON, CASTEL, HOFFMAN, WILFRED, and COLOR ORGAN].
EUCLID (320 275 BC)
Euclid, (probably Greek) a mathematician studied light and followed the teachings of [PLATO]. He was to
greatly influence the development of the field of optics. He described the behavior of light and in his book on
optics, (in his twelve postulates), he anticipates the important ray theory. The first postulated stated: The rays
emitted by the eye, travel in a straight line.
Euclid also gathered all the geometry of his time into a single logical system, in his book 'Elements'. It is still
the basis of geometry taught today.
The speed of light must be very high, Euclid believed, because you can close your eyes (thus making the
things you are looking at disappear!) and then, when you open them again, even the distant stars appear
instantly.
EARLY OPTICS & LENSES (c 300 BC)
The earliest known lenses to the Greeks and Romans consisted of glass spheres filled with water. These early
lenses were used as 'burning lenses'. True glass lenses were unknown at this time. It wasn't until the end of
the 13th Century that glass lenses were manufactured in Europe.
Today, most lenses are made from special types of high quality glass known as optical glass. This glass is
generally free of internal bubbles, and imperfections. First a glass 'blank' is cut from a block of optical glass.
Next the blank is ground into rough shape by grinding on a cast iron plate, covered with a mixture of
abrasive material and water. Convex or concave surfaces are formed using special curved grinding tools. The
final process of manufacture is polishing, a process accomplished on a pitch covered iron tool coated with
jeweler's rouge and water.
ARCHIMEDES (287 ??? BC)
Archimedes a Greek, discovered the principal of buoyancy in his bathtub. He invented a device for lifting
water (Archimedes Screw) and he built many devices for the study of astronomy.
In 212 BC as the Roman republic invaded Syracuse in Sicily, Archimedes is said to have built large focusing
mirrors that reflected and directed intense sunlight onto the Roman ships in the harbor, setting them alight.
(This is doubted by most historians).
PHAROS OF ALEXANDRIA (LIGHTHOUSE) (c 280 BC)
The Pharos of Alexandria was a lighthouse more than 134 m. (440 ft.) tall, that stood on an island at the
entrance to the harbor at Alexandria, Egypt. A fire burned at the top as a signal to ships on the
Mediterranean. The Pharos has been called "archetype of every modern lighthouse." It lasted to about the
14th Century AD.
HERO OF ALEXANDRIA (c 150 BC)
Hero of Alexandria, was a Greek scientist and mathematician, probably born in Egypt. He wrote at least 13
works on subjects concerning applied mathematics, mechanics and physics. Although [EUCLID] could
explain plane surface reflection, Hero of Alexandria is often credited with discovering the properties of
reflection of light, and putting forward the law. {1ST REFLECTION}
The early Greeks, assumed that light traveled in straight lines. Although the Pythagorean school assumed
that every visible object emits a steady stream of particles, [ARISTOTLE] on the other hand, concluded that
light travels in waves.
EARLY THEATRE, ROMAN (55 BC 200 AD)
The Romans, developed their theatres after the Greeks, however there were a number of differences. Rome
theatres were built on flat ground, not on a hillside, and had a vast wall of surrounding masonry, often
elaborately decorated. The first stone theatre in Rome was built by Pompey in 55 BC. Soon after, other
theatres were built, each steadily becoming more vast and ponderous. The 'Theatre at Sabratha' (North
Africa), was built about 200 AD and had a typical Roman semicircular orchestra (seating), raised stage and
elaborate three story stage facade (frons scaenae).The Roman theatre had no real great dramatists. Plays were
read and quoted from, but not acted.
The Romans continued to use natural light as the main source of lighting for their plays. The Romans also
used torches and fire in their presentations to indicate the time of day.
ROMAN LIGHT AND ARCHITECTURE (c 15 BC)
The use of natural light in buildings was the domain of the architect. The Roman Architect Vitruvius devoted
a whole chapter to natural lighting in his text book 'De Architectura' written about 15 BC.
WORLD POPULATION (0 BC) 250 million people.
0 BC BIRTH OF CHRIST
LIGHT AND THE BIBLE
There are more than 200 references to the word 'light' in the Bible. About 75 of these occur in the new
testament. The book of Job contains the most references (over 25) and the book of Psalms has about 25
references to light. In the new testament, the Gospel of John has the most references (about 16),
Light was the first of God's creations, according to the book of Genesis. "And God said, let there be light,
and there was light". (Old Testament, Genesis, i,3.)
God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. (Old Testament, Genesis, i,4.)
"Speak to Aaron and say to him 'When you set up the seven lamps, they are to light the area in front of the
lampstand'". (Old Testament, Numbers 8.2.
The Bible, Numbers 4.9: "They are to take a blue cloth and cover the lampstand that is for light together with
its lamps, its wick trimmers and trays, and all its jars for the oil used to supply it."
"to the land of deepest night, of deep shadow and disorder, where even the light is like darkness". Job 10.22.
"What is the way to the abode of light? And where does darkness reside?" Job 38.19.
"His snorting throws out flashes of light, his eyes are light the rays of dawn". Job 41.18
Light was identified throughout the New Testament with the nature of God, himself. "The word is light that
the darkness cannot extinguish, and this light illuminates every man.....We are the children of light, who have
put aside the world of darkness."
"The first creature of God in the works of the days, was the light of the senses, the last was the light of
reason". (Francis Bacon, Essays of Truth.
HORN LANTERN (c 100 AD)
The horn lantern provided a portable light source. It was not only suitable for moving about outdoors, it was
also no doubt used for moving around safely indoors. The lamps were made from the working of horns from
cattle into transparent plates and are described in detail by Plinty the Elder (1st Century A.D.) and the lamps
were clearly referred to even earlier by Plautus (254?184 BC).
PTOLEMY, CLAUDIUS (c 100 c 170 AD)
Claudius Ptolemaeus, also, Ptolemy (tolemi) of Alexandria was a Greek who lived in Egypt in the 2nd
Century of the Christian era and may have merely recorded the ideas of others. Ptolemy developed a theory
of the planets about AD 150. Ptolemy was also able to measure the bending of a beam of light as it passed
from air into water or glass. It is known that whatever observations Ptolemy may have made, he was not led
to the correct reflection laws, as later discovered by [SNELL] in 1621. {1ST REFRACTION}
THEATRE IN THE MIDDLE AGES (400)
There is little known of the Romanesque and Byzantine theatre. In the 5th Century A.D. all performers of
mime were excommunicated; in the 6th Century Justinian closed the theatres and the end of theatrical
entertainment was finally sealed with the arrival of the Barbarians in 568 A.D. For almost 1000 years, very
little theatre or performance took place.
CANDLE (c 400)
The invention of the candle dates back to about 400 A.D., perhaps somewhat earlier. Relatively few candles
were used in the home until about the 14th Century, however they were an important symbol of the Christian
religion. The best candles were made of beeswax and were used chiefly in church rituals because the bee was
regarded as a symbol of purity. But because beeswax was expensive, crude tallow candles had to be used by
the common people. Tallow was smelly and smoky. The candles dripped badly and generally gave a feeble
light.
MEDIEVAL STAINED GLASS (905)
According to legend, glass is a Phoenician discovery and, therefore, more than 2000 years old. As recorded
in literary sources, it was often used for windows in late antiquity and early Christian times. The German
monk Theophilus Presbyter in his "Schedula diversarum artium", of the tenth or eleventh Century, says that
the stainedglass window, was a craft long practiced in France, and the chronicle of the St. Remi in Reims,
dating from 905, says the window in the church depicted various scenes.
The art of stained glass reached its height in the Middle Ages, between 1150 and 1250. Outstanding
examples of 12th Century stained glass can be found in the windows of such churches as SaintDenis, in
Paris, and Canterbury, in England. Excellent examples of 13th Century works include the windows at
Chartres and the SaintChapelle in Paris.
See also: [EARLY GLASS].
ALHAZEN (IBN AL HAITAM) (965 1039)
Abu Ali Mohamed ibn alHasan Ign alHaytham (also: ibn alHaitam) was an Arabian scientist and scholar,
also known as 'Alhazan'. He was one of the earliest, to write and describe optical theory. He studied light, the
nature of vision, the eye, and solar and lunar eclipses. His early experiments led to a forerunner of the
[CAMERA OBSCURA] which he used to prove that light travels in straight lines. He also studied reflection
and refraction, and published a book on optics in 1038. Alhazan's work became an historical reference work
in the evolution of optics.
His treatise on optics was translated into Latin by Witelo (1270) and afterwards published by F. Rismer in
1572 with the title "Opticae Thesauris Alhazeni Libri VII cum ejusdem libro de crepusculis et nubium
ascensionibus" Other manuscripts are preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and in the Library of
Leiden.
CAMERA OBSCURA (c 1000)
The development of the modern day camera is based on the early discovery of the camera obscura. Although
it is difficult to prove the original inventor, certainly one of the first to describe and use the principles of the
camera obscura, was [ALHAZEN], in 1038. Others including Roger [BACON], and Giovanni [PORTA],
also are credited with the invention or development of the camera obscura. The principals of the camera
obscura were frequently used by early painters and artists, in their studies of architecture, much like a
photograph is used today.
The camera obscura at first was simply a small room, completely darkened and lighttight. A small pinhole
was made in an outside wall and the brightly illuminated exterior scene would be projected on the opposite
wall. No lens was required. The image was inverted, or projected upsidedown. The principal of the camera
obscura evolved into a small box, with drawing paper being used to trace the image and by about the year
500, artists began using the device as a drawing aid. Some versions were made with an internal mirror to
reverse the image and turn it right side up again. Over the years, the camera obscura became smaller in size
and eventually evolved into the modern day camera.
MEDIEVAL RELIGIOUS DRAMA (11th Century)
After the disappearance of classical drama, it is within the Church itself, that theatre is revived in the Middle
Ages in the form of the liturgical or church drama of western Europe. The first liturgical plays were written
for performances by priests and choir boys in a church. The alter with its crucifix was always central to the
playing area. On stage right was Heaven, on stage left was Hell. Several other scenes, were arranged in
between.
MEDIEVAL THEATRE (12th & 13th Century)
It was during the late 12th and 13th centuries that plays began to move out of the Church. Productions
continued to become more elaborate and complicated. They continued to demand a great number of
properties and working machinery. The raised wooden platform would conceal traps, there were cranes by
which God and his angles could descend from Heaven, and in the Mons play of 1501 the mechanism of Hell
Mouth which opened to belch out clouds of smoke and closed to swallow up the damned, was so
complicated that it took seventeen men to work it. The stage carpenters thought nothing of producing floods,
fires and earthquakes. Realistic executions were called for, with bloody wounds, severed heads and limbs.
Costumes were elaborate and sometimes splendidly embroidered.
1200
MAGNIFYING GLASS (1200's)
See: [BACON, ROGER]
SPECTACLES (EYEGLASSES) (1200's)
Credit to developing spectacles generally goes to Roger [BACON]. One of the earliest paintings to show
spectacles is by the artist Jan van Eyck and dates to 1436.
BACON, ROGER (c 1214 c 1294)
Bacon (place of birth unknown) was an English monk, scientist and scholar and was also known as Doctor
Mirabilis. Details of his life are obscure however he did make a great impression on the learned minds of his
time.
Bacon is usually given credit for developing the magnifying glass. He is also variously credited with the
discovery of eyeglasses. Others also give him credit for developing the [TELESCOPE], the [CAMERA
OBSCURA] and gunpowder. He followed the work of [ALHAZAN] and spoke of concave and convex
lenses. He also expressed interest in the natural sciences, mathematics, perspective and astronomy.
He wrote in his 'Opus Majus': "...pictures could be projected into space, into air where it could become
visible for the multitudes."
1300
1400
LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452 1519)
A scientist and artist, Leonardo did much to study the natural forces and actions of nature. Leonardo's world
reached from philosophy to mathematics to physics, optics, botany, zoology, mechanics, hydraulics,
astronomy, and other scientific areas. He investigated the nature of light and studied reflection, refraction and
mirrors. He studied the structure and anatomy of the human eye and compared it to the [CAMERA
OBSCURA]. Leonardo also attempted to fly, but failed. He was an excellent painter. In fact, he was a true
genius.
Born in 1452, Vinci, Leonardo lived at first just outside of the Italian village of Vinci. In 1469, Leonardo's
father took him to Florence to continue his schooling. He outshone his fellow pupils at every skill and in
1472, when he was 20, was accepted into the guild of painters, allowing him to seek independent
commissions for his work.
Leonardo was a master of light. As a painter, he studied; light, reflection, shadow and color in detail. The
presents and importance of light is clearly evident in Leonardo's work. Leonardo produced a great many
sketches and paintings. He left behind, however, very few completed works, most of which can be found
today in the Louvre museum. da Vinci is probably best know for his painting of the 'Mona Lisa', painted
between 15031505. He kept this painting at his side, until the day he died, as he claimed it was unfinished.
This painting is now perhaps the most famous painting in the world.
There is evidence from his note books that Leonardo may have combined a negative and positive lens to
observe the Moon. Unfortunately he kept his notes secret during his lifetime and they were edited much too
late to have any influence on [GALILEO] who did extensive work with the telescope in the early 1600's.
Leonardo was also left handed and wrote his notes in mirror writing (reversed).
Additional Reading: National Geographic, Vol. #152, Sept. 1977, Leonardo da Vinci: A Man for All Ages,
James L. Amos.
COPERNICUS, NICOLAUS (1473 1543)
Copernicus, (Poland) in 1512, correctly placed the sun at the center of the solar system. Finally, the world
was free from the misconception that all other heavenly bodies revolved around a stationary earth. He still
believed however that the planets orbited in perfect circles. It wasn't until 1609 that Johannes [KEPLER]
correctly identified the orbits as being elliptical in nature, instead.
SERLIO, SEBASTIANO (1475 1554)
Serlio (Italian), a painter then architect was the first published theorist of the Renaissance theatre. His six
chapters on how to build stages and scenery appeared first in Paris in 1545 under the title 'Le second livre de
la perspective'. He also developed a system of 'color filters', using candles placed behind translucent
containers of color liquid. He went on to give recipes and recommendations for the use of specific colors. By
using a brightly polished barber's basin behind a torch or candle, he developed an elementary spotlight, with
a round bottle serving as the lens. {1st EARLY SPOTLIGHT}
MAUROLYCUS, FRANCISCUS (1494 1575)
Maurolycus wrote on the subject of light in 1554 in his "Light on the Subject of Light".
AGRICOLA, GEORGIUS (1494 1555)
Agricola was a German scientist and the founder of petrology and the science of mining (mineralogy). He
studied medicine in Italy and became town physician in the mining town of Joachimsthal. He wrote on the
subject of the color of flames when common salts were dropped into them. He concluded that "it must be
possible to obtain from the color of a flame enlightenment concerning the materials burning therein." We
know today that is the sodium in the salt that causes yellow flames, potassium salts, when burned produce a
violet color, strontium salts red, and barium salts, green. See also [MELVILL].
1500
VESALIUS, ANDREAS (1514 1564)
Andreas Vesalius (visaleas) was a Flemish physician born in Brussels, Flanders. His dissections of the
human body and descriptions of his findings helped to correct misconceptions held since ancient times and
are the basis of the foundation of the modern science of anatomy. In 1543 he published his 'Fabric of the
Human Body" and clarified many obscure details, including those of the human eye. Much of his work is
noted for its remarkable drawings of the body.
DI SOMI, LEONE (1527 1592)
Leone di Somi was a stage artist and a noted physician. In 1565 in Mantua, he wrote his 'Dialogues on Stage
Affairs' giving valuable insights into period theatre design practices of the time. Di Somi is also credited with
being the first person to discuss the advantages of the darkened auditorium during a stage performance.
PORTA, GIOVANNI (1533 1615)
Giovanni Basttista Porta Although the invention of the [CAMERA OBSCURA] has been attributed to a
number of people, [ALHAZAN, BACON, LEONARD0], before him), Porta often also is given credit. In
1558, Porta published a book "Magis Naturalis" and describes the use of convex lenses in order to improve
the formation of images. In 1593 Porta wrote another book "De Refractione", which tried to explain the
theory of lenses.
GRECO, EL (1540 1614)
El Greco (a pupil of Titian), became one of the most remarkable exponents of individualism, that can be
found in the history of art. El Greco went his own way, free from any fashion or trends in painting. He
introduced into his work expressionistic ideas, in regards to both form and color.
It is often thought that his elongated figures were attributed to astigmatism. Others dispute this and claim that
Xray evidence shows that the elongated paintings were applied to non distorted drawings.
BRAHE, TYCHO (1546 1601)
Tycho Brahe (Danish astronomer) was an early observer of the heavens. Night after night, for more than
twenty years he studied and recorded the position of the planets and the stars. Near the end of his life, he
hired an assistant, Johannes KEPLER, an excellent mathematician. Using Brahe's data, Kepler formulated
three laws of planetary motion. The data accumulated by Brahe was superior to all other available
astronomical measurements, made until the invention of the telescope in the early 17th Century (about 1600).
INGEGNIERI, ANGELO (c 1550 c 1613)
In 1598, Angelo Ingegnieri, a stage designer, published his views in a work entitled "Dramatic Poetry and
How to Produce Plays". He calls lighting 'one matter of supreme theatrical importance'. The lighting of the
actors' faces was especially important. Ingegnieri was also an advocate of the darkened auditorium, during a
performance.
GALILEO, GALILEI (1564 1642)
Galileo was an Italian astronomer, mathematician and physicist from Pisa who developed the scientific
method of studying natural events. He studied light and observed the heavens with a telescope and in 1609,
discovered that Jupiter had satellites and that Venus displayed phases like the moon. Although Galileo did
not invent the telescope he did invent modern astronomy.
He also studied motion and acceleration and defined the laws of motion He was an outspoken advocate of
Copernicus's theory that the sun forms the center of the universe, which led to his persecution and
imprisonment by the Inquisition in 1633.
See also: [TELESCOPE].
SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564 1616)
The English dramatist and poet, William Shakespeare was the author of the most widely admired and
influential body of literature by any individual in the history of western civilization. His work comprises 36
plays, 154 sonnets, and 2 narrative poems.
Very little is know about the life of William Shakespeare. Born perhaps in StratforduponAvon, he married
at eighteen and soon went to London where he became first an actor then a playwright and a shareholder in
the Globe Theatre, where many of his plays were performed. It was indeed fortunate that his plays were
printed, as none of his manuscripts survived.
During a play in Shakespeare's day, attendants were assigned the task of caring for the candles. Candle wicks
needed to be trimmed constantly, to keep the flame from smoking. To keep these candles burning brightly,
these attendants were constantly crossing the stage, even at the most tense moments of the drama, to trim the
wicks.
Shakespeare wrote: "Mary, sir, she's the kitchen wench, and all grease; and I know not what use to put her to,
but to make a lamp of her and run her by her own light. I warrant her rags, and the tallow in them will burn a
Poland winter". (Comedy of Errors iii.ii).
"Light, seeking light doth light of light beguile".
(Love's Labours Lost, i,i.)
RENAISSANCE THEATRE (1565 1675)
During the Renaissance, theatre in Europe flourished. Natural light, the torch, the oil lamp and the candle,
were still the principal sources of illumination. Gradually, theatre began to move indoors, from the palace
gardens, into the great halls of the ruling nobles. Chandeliers with candles above the stage and the
auditorium were used for general lighting. Lighting along the front edge of the stage was (later) provided
with candles or oil 'float' lamps. Candles behind the proscenium, were used to light the scenery.
The first permanent classic theatre was the Teatro Olimpico, which still survives today in Vicenza, Italy.
Built between 15801584, by the famous Italian architect, Andrea Palladio, the auditorium was originally
open to the sky. The first theatre with a proscenium arch and a front curtain, (as we know it today) was the
Teatro Farnese, build at Parma about 1618. During this period other major design elements of the 18th and
19th Century theatre were developed, including auditorium design, stage sets, wings with flats, the orchestra
pit and auditorium balconies. Renaissance Italy was the birthplace of lighting specifically devised for stage
productions.
KEPLER, JOHANNES (1571 1630)
Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician. A contemporary of [GALILEO] he is often credited as
being the true founder of modern astronomy, and the first to explain the laws of natural planetary motion. In
1604 Kepler compared the eye to a camera, (a darkened chamber). In 1609 Kepler showed that the earth's
orbit was elliptical.
SABBATTINI, NICOLA (c 1574 1654)
Nicola Sabbattini was an architect, theatre designer and painter at the court of Urbino, Italy. He published his
famous 'Practica' or 'howto' on theatrical devices in two volumes (1637 and 1638). His Practica is the first
handbook on the art of scenography for the practicing theatre technician. He describes a number of
techniques relating to lighting, illumination, scenery and special effects. He describes in detail the need and
placement of footlights and the arrangement of other lighting around the stage and auditorium. He even
shows (drawing of 1638) a mechanical method of lowering cylindrical metal hoods around burning candles,
to cause them to dim. The publication of this text represented a significant step in the evolution, awareness
and use of light in the theatre as an art form.
JONES, INIGO (1576 1656)
Jones was England's first major architect. He was born in London on July 15, 1573. Between 1600 and 1603
he visited Italy where he was influenced by the architecture of the Romans and especially as adapted by the
Italian architect Andrea Palladio.
Returning to England, he began in 1605 a long association with the English court as a theatre designer and
architect. He also introduced the classical manner of Palladian architecture, which he had studied.
Between 16051613 he produced a number of elaborate stage and costume designs for the theatre. As a
theatre designer, he brought the spirit and vitality of the Italian theatre to lavish masques at the British court.
He also became a master at lighting and created many spectacular effects for his productions.
He was also an architect of theatres, one of which still exists today, the Banqueting House. This is considered
to be Britain's oldest theatre, built in 1622 with a massive cellar underneath, to support the large stage and
the one hundred stage hands required to work it.
Additional reading: Ian Mackintosh, Tabs, September 1973.
Additional reading: Microsoft Bookshelf 97 Encyclopedia.
ELIZABETHAN THEATRE (1576 1640)
The first permanent theatre in London was built appropriately enough, by a carpenter, James Burbage, who
was also a part time actor, obviously a man born for the theatre. One of his two sons, the younger, Richard,
was the first leading English actor, the creator of Hamlet, Lear, Othello and Richard III, while the elder,
Curthbert, acted as his brother's manager. The building which the elder Burbage erected in 1576 was known
simply as 'The Theatre'. It was an enclosed structure of wood, which because of opposition from the Lord
Mayor of London, was built outside the city boundary.
The most famous Elizabethan theatre, is the 'Globe' built by Burbage's sons on London's South Bank in 1599,
with timber from 'The Theatre'. It was here that most of Shakespeare's plays were produced and it was after a
performance of Henry VIII in 1612, that the theatre was destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt the following year,
and remained in use until it was demolished in 1644. In 1640, the Puritans effectively put an end to theatre
until the end of the war in 1648.
As in Greece, there were no women on the Elizabethan stage. Boys, specially selected for their slight,
graceful build and light voices, were apprenticed to older actor's and trained to play such parts as Juliet,
Rosalind, Viola and Portia. As in Italy, all the actors had to be dancers and singers.
MICROSCOPE (1590)
The microscope was invented about 1590 by Zacharias Jenssen of Holland. This was the first compound
microscope, using two lenses. The microscope wasn't really put to serious use until in 1665, when the
English scientist, Robert [HOOK], published his 'Micrographia', the first documentation of the microscopic
world.
FURTTENBAC, JOSEPH (1591 1667)
Also: (JOSEF FURTENBACH) a German architect, in 1628 described a stage sloping toward the audience.
In front was an orchestra pit with a wall masking the musicians from the audience. He also developed a
mechanical method of blacking out candles by remote control and a type of reflector for the candle, using
mica. He gives very detailed descriptions of lighting instruments.
SNELL, WILLEBROD, VON ROIJEN (1591 1626)
Willebrod Snell (commonly known as Snellius) was a Dutch mathematician and physicist. He is known for
his discovery of the simple relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction for a ray
of light crossing from one medium to another. Although he never published his discovery, (Snell's Law), he
merely lectured on it. His discovery (1621) of the law of refraction was of significance for the study of the
nature of light. Now crude optical instruments, already in use (i.e. [TELESCOPE]), could now be further
explained.
DE LA TOUR, GEORGES (1593 1652)
Georges de la Tour (French) was a painter of Louis XIV's time. Many of his (later) works show a masterful,
almost obsessive use of artificial light. He was born in VicSur Sille in 1593 and died in Lun‚ville in 1652.
DESCARTES, RENE (15961650)
Rene Descartes (dakart) was a French philosopher, scientist and mathematician. In 1637 he published his
"Les Meteores" in which there is an admirable explanation of the [RAINBOW], showing how both primary
and secondary colors are formed. Descartes study of optics led him to the independent discovery of the
fundamental law of reflection, that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. His essay on
optics was the first published statement of this law.
VELAZQUEZ, DIEGO RODRIGUEZ DE SILVA Y (1599 1160)
Velazquez was a Spanish painter with an extraordinary technique and mastery of light. He painted still lifes,
portraits, and historical scenes, such as 'The Surrender of Breda' (1635).
1600
AVERAGE LIFE EXPECTANCY 33 YEARS in 1600
TELESCOPE (c 1600)
Hans Lippershey was a Dutch lens grinder and maker of spectacles. He is usually credited with the invention
of the first telescope about 1600 and he applied for a patent in 1608. About a year later, various lens grinders
of northern Europe, were making telescopes. Records show that the telescope was further developed by
[GALILEO] and by others. [BACON] (in the 1200's) is also sometimes given credit for discovering the first
telescope.
KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS (1601 1680)
Kircher was a professor of mathematics in Rome, about 1650. Kircher is often given credit for the invention
of the [LATERNA MAGICA], the earliest form of projection device (about 1645). [HUYGENS] and
[WALGENSTEIN] are also given credit). Kircher published a number of books, and also described the
[CAMERA OBSCURA], lenses and optics. Kircher was also one of the first to experiment with moving
images. He was also one of the first to try and correlate and relate light to sound.
REMBRANDT VAN RIJN (1606 1699)
The art of oil painting originated in Holland. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born in Leyden, in the
province of Holland, on July 15, 1606. Rembrandt was to become the supreme dramatist of light. He saw
man isolated in nature and he revealed man in nuances of light and dark. Rembrandt remains unrivaled in his
understanding of the complex world of feelings and emotions. Although the source of light is seldom seen in
his paintings, his figures often 'radiate' light as if they were the source of light itself.
Many of his works show very dramatic lighting. A perfect example is 'The Woman Taken in Adultery' which
shows great contrast and dramatic side lighting.
GRIMALDI, FRANCESCO (1618 1663)
Grimaldi, in Italy, discovered optical diffraction and observed its periodic nature. {1ST DEFRACTION}
BOYLE, ROBERT (1627 1691)
Robert Boyle, physicist and chemist, is often referred to as the father of modern chemistry. He invented the
vacuum pump and used it in the discovery of what is known as Boyle's law. Boyle was also a pioneer in the
laboratory study of the field of [BIOLUMINESCENCE]. In 1667, he showed that the light of luminous
bacteria and fungi goes out if the organisms are deprived of oxygen.
HUYGENS, CHRISTIAN (1629 1695)
Huygens (hoi'gens) was a Dutch scientist, who thought that light consisted of waves, not particles, as did
[NEWTON]. Both theories had strong arguments in their favor.
His wave theory suggested that light results from the molecular vibration in the luminous material. Further,
that vibrations were transmitted through an 'ether' as wavelike movements (like ripples in water). Huygens
concluded that the result of these transmissions acted on the retina, stimulating the optic nerves to production
vision.
His numerous, original discoveries won him wide recognition and honors among the scientists of the 17th
Century. He discovered a new method of grinding lenses, and using the sharper definitions obtained, he
discovered a satellite of Saturn and was able to provide the first accurate description of the rings of Saturn.
In 1678 Huygens discovered the polarization of light by double refraction in calcite. Huygens is often also
given credit for the development of the projector [LATERNA MAGICA].
HOOKE, ROBERT (1635 1703)
Hooke was an English physicist who discovered the law of elasticity, known as Hook's Law. He also did
research in a remarkable variety of fields. Hooke was educated at the University of Oxford and later went on
to assist the English physicist Robert Boyle in the construction of the air pump. In 1662 he was appointed the
curator of experiments of the Royal Society and served in this position until his death. After the great fire of
London in 1666 he was appointed surveyor of London and was responsible for designing many new
buildings. Hooke was also a pioneer in microscopic research and published his observations, which included
the discovery of plant cells.
RAINBOW (1637) See: [DESCARTES, RENE] and [NEWTON].
PURITANS (1640)
In 1640, the Puritans effectively put an end to theatre in Britain, until the end of the war in 1648.
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642 1727)
Sir Isaac Newton was an English scientist and mathematician who greatly contributed to many fields of
science including; motion, gravity and optics. He was first to formulate the corpuscular theory of light.
Newton said that luminous bodies radiate energy in particles or corpuscles, and that these particles are
ejected in straight lines. The particles then act on the retina of the eye in a manner to stimulate the optic
nerve and produce the sensation of vision in the brain. Newton was born the same year that [GALILEO]
died.
In 1666 Newton at the age of 23, performed his famous prism experiment. He noticed and recorded that
sunlight is white light that contains all the colors of the spectrum. In 1704 he published the first edition of his
famous book 'Opticks'. Newton correctly identified the principals of refraction associated with his
experiment in that light is bent as it travels from one medium to another at a slight angle, dependent on its
wavelength. He didn't know that he was repeating what [LEONARDO DA VINCI] had noted down, in
mirror writing, approximately 200 years earlier.
Newton, like others before him also tried to discover a link between light and color and between light and
sound. Newton divided the visual spectrum into seven colors. He considered that these divisions
corresponded to the diatonic scale. He wrote: " Considering the lastingness of emotions in the bottom of the
eye by light, are they not of a vibratory nature? Do not the most refrangible rays excite the shortest vibrations
the least refrangible the largest? May not the harmony and discord of colors arise from the proportions of
the vibrations propagated through the fibers of the optic nerve into the brain, as the harmony and discord of
sounds arise from the proportions of the vibrations of the air?" The answer to Newton's question today,
would be no! His color scale was as follows:
Red C
Orange D Green F
Blue G
Indigo A
Violet B
"Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in Night:
God said, Let Newton be, and all was Light"
(Alexander Pope, 18th Century)
ROEMER, OLAF (1644 1710)
(Also: Olaus and Ole) The speed of light was roughly calculated in 1675 by the Danish astronomer Olaf
Roemer. He used the moons of Jupiter, discovered several years earlier by Galileo to assist in his
calculations. His calculations led to an estimate of 132,000 miles per second. Roemer's submitted his work to
the French Academy of Science in 1675. He was ridiculed and his work was largely forgotten. Fifteen years
after his death the British astronomer James Bradely started out from the same observations that R”emer had
made and his thinking ultimately led to a conclusive figure for the speed of light (186,000 miles per second).
See also: [SPEED OF LIGHT].
LATERNA MAGICA (c 1645)
The Laterna Magica (magic lantern) was the first early projection device and a forerunner of the modern
slide and motion picture projectors.
[KIRCHER], (in about 1645) is usually given credit for the invention of the Laterna Magica. Although it is
very difficult to prove the original inventor, [HUYGENS] and [WALGENSTEIN] are also given credit for
invention of the Laterna Magica.
In his book, German historian, Helmuth Wolff wrote: "It is possible to prove the use of the Laterna Magica at
the beginning of the 18th Century, that is for the years 172627, at the Opera in Hamburg. The designer and
architect Thomas Lediard describes these projections very precisely, eliminating any doubts".
WALGENSTEIN, THOMAS (1650)
Walgenstein (Danish), demonstrated an early projection device [LATERNA MAGICA] throughout Europe
and worked with an early projector in Rome in 1650.
RESTORATION THEATRE (a 1660)
During the interval of Puritan rule in Britain, all of the formerly supported stage productions were suspended
(1640). The main source of light in Restoration theatre was usually chandeliers concentrated toward the front
of the house, especially over the forestage. The chandeliers were somewhat of a nuisance however, as they
had to do for indoor and outdoor scenes alike. Furthermore, they dripped hot grease on both audience and
actors.
The candle snuffer was a characteristic figure of these times. Candlewicks needed frequent trimming,
regardless of what was taking place on the stage.
GREAT PLAGUE SWEPT ENGLAND (1664 1665).
COLORS OF THE SPECTRUM (1666)
Color is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon. It is a sensation produced when light stimulates the retina of
the eye, and the brain interprets this sensation as 'color'.
Early scientists always considered the primary colors to be relatively large areas of the spectrum: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue and violet. However in 1666, [NEWTON], named a 7th color located between blue and
violet, as indigo. Aubert in 1865 estimated that the solar spectrum contained approximately 1,000
distinguishable hues. Root in 1881 found 2 million tints and shades can be distinguished.
See also: [COLORS, PRIMARY].
DISCOVERY OF PHOSPHORUS (1669)
Phosphorus from phosphoros, or 'light bearer'. Hennig Brand (German) discovered the strange new
element phosphorus in 1669. A painting by the Englishman Joseph Wright in 1771 shows Hennig on his
knees praying, while his dark laboratory is illuminated by the eerie glow of phosphorus, contained in a glass
vessel. He obtained the material from human urine.
FIRST USE OF WING LIGHTS (1670)
There is reference to candles having been fixed behind the shutters (sliding flat wings), as early as 1670, at
the Hall Theatre.
FIRST USE OF FOOTLIGHTS (1673)
One of the first recorded use of footlight can be seen in the French painting 'Les delices du genre humain',
1670. The painting of the Comedie Francais in Paris shows a row of small protruding flames along the
downstage edge of the stage. Four chandeliers with candles are also shown, hanging above the stage.
Another of the first recorded uses of footlights in the English theatre (also with chandeliers above the stage)
can be seen from the drawing (front piece) to Francis Kirkman's 'The Wits', published in 1673. ('The Wits' or
'Sport upon Sport', was a collection of short comedies acted in private halls during the Puritan ban of the
theatres between 1642 and 1660.) The footlights are candles (or possibly, oil lamps). Oil lamps usually had
two or more wicks in individual containers, and their use certainly predates this print.
POLARIZATION/POLARIZED LIGHT (1678)
In 1678 [HUYGENS] discovered the polarization of light by double refraction in calcite. Polarized light is a
special type of light. It occurs in nature and can also be manmade. Ordinary light consists of a mixture of
waves vibrating in all directions perpendicular to its line of propagation (or travel). Polarized light consists of
the electric or magnetic waves all confined to one plane. Polarized light can be obtained by reflection
(depend on the angle of incidence) and it can also be obtained by double refraction in certain crystals, such
as calcite. See also: [POLAROID FILTER] and [ETIENNE, LOUIS MALUS]
CASTEL, PADRE (1688 1757)
Over the centuries, many efforts have been made to compare color to sound and to link the two media into a
single systematic language. The French Jesuit, Louis Bertrand Castel claimed that he was inspired by
Kircher, and was the first to create an actual [COLOR ORGAN]. Castel called his device 'Clavessin
Oculaire'. The device consisted of a remodeled harpsichord with a keyboard. Padre gave his first recital in
Paris on December 21, 1734.
Additional Reading: The Art of Light & Color, Tom Jones, 1972.
1700
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706 1790)
Franklin was an American painter, author, diplomat, philosopher, and scientist. He was born in Boston on
January 17, 1706, and at the age of 13 was apprenticed to his brother James, who had recently returned from
England with a new printing press. In 1723 he left Boston and moved to Philadelphia, to continue work as a
printer. In 1724 he traveled to London (at age 18) and obtained employment from two of the leading printing
houses in London. In 1726, Franklin returned to London to resume his trade as a printer.
Always interested in scientific studies, he invented the Franklin stove, and then later in 1747, he began to
experiment with electricity. He supported the hypothesis that [LIGHTNING] was an electrical phenomenon,
and proposed an effective method of demonstrating this fact. His plan was published in London and carried
out in England and France before he himself performed his celebrated experiment with the kite in 1752. He
invented the lightning rod and offered an explanation of positive and negative electricity.
In 1784, Franklin also invented bifocals. He was also a critic of the corpuscular theory of light. His research
into the nature of electricity helped pave the way for its practical use and resulted in the development of the
lightning rod.
GARRICK, DAVID (1717 1779)
David Garrick was the leading figure of the English stage from 1741 to 1776. He was responsible for many
innovations in the theatre.
Perhaps the most significant lighting of the eighteen Century was practiced at the Drury Lane Theatre under
the management of David Garrick. On his return from the Continent in 1765, Garrick began to institute his
socalled reforms at the theatre. While in Paris he was particularly impressed with the lighting and staging
techniques at the Paris Opera that he decided to import many of the French stage techniques and lighting
equipment, to Britain.
Further Garrick removed the traditional chandeliers, and lighting shifted to sources located behind the
proscenium and across the apron. We know in Britain that the sidelight unit had been in use for some years
and that the footlight unit had been in use since 1673. Garrick put footlights into the Drury Lane Theatre in
1765 and masked them from the audience with metal screens which also served a reflectors. The notion that
Garrick brought the footlight from France is clearly false.
PHOTOGRAPHY, EARLY (1727)
It had been know for centuries that salts containing silver, when exposed to light would darken. This was
discovered by Johann Heinrich Schultz in 1727 and probably by others, earlier. Using Schultz's research, in
1802, Thomas Wedgewood and chemist Humphry Davy studied a method of reproducing drawings on
materials that had been treated with silver chloride or silver nitrate. They created the first photogram. The
images were 'burned' directly onto a sensitized plate by intense light. The images were not very permanent
however. See also: [DAVY].
In 1819, Sir John Herschel discovered that the images could be permanently 'fixed' if they were treated with
certain chemicals containing sulfur (hyposulfides). In 1839 Sir John Herschel coined the word 'photography'.
See also: [PHOTOGRAPHY, MODERN]
WATT, JAMES (1736 1818)
The term horsepower was first used by James Watt, a Scottish inventor and engineer, known for his
improvements to the steam engine.
Roughly expressed, a horsepower is defined as 550 footpounds of work per second, or 33,000 footpounds
of work per minute. The metric unit of power is the watt, and even though the term nowadays describes
electrical power only it could just as well be used in the automotive field. One horsepower equals 745.7
watts. If an engine lifts a 550 pound object to height of two feet in one second, it delivers two horsepower.
DE LOUTHERBOURGH, PHILIPPE (1740 1812)
De Loutherbourgh, artist and designer received his early training in Paris. In 1771 he was engaged by
[GARRICK], the English actor and producer, to design at the Drury Lane Theatre. He often would combine
two and three dimensional scenic elements and he also conceived many of his designs in terms of light.
De Loutherbourgh eventually left the theatre to devote his time to an idea known at the time as the
'Eidophusicon'. The Eidophusicon consisted of a miniature theatre constructed to conduct a performance of
nothing but scenic effects using light, space, color, movement and sound.
HOFFMANN, JOHANN LEONARD (1740 1814)
Hoffmann, a painter as well as a writer, produced an essay in 1786 where he sought to establish relationships
between 'painterly harmony' and 'color harmony'. He also tried to relate color to sound. Hoffman's system
was highly theoretical and was based on the concept of polarities or opposites. Hoffman's system was highly
subjective and was based on arbitrary personal choices.
GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749 1832)
Goethe was a German dramatist, philosopher, poet and pioneer of colorimetry and physiological optics. He
was also one of the principal stage directors of the 19th Century. He published a book on color, in 1810. This
remarkable book, was exacting in its structure, methods of analysis and the manner of presenting
conclusions. In his book "Theory of Color" he recommended the use of complementary colors in to order to
help separate costumes from the scenery.
It is in a production of Goethe's Faust, where the use of projection in the theatre for expressive purposes, is
documented for the first time.
"More Light" .... Goethe, on his deathbed.
"Lamps make spots, and candles need snuffing, it is only the light of heaven that shines pure and leaves no
stain". (Goethe, Spruche in Prosa).
Additional reading: Towards a Theatre of Light, E.M. Feher, c 1975. Additional reading: Microsoft Encarta
97 Encyclopedia
MELVILL, THOMAS (1752)
Melvill (Scottish), was on of the first to make a scientific study of the color of flames, burning various salts.
Melvill, like [AGRICOLA] before him, was unable to provide answers to many questions. See also:
[SPECTROSCOPE].
MURDOCK, WILLIAM (1754 1839)
William Murdock, a Scotsman is generally regarded as the father of gas lighting. In 1792 he heated coal to
produce gas and used it to light his home and office in Cornwall, England.
ARGAND LAMP / AMI ARGAND (1755 1803)
In 1783/4, Ami Argand a Swiss chemist developed the principal of using an oil lamp with a hollow circular
wick surrounded by a glass chimney. The wick and chimney improved the combustion of the oil and resulted
in a brighter light with less smoke. This was the first real advancement in lamp technology, in thousands of
years. The Argand lamp required much more fuel than did conventional oil lamps, limiting their use to the
rich, and to public places. The Argand lamp was perfected by Quinquet in 1785.
LIGHTING OF CANDLES (1761)
In 1761, at the coronation of George III, groups of 3000 candles were connected together with threads of gun
cotton, and lit in half a minute. Those clustered below were showered with hot wax and burning thread. See
also: [CANDLES].
ADDITIVE COLOR MIXING (1769)
In 1769, Guyot (French) discovered the additive method of color mixing, by experimenting with transparent
colored papers.
YOUNG, THOMAS (1773 1829)
Thomas Young (born in England) was a London physician, linguist, and expert in many fields of science. He
read fluently at the age of two (2) At an age of fourteen (14) he was familiar with Latin, Greek, Hebrew,
Arabic, Persian, French, and Italian. Young strongly supported the [HUYGENS] wave theory of light, mainly
by virtue of his now famous double slit experiment (1801) demonstrating the interference of light waves. He
was also the first to describe and measure astigmatism (1801).
While in medical school, he made original studies of the eye and later developed what is now known as the
threecolor theory of vision. He also did research in physiology. Young also turned to optics and showed that
many of [NEWTON's] experiments with light could be explained in terms of a simple wave theory of light.
This conclusion was strongly attacked by some scientists in England who defended Newton.
COLORS, PRIMARY, (OF LIGHT) (1775)
Even before [NEWTON's] famous prism experiment in 1666, man has long pondered the nature of color.
After Newton, it was discovered that sunlight actually contains a continuous spectrum of colors, not just the
seven distinct colors that Newton identified. Modern scientists however have recognized only three primary
colors as follows:
Mayer (1775): red, yellow and blue.
Thomas Young (1801): red, green and violet
Clerk Maxwell (1860): red, green and blue
Today we consider red, green and blue to be the three primary colors in light. These are the three colors from
which all other colors may be 'mixed'. White light is a mixture of equal parts of all three primary colors.
Secondary colors in light are formed when any two primary colors are mixed together. The secondary colors
are as follows:
red and blue = magenta
red and green = yellow
blue and green = cyan
Complementary colors are any two colors when mixed together provide 'white light" Examples of
complementary colors are as follows:
magenta and green = white
yellow and blue = white
cyan and red = white
The color sensation of 'black' is produced by the absence of light.
TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM (London, 1775 1851)
Turner was an English landscape painter, renowned for his vibrant and dramatic treatment of natural light
and atmospheric effects. He viewed the world through the medium of light and sought to explain light and its
action upon the physical nature of things by his own theoretical ideas. Turner became one of the first to give
art a new intellectual basis whose only goal was objective expression of the subjective experience.
ETIENNE, LOUIS MALUS (1775 1812)
Louis Etienne was a French physicist who discovered that light when reflected becomes partially plane
polarized, i.e. its rays vibrate in the same plane. He published a paper in 1809 on his discovery, and a memoir
in 1810 on the theory of double refraction of light in crystals. See also: [POLARIZATION] and
[POLAROID].
DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY (17781829)
Davy was a renowned British chemist, best known for his experiments in electrochemistry and for his
invention of a minor's safety lamp. Davy was born on December 17, 1778, in Cornwall, England. He
experimented with the properties of gases during which he discovered the anesthetic effects of nitrous oxide.
(laughing gas). Davy was appointed assistant lecturer in chemistry at the newly founded Royal Institution in
London in 1801 and the following year became professor of chemistry there.
Davy is also given credit for inventing the electric arc. The electric arc revolutionized lighting at the time, as
now there was a powerful 'clean' source of light available as an alternative to oil or gas. The high (relative)
light output made the electric arc lamp particularly suited to both theatre and street lighting applications. See
also: [ELECTRIC ARC].
FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN (1788 1827)
Fresnel (pronounced (Fr'nel) was an engineer of bridges and roads for the French government. In his spare
time (as a physicist) he carried out extensive experimental and theoretical work in optics. Fresnel developed
a comprehensive wave model of light that successfully accounted for; reflection, refraction, interference, and
polarization. He also designed a lens system for lighthouses that is still in use today. The fresnel lens is also
used in the modern 'fresnel spotlight', a common fixture with an adjustable beam spread, used for stage and
television lighting applications.
See also: [FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT].
DAGUERRE, LOUIS JACQUES MANDE (1789 1851)
Daguerre was a French scene painter known for his illusionistic stage sets. He was also the inventor (with
C.M. Bouton), of the diorama. The diorama was a three dimensional setting usually melded with two
dimensional painted backgrounds and realistic lighting effects. Today dioramas are commonly used by
museums for display or exhibit applications.
Daguerre, working, with J. Nicephore Niepce, developed the daguerreotype, a photograph formed on a
copper plate coated with silver and treated with iodine vapor. This was the first practical photograph.
BETTY LAMP (& BETSY LAMP) (1790)
The simple oil lamp, consisting of an open (then later enclosed) saucer or pan filled with animal or vegetable
fat and some form of porous wick, remained virtually unchanged for several millennia.
Early American lamps, (originating from Europe) included tin and iron versions of this simple oil lamp. An
improved oil lamp, using an integral wick support caused the drip to run back into the reservoir and made it a
'better lamp'. This improved lamp became known to the American colonists as the 'betty lamp' and the 'betsy
lamp'. It was simply a metal variation, of the early Greek and Roman oil reservoir lamp, once made from
pottery.
As defined by Charles L. Woodside in "Early American Lamps", they usually were of an 'open' type,
although some of the later betty lamps were covered but not spill proof. The lamps of this period burned any
grease or oil available and were apt to be smelly, messy, and demanding of constant attention". Examples of
the betsy lamp date from about 1790.
Additional Reading: Lighting in America, Lawrence Cook, 1977.
FIRST GAS LIGHTING (1792)
See: [MURDOCK, WILLIAM]
1800
19TH CENTURY STAGE LIGHTING (1800's)
At the beginning of the 19th Century stages were illuminated by [ARGAND] oil burners. They were
provided as footlights, stage side lights and by overhead chandeliers. For stage use, the glass chimney was
often made from colored glass. During the Century, [GAS LIGHTING] developed and flourished. Other
sources such as the [ELECTRIC ARC] lamp and the [LIME LIGHT] were also developed and put to use on
stage.
However, up until this point in time, all lighting devices had one major drawback they all were flame
sources. They had to burn right side up, be supplied with air, protected from objects that might catch fire, and
be protected from drafts. Also, they were difficult to start, and they were a source of pollution.
Additional Reading: Legge, Tabs September 1968.
INFRARED (c 1800)
About 1800, an astronomer, William Herschel discovered that the spectrum of the sun contains more than
invisible colors. Using a prism to split the sun into a spectrum, he experimented with a thermometer, and
measured the temperature of each color. He found that the highest temperature reading came from the region
beyond the red, where no color could be seen. Herschel had discovered that infrared energy is a form of
invisible light.
Energy, with a greater wavelength than 0.0008 millimeters fall in the range of the infrared range. We
experience these rays as heat. The longer such heat rays are, the more insensitive to them, our eyes become.
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT (UV) (1801)
The 'dark portion' of the solar spectrum (adjacent to violet light) was discovered in 1801 by the German
physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter and was named 'ultraviolet' radiation.
Today we classify UV radiation as follows:
UVA (320400 nanometers) which is adjacent to visible light, is often referred to as nearUV or black
light. This band is the least energetic UV radiation.
UVB (290320 nanometers) lies in the middle spectrum. It is commonly known as erythemal UV and is the
band that converts ergosterol in the skin to vitamin D.
UVC (160290 nanometers) is the shortest UV wavelengths, and because of its effectiveness of killing one
cell organisms, is called germicidal UV. The shorter wavelengths produce ozone in air (oxygen).
See also: [SUNLIGHT AND CANCER] (a 1990)
WINDSOR, FREDERICK ALBERT (1804)
In 1804 Frederick Albert Windsor, a German entrepreneur, demonstrated and lectured on gas light at the
Lyceum Theatre in London. His main interest in gas was for street lighting. Windsor acquired a house in Pall
Mall, London and on June 4th, 1807, the King's birthday, he exhibited lights and a gaslit transparency along
the walls. In 180910, Windsor established the first public gas company, The Gas Light and Coke Company,
which remained in existence until the company was nationalized in 1948.
ELECTRIC ARC LIGHT/ CARBON ARC LIGHT (1809)
In 1809, SIR HUMPHREY DAVY first demonstrated the electric carbon arc at the Royal Institution in
London. The electric arc was also used for lighting at the Paris Opera. At that time and until about 1860, the
only source of electrical power came from batteries. After the electric generator developed sufficiently, there
was a surge of activity from 1878 onwards. (B.S.M.)
Electric arc lamps were introduced outside the Paris Opera in 1877. These were [JABLOCHKOFF] candles
in which two parallel sticks of carbon where separated by an insulator which was melted slowly away by the
arch thus selffeeding the two carbons.
By 1884 there were 90,000 electric arc lamps burning by night in the USA, where development was on a
greater scale than elsewhere.
The principal of the electric arc is still used today by many older followspots and film projectors, used in
entertainment facilities around the world. Modern followspots and projectors now tend to rely on a High
Intensity Discharge, (Xenon, CSI, HTI, etc.) lamps, instead. See also: [FIRST FOLLOWSPOT]
BUNSEN, ROBERT WILHELM (1811 1899)
In 1855, Bunsen (German chemist) was given credit for inventing the Bunsen Burner. The burner is a short,
vertical tube of metal connected to a gas source and perforated at the bottom to admit air. The flow of air is
controlled by an adjustable collar on the tube. He also was a coinventor of the [SPECTROSCOPE] along
with the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff.
Contrary to popular belief, he had little to do with the invention of the Bunsen burner, a burner used in
scientific laboratories. Although Bunsen popularized the device, credit for its design should go to the British
chemist and physics Michael [FARADAY]. Among Bunsen's inventions are the ice calorimeter, a filter
pump, and the zinccarbon electric cell. He used the cell to produce an [ELECTRIC ARC] light and invented
the photometer to measure its luminosity.
ANGSTROM, ANDRES JONS (1814 1874)
(Also: ANGSTROM) Angstrom was a Swiss (Swedish?) physicist known for his study of light. He studied
spectrum analysis and mapped the sun's spectrum. He discovered hydrogen in the solar atmosphere and was
the first to examine the spectrum of the [AURORA BOREALIS]. The unit of wavelength, the angstrom, was
named after him.
GAS LIGHTING ENGLAND (1814)
The first general use of gas street lighting took place in London in 1814. By 1823 nearly 40,000 lamps had
been installed in 215 miles of London streets.
It was the introduction of gas lighting to the theatre that began the first real advance in theatre lighting. Gas
was manageable and controllable. Centralized remote control systems were developed, usually in wings,
backstage. The 'gas plate' contained control valves between the main gas supply and each gas lighting
'circuit', and allowed the footlights, wing lights, etc. to be dimmed, brightened or extinguished at will.
By 1817, Covent Garden, Drury Lane and the Lyceum were all lit by gas. The last London theatre to adapt to
gas was the Haymarket, where candles and oil lamps were used until April 1843.
GAS LIGHTING AMERICA (1816)
Gas lighting was introduced to the American theatre in 1816 at the Chestnut Street Theater in Philadelphia.
In 1926 the Bowery Theater was the first in New York, to be lighted by gas. The theatre burned nine times
before it was demolished in 1930. There was no gas lighting in Chicago theatres, prior to 1850, when the
first municipal gas works were constructed.
As municipal gas companies did not exist throughout the country, each theatre had to manufacture their own
supply of gas. Although gas had many advantages over oil lamps and candles, it is said that several hundred
theatres burned down in Europe and America from the use of gas lighting.
By 1817, the development of gas production, storage and metering was virtually complete. By 1860, gas jets
were lighted with electric sparks and most fixtures had glass chimneys.
Additional Reading: Theatre Design & Technology, May 1969. (& photos)
HELMHOLTZ, HERMAN (1821 1894)
Helmholtz, (helm'holts) Germany, was a pioneer of physiological optics and acoustics and he made
fundamental contributions to the physiology of the senses of sight and hearing. He also studied electricity,
magnetism and higher mathematics.
Additional Reading: Microsoft Encarta 1997 Encyclopedia
CON EDISON (1823)
Con Edison, which traces the corporate lineage of its electric company back to Edison, has been part of New
York City since 1823, when its founding corporate ancestor, the New York Gas Light Company, was
chartered. Con Edison, as we know it today, is the result of the acquisitions, dissolutions, and mergers of
more than 170 individual companies. By far, the most historically significant of those companies was the
Edison Electric Illuminating Company of New York, formed by Thomas [EDISON] in 1880.
PHOTOGRAPHY, MODERN (1826)
After the early work of Schultz, Wedgewood, Davy and Herschel, it was Joseph Niepce who made the next
major advancement in the field of photography.
In 1826, Joseph Nicephore Niepce, a French lithographer used a small camera obscura to capture an eight
hour exposure on a sensitized sheet of pewter. Although the results would have been quite crude, Niepce had
brought together the concept of the camera obscura with the ability to form an image through a chemical
reaction triggered by light.
In 1829 Niepce began to work with Louis Daguerre, a Parisian painter and scenic designer for the Paris
stage. Niepce died in 1833. Daguerre eventually succeeded in developing the first practical photograph the
daguerreotype in 1839. A lens was added to the camera obscura about this time resulting in sharper images
using less light. The Daguerreotype Camera soon followed. See also: [DAGUERRE].
In 1840 William Henry Fox Talbot developed a paper 'film', treated with silver chloride crystals. When
exposed and chemically treated, the paper would produce a negative image. This negative image could be
pressed against a similarly treated paper and exposed to sunlight to make a positive print. Any number of
prints could be made from a single negative. Until this time, the image was formed completely in the camera.
In 1847, Claude Niepce (a cousin of Joseph Niepce) invented the photographic glass plate. The light
sensitive emulsion was applied directly to the glass plate, yielding a negative far superior in image quality, to
that of previous methods.
In 1881 the halftone printing process was developed making possible the reproduction of photographs in
magazines and books.
In 1884 Eastman produced a celluloid film that both produced high quality images and could be rolled into a
compact spool. After development, the negative image could be printed directly on to sensitized paper. See
also: [EASTMAN].
Eastman coined the word 'Kodak' and in 1888 started to market a compact hand held box camera, using his
new film.
In 1861 James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated the first color photographs. He exposed the same plate three
times through filters of red, green and blue. See also: [MAXWELL].
See also: [PHOTOGRAPHY, EARLY]
DRUMMOND, THOMAS LIMELIGHT (1826)
The limelight was invented an Englishman, Thomas Drummond, about 1826. He discovered that a piece of
lime glowed brilliantly when heated by an oxygen and hydrogen flame. When placed at the focus of a
parabolic reflector, it allowed him to signal from Antrim to Ben Lomond Scotland, a distance of 95 miles.
Details were first published in his ' Philosphical Transactions' in 1826, in which he described how he ad
achieved a light 83 times brighter than the brightest flame from an Argand burner.
It wasn't until about 1856 that the first theatrical use seems to be made at the Princesses Theatre, London,
where a lens was placed in front of a limelight to give a spotlight. By 1860 limelight was in common use,
and was useful for the provision of sunlight moonlight, or for use as a followspot. In its popular form, for
magic lanterns and for stage lighting, coal gas was substituted for hydrogen. The limelight had an
exceptionally long run in the theatre and was still in regular use in London theatres until about 1910.
FRICTION MATCH (1827)
The friction match was invented in England in 1827, by a druggist, John Walker, and were known as
'lucifers'. Until that time, all lamps and candles had to be lighted from either another flame or from fire
struck with flint and steel. Now man had the additional freedom to produce fire, anywhere, on demand.
MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK (1831 1879)
Maxwell was a Scottish physicist born in Edinburgh. Like Newton before him, Maxwell made contributions
of fundamental importance to many branches of physics. In 1873 he found that magnetism and electricity
were related and he formed a single unified theory of electromagnetism Maxwell realized that light was
electromagnetic radiation and as such must consist of a wave with two components, an electric field and a
magnetic field that vibrate at right angles to each other. Maxwell also developed a quantitative theory of
color vision and even produced one of the first (if not the first) color photographs.
FARADAY MICHAEL (1832)
In 1832, Michael Faraday (England) announced that he had converted magnetism into electricity. He had
sent a current through a coil of wires, creating a magnetic field which induced a momentary current in a
second coil. In America Joseph Henry affirmed that he had done much the same thing at about one year
earlier. The discovery of electromagnetic induction led to the development of electric motors, generators and
dynamos.
LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT (1834 1906)
An instrument with which heat rays can be measured with the utmost precision in the bolometer, so named
because in Greek 'bole' is equivalent to 'ray'. Bolometers have been known for a comparatively long time.
The first instrument of the kind was a 'resistance' bridge invented by the American Samuel Pierpont Langley
(18341906), consisted of four fine, blackened iron wires. They formed the branches of a very sensitive
measuring instrument that operates on the zero principle. When no current is flowing through the instrument,
the needle of a galvanometer connected to it shows no deflection. In Langley's bridge, two of the wires were
connected to a small battery, and the other two to the terminals of a sensitive galvanometer. When a beam of
light was directed at one of the wires through a narrow slit, the wire was heated. This altered the electrical
resistance and the electrical equilibrium on the bridge was thereby upset, so that a current was set up in one
arm of the bridge and deflected the needle of the galvanometer.
Also see: [INFRARED].
MONET, CLAUDE (1840 1926)
Monet was a French landscape painter and one of the founders of impressionism. Monet is also considered to
be one of the leading landscape artists of all time. Later in his career he devoted himself to painting the
changes of light and atmosphere caused by different seasons and different times of day. He broke light down
into its component colors much as does a prism. He repeatedly painted such subjects as haystacks, Rouen
Cathedral, and the great lyrical series of water lilies (1899 & 19041925) in his garden at Giverny.
EDISON, THOMAS ALVA (1847 1931)
Thomas Alva Edison was born at Milan, Ohio, and spent most of his boyhood at Port Huron, Michigan. His
first love was chemistry. In 1877 Thomas Edison became interested and experimented with electric lighting
but abandoned his work later that year due to a lack of funds and other pending developments. In 1878, his
friend Grosvenor P. Lowrey, a patent attorney helped raise $300,000 from investors to back Edison's
experiments. On October 15, 1878, the Edison Electric Light Company was incorporated. The objectives of
the company were: "to own, manufacturer, operate and license the use of various apparatus used in producing
light, heat or power by electricity."
Edison patented more than 1000 inventions. Besides the incandescent lamp, Edison is given credit for
inventing a system of electric generation, the phonograph, and the kinetoscope (motion picture camera) and
the motion picture projector (the Vitascope patented in 1896).
"Genius is ninetynine percent perspiration and one percent inspiration" (Thomas Edison).
See also: [EDISON LAMP].
WAGNER, RICHARD (1849)
Wagner showed great interest in the operation of the theatre and created a demand, for extensive technical
elements. He was concerned with staging, scenic and lighting effects, and to a limited degree, theatre
architecture. In 1849 he published his conceptions of a new art, under the title of 'The Work of Art of The
Future'.
SPEED OF LIGHT (1849)
A ray of light directed along the 25,000 miles of the earth's equator would return to its starting point in 0.13
seconds. In one second it would have covered the distance seven or eight times. By comparison, sound,
which travels at only 1,086 feet per second, would require 33.3 hours, while an express train with a speed of
sixty miles per hour would need 17 days, assuming its journey were unbroken.
Speed of Light: All forms or radiant energy are transmitted at the same speed, in a vacuum. After early
calculations by Roemer and British astronomer James Bradely, the French physicist Armand Fizeau (30), in
1849 established the speed of light at approximately 186,300 miles (300,000 kilometers) per second.
In 1968, in accordance with recommendations from the International Astronomical Union (Hamburg) the
speed of light was established at 299,792.5 kilometers per second or 186,282.3976 statute miles per second.
Solar parallax, 8".794; constant of nutation, 9".210 and constant of aberration, 20".496.
Light travels at different speeds in different media. In the vacuum of space, light travels at approximately
186,000 miles per second. It is slower in air and still slower in glass.
And Finally:
Nothing is faster than the speed of light... To prove this to yourself, try opening the refrigerator door before
the light comes on. (Anon.)
See also: [ROEMER] and [EINSTEIN].
SPECTROSCOPE (c 1850)
The credit for investigating the light of flames (after Agricola and [MELVILL]) belongs to two Heidelberg
professors; the physicist Gustav Robert Kirchoff (18241887) and the chemist Robert Wilhelm [BUNSEN]
(18111899). At first they made use of a prism only. When the light of flames so colored was passed through
a prism, sharply defined single lines in unmistakable colors appeared. To be able to observe these better, the
two scientists constructed a simple but highly effective and sensitive instrument. The whole apparatus was
rigged up from an empty cigar box, a prism, and parts of an old, discarded telescope. It was the first
spectroscope, a little thing on three legs like a microscope, and provided with an eyeslit. Inside it the light
rays made their way through lenses and the prism. With this instrument, it was possible to study the spectra
of redhot bodies and gases, much more accurately than with a prism alone.
PROFESSOR PEPPER (c 1850)
During the mid1800's an illusion was described and illustrated, that later became know as 'Pepper's Ghost'.
The illusion consisted of the merging of live actors with reflected (ghost) images of hidden backgrounds or
other actors. The technique had several variations however all used an angled sheet of glass, separating the
audience from the illusion.
Dr. John Henry Pepper was Director and Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Polytechnic Institution,
London, (founded in 1838). Pepper presented the illusion in the form of 'The Knight Watching his Armour'.
Others with patents for the illusion include Munro in 1863 and Maurice in 1865.
The illusion is still used today in many a 'Haunted Castle' and themed exhibits and dark rides throughout the
world.
KEROSENE LAMP (1853)
The kerosene lamp was introduced in Germany in 1853. Kerosene was distilled from petroleum obtained
from oil shale, found in mines. By 1856 Kerosene was used to light homes in New York (gas came to that
city in 1864.)
EASTMAN, GEORGE (1854 1932)
Eastman (USA) invented roll film and the name 'Kodak'.
In 1885 American inventor George Eastman marketed his first box camera. It sold for $25.00, a considerable
sum in those days. The Kodak camera, the first camera designed to use roll film, came with the film already
installed. After the purchaser took 100 pictures, the camera had to be returned to the factory, where the film
was removed and processed and new film was installed.
FIRST FOLLOWSPOT SPOTLIGHT (c 1856)
The followspot is simply a high power spotlight mounted on a stand. An operator (or stagehand) controls the
lamp and is able to pan and tilt the spotlight, following an actor anywhere on stage. Although it is not certain
when the concept of the followspot was developed and first used for theatrical applications there is
documented evidence that a limelight with a lens was used in a London theatre, about 1856.
Today, the followspot fixture is still commonly used, for theatre, dance, opera and other entertainment
events. Over the decades, the followspot has evolved from the [LIME LIGHT] to the [ELECTRIC ARC] to
the modern Xenon units of today. Leading manufacturers of followspot products include: [STRONG]
[ALTMAN], Lycian and Phoebus.
See also: [LIME LIGHT], [ELECTRIC ARC].
THOMPSON, SIR JOSEPH (1856 1940)
Joseph J. Thompson, (British) investigated the properties of cathode rays under the influence of magnetism
and electrically charged plates. He constructed a specially designed 'cathode ray tube' and identified the
radiation and the particle we now call the 'electron'. At the age of twentyfour he was made a Fellow of the
Royal Society, and a year later was elected to professorship at Cambridge. In 1906 he received the Nobel
Prize for physics, and he was knighted in 1908.
HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF (1857 1894)
Hertz was a German physicist who produced and studied electromagnetic waves (radio waves), which he
showed are long transverse waves that travel at the speed of light. Further he showed that these waves can be
reflected and refracted, like light. The unit of frequency, the hertz, is named after him.
PLANCK, MAX (1858 1947)
Max Planck (German), derived quantum theory from study of black body radiation. This was a modern form
of the corpuscular theory [NEWTON], based on the following premises: That energy is emitted and absorbed
in discrete quanta (photons) and that the magnitude of each quantum may be calculated in accordance with
Planck's constant.
MUNSELL, ALBERT H. (1858 1918)
Albert H. Munsell, (American) published his first edition of "A Color Notation" in 1905. This was followed
by the production of his first color chart. During the next ten years. he prepared a series of color charts which
he later assembled into the "Munsell Color Atlas".
Today, the Munsell System, is the most widely accepted method of accurately describing object color.
(assumes a normal observer, daylight illumination and observation of the color samples against a gray to
white background). In the Munsell System, colors are specified in terms of three (3) attributes: hue, value
and chroma.
CANDLEPOWER (1860)
In 1860, one of the basic lighting measurements, the candlepower, was established using a Spermaceti
candle, of a specific weight and burning at a particular rate, as the basis.
See also: CANDELA.
APPIA, ADOLPHE (1862 1928)
Appia was a Swiss theorist of stage lighting and decor. His use of light and shade when staging
[WAGNER'S] operas revolutionized modern scene design and stage lighting. He was also one of the first to
realize the great potential of light in the theatre, once electricity had been introduced. Appia rebelled against
naturalism and defined the stage in terms of time and space and suggested the use of light to create mood and
composition.
He called the familiar light of his time (from borderlights and footlights) general illumination (Helligkeit).
According to Appia, this type of light was useful, perhaps, but inadequate, there must be a new kind of light,
a 'form revealing light' (gestaltendes Licht) to give objects on stage their natural threedimensional quality
there must be 'living light' for living people.
Additional Reading: Norman Marshall, Tabs, September 1969.
KLIEGL, JOHN H. (1869 1959)
John Kliegl was one of the founders of the American lighting manufacturer [KLIEGL BROTHERS].
KLIEGL, ANTON (1872 1927)
Anton Kliegl was one of the founders of the American lighting manufacturer [KLIEGL BROTHERS].
CRAIG, EDWARD GORDON (1872 1966)
Edward Craig (British) began his career as an actor but unable to work freely in England moved to the
Continent. He spent most of his life battling against what he considered the egotism and stupidity of the
actor, the inadequacy of the producer, the crudity of the usual scene designer. He revolted against the
conventions of the theatre and demanded the use of light as scenery and compositional elements with the
play.
PHOTOGRAPHY, MOTION PICTURES EARLY (1872)
For centuries, adults and children alike have been amused by toys that utilized the persistence of vision to
present the appearance of a moving picture. One early device was the Zoetrope, a revolving drum with
pictures inside. Spin the drum and when viewed from the right angle, the pictures would blend together into
a moving picture.
Eadweard Maybridge in 1872 snapped 12 consecutive photos of a horse galloping. His technique for talking
sequential photos with the phenomenon of the persistence of vision provided the basis for motion pictures.
Eastman's celluloid film which could be rolled into a cylinder, made it practical.
REINHARDT, MAX (1873 1943)
Max Reinhardt was the first director to make an international reputation. He dominated the theatre of Central
Europe for more than twentyfive years, refusing to be confined to the proscenium arch, and setting his plays
in a ballroom, a circus, a cathedral square, or an exhibition hall, anywhere in fact, where he could find space
for his grandiose projects. The most memorable of them was "The Miracle", a vast spectacle whose crowds
he manipulated with ease. His extensive travels brought him into prominence everywhere. He finally settled
in the United States in 1933.
Reinhardt also applied the principals of [APPIA] and [CRAIG] and used light as a dramatic medium.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
FIRST ELECTRIC FILAMENT (INCANDESCENT) LAMP (1874)
Although Edison did not invent the electric filament lamp, he did however turn theory into practicable form
and was one of the first to successfully market incandescent lighting. We must not over look the work done
before him by [SWAN] (Britain), Cruto, Gobel, Farmer, Maxim, LaneFox, Sawyer, and Mann, to name only
a few. The first Canadian patent covering an incandescent lamp was submitted by Henry Woodward and
Matthew Evans, dated July 24, 1874 approximately five years before the development of the Edison lamp.
It was probably however, the German chemist Herman Sprengel who pioneered the vacuum light bulb in
1865.
Reference: for further information consult the MIT studies of invention publication, authorized by Arthur A.
Bright, entitled "The Electric Lamp Industry".
See also: [EDISON LAMP] & [SWAN LAMP].
TELEVISION, THE CONCEPT (1875)
The first electric TV system was proposed by George Carey of Boston in 1875, and was based on selenium
cells.
See also: [FIRST PHOTOCELL], (1880)
JABLOCHKOFF, PAUL (1878)
By 1878, Paul Jablochkoff had developed an arc in the form of an electric candle. It was made of two carbon
rods, side by side, with an insulating material placed between them, that burned away at the same rate as the
carbons. In 1879 a theatre in France was equipped with some of them, but the development of the
incandescent lamp prevented them from appearing in general use.
EDISON LAMP (1879)
Edison's first successful lamp used carbonized cotton thread as a filament, installed in a glass bulb, with all
air evacuated. On the afternoon of October 21, 1879, Edison's prototype had lasted 45 hours. The next day
Edison began to experiment using cardboard as a filament. The cardboard filament was even more
successful, and in a couple of months, production of his lamps had increased. On New Year's Eve, December
31, 1879, Edison gave his first public demonstration of his new invention, at Menlo Park, New Jersey.
Special trains were run on the Pennsylvania Railroad to accommodate the masses of visitors. About 100
cardboard filament lamps were used in this demonstration, lighting the streets, the laboratory, and the station
at Menlo Park. Each lamp was rated at 16 candlepower and consumed about 100 watts. (Average life was
about 100 Hrs.)
In 1880 Edison experimented with other materials for filaments, including wood, grasses, hair and bamboo.
Of the over 6000 specimens tested by his laboratory, bamboo, became commonly used for filaments.
In 1880, on January 17, Patent number 223,898 was issued to Edison for the T.A. Edison Electric Lamp.
In 1881, two years after the first incandescent lamp left Edison's workshop, the steamship 'Columbia' was
fitted with a thousand of them. Within another two years, there were over 300 electric power stations in
existence, feeding over 70,000 incandescent lamps, each with an average life of 100 hours.
See also: [FIRST ELECTRIC FILAMENT LAMP] (1874)
SWAN LAMP (1879)
Along with [EDISON], (and others) Joseph Swan, is also credited with inventing the incandescent lamp.
Swan demonstrated a carbon filament lamp to about 700 people in NewcastleuponTyne on February 5,
1879.
Swan's development of the incandescent lamp was reported in the Oct. 29th, 1880 issue of "Engineering",
which quotes him as follows: (SWAN) "Electric lighting by incandescence is just as simple as arc lighting is
difficult, all that is required is a material which is not a very good conductor of electricity, highly infusible
and which can be formed into a wire or lamina, and is neither combustible in air, or if combustible, does not
undergo changes in a vacuum".
The first premises to be lighted by the new Swan lamp were those of Sir William Armstrong at Cragside near
Newcastle in December 1880.
See also: [FIRST ELECTRIC FILAMENT LAMP] (1874)
PHOTOELECTRIC CELL See: [FIRST PHOTOCELL] (1880)
FIRST PHOTOCELL (1880)
The first means for converting sunlight directly into electrical energy date back to 1880. In that year the first
selenium cells were constructed by Charles Summer Tainter (American) The photoelectric cell, as it called,
has been improved in recent years, however the typical output of a single cell is still not be enough to light a
small flashlight bulb (lamp). Photo cells are also used in light meters and in other optical measurement
equipment.
PHOTOPHONE (1880)
In 1880, The Photophone was developed by Alexander Graham Bell. This device used a mirror to transmit a
speakers voice over a beam of reflected sunlight. The transmitter mirror was modulated by the speakers
voice. The receiver used a rod of selenium, a metal whose resistance changes with the intensity of light
falling on it. Electricity turned out to be more reliable than sunlight and Bell turned his efforts to the
telephone. Bell apparently wanted to name his second daughter after the Photophone as she was born a few
days after his first successful demonstration of the device in February 1880. Apparently Mrs. Bell did not
share his enthusiasm.
Modern day versions of the Photophone even exist today. From time to time many of the popular electronics
magazines provide construction projects for 'light beam communicators'.
LIGHT PIPE (1880)
In 1880, William Wheeler of Concord, Massachusetts, applied for and received a patent, on light pipes. His
idea was to use pipes with reflective inner surfaces to direct light from a source at one end, along the length
of the pipe. Concord's prototype was not very efficient and most of the light was absorbed by the mirrors.
The light pipe uses the principal of 'total internal reflectance'. This principal was noted about ten years earlier
by John Tyndal, when he shone a light at a spout of water as it gushed out of a tank. The water fell in an arc
and the light went with it. The outer edge of the water spout was acting as a mirror, reflecting the light that
reached it back toward the interior of the spout. Total internal reflection only works when light strikes the
air/water boundary at a small glancing angle. At larger angles the light passes through, the water like
transparent glass.
The principal of total internal reflection is used by the modern light pipe and by fiber optics.
See also: [TIR SYSTEMS].
See also: [FIBER OPTICS].
CARTE, RICHARD D'OYLEY (1881)
Richard D'Oyley (often: D'oyly) Carte, was the enterprising manager of the new Savoy Theatre in London.
In 1881 he opened the theatre and advertised that the Savoy was the first public building lighted 'entirely' by
electricity. In fact, there were a total of 1158 of the new Swan lamps, used to light the auditorium, the
dressing rooms, the corridors and the stage. The electrical and dimmer system was by Siemens Brothers and
Company, one of the early pioneers in stage lighting control systems. There were six (6) dimmers in all.
An article published in 'Engineering, March 3, 1882' reported: "In an artistic and scenic point of view
nothing could be more completely successful than the present lighting of the Savoy Theatre the illumination
is brilliant without being dazzling, and while being slightly whiter than gas, the accusation of "ghastliness,"
so often urged against the light of the electric arc, can in no way be applied. In addition to this the light is
absolutely steady, and thanks to the enterprise of Mr. D'Oyley Carte, it is now possible for the first time in
history of the modern theatre to sit for a whole evening and enjoy a dramatic performance in a cool and pure
atmosphere".
At the same time, the Grand Opera in Paris installed the Swan lamp.
LANGMUIR, IRVING (1881 1957)
Irving Langmuir (General Electric Research Lab.) pioneered the development of the first gasfilled electric
lamp, at atmospheric pressure. He demonstrated that it was not the vacuum in the bulb that allowed the
filament to burn for a long time. Instead he showed that by simply adding nitrogen gas, evaporation of the
filament was slowed, prolonging the life of the lamp. Later, Langmuir later substituted argon for nitrogen.
See also: [GAS FILLED LAMP] (1913)
TELEVISION, EARLY (1884)
Some of the earliest work on television began in 1884, when the German engineer Paul Nipkow designed the
first true television mechanism. In front of a brightly lit picture, he placed a scanning disk (called a Nipkow
disk) with a spiral pattern of holes punched in it. As the disk revolved, the first hole would cross the picture
at the top. The second hole would passed across the picture a little lower down, the third hole still, and so on.
With each complete revolution of the disk, all parts of the picture would be briefly exposed in turn. The disk
revolved quickly, accomplishing the scanning within one fifteenth of a second. Similar disks rotated in the
camera and receiver. Light passing through these disks created crude television images.
Nipkow's mechanical scanner was used from 1923 to 1925 in experimental television systems developed in
the United States by the inventor Charles F. Jenkins, and in England by the inventor John L. Bard. The
pictures were crude but recognizable. The receiver also used a Nipkow disk placed in front of a lamp whose
brightness was controlled from the lightsensitive tube behind the disk in the transmitter. In 1926 Baird
demonstrated a system that used a 30hole Nipkow disk.
GAS MANTLE / WELSBACH (1885)
Some improvement in gas lighting was made over the years by the development of new types of burners. It
was not, however until Welsbach introduced the gas mantle in 1885 that gas lighting was greatly improved.
A gas mantle is made from a small knitted bag, dipped into chemical and then dried. When a new mantle is
tied to a gas jet and the gas is lighted, the knitted material will burn away leaving a fragile shell of chemicals
which glow brightly in the heat of the gas flame. Many 'gasoline' type and camper lanterns today still use
mantles.
Credit for the first metal filament lamp also goes to Welsbach. He developed a rather efficient lamp with a
filament of the rare metal Osmium in 1905. However, this metal was even more rare and expensive than
platinum and the lamps were not highly successful.
WESTINGHOUSE (1886)
Westinghouse was founded in 1886 by George Westinghouse. Westinghouse received more than 400 patents
for his many inventions, including the air brake (1882) and a method of transmitting electrical power. He
also refined the transformer, providing a practical method of distributing A.C. power over a large network.
Edison at the time rejected alternating current in favor of direct current.
Westinghouse has grown to be a world wide supplier of electrical components, appliances and lamps. In
1995 Westinghouse purchased CBS for $5 Billion (US), just one day after the Walt Disney Co. announced its
purchase of Capital Cities/ABC Inc.
DUBOIS, RAPHAEL (1887)
Dubois, in 1887 demonstrated the existence of a specific compound he called luciferin, which interacts with
an enzyme, luciferase and oxygen to produce light. See also: [BIOLUMINESCENCE].
FINSEN, N.R. (1889)
It was in 1889 than Niels Ryberg Finsen, a Dane, discovered that the ultraviolet component of natural
sunlight, in fact, was responsible for sunburn. Finsen received the Nobel Prize in 1903 (04?) for his
pioneering work which led to widespread study of UV and its effects. Finsen investigated the photo
biological effects of sunlight and even had an engineer commissioned to build a large [ELECTRIC ARC]
lamp so that he could further experiment with the effects of artificial sunlight for therapeutic purposes. The
arc lamp operated at a current of twentyfive amperes and was rich in ultraviolet rays. {1ST SUNLAMP}
See also: [ULTRAVIOLET].
Additional reading: UV Lamps, LDA, June 1980. Additional reading: The Magic of Rays, Johannes Dogigli,
1961
LEONARD, HARRY WARD (1889)
Inventor, Ward Leonard worked with Thomas [EDISON] to introduce the central station electrical system
concept to cities in America. Leonard in 1892 received a patent for an electric elevator.
WILFRED, THOMAS (1889 1968)
Thomas Wilfred, was born in Nestvad, Denmark. Between 1905 and 1911 he studied music and art in
Copenhagen, Paris and London and became a singer of old songs. He began to experiment with color
mixing and projection and developed a device called the 'Clavilux' (1919). It consisted of spot and flood
lights, rheostats, screens, filters and prisms, all controlled by an elaborate control console.
In 1916 he came to the United States and continued his career as a singer in order to gather funds for his
experiments in the use of light as an art medium. Wilfred debuted his Clavilux at the Neighborhood
Playhouse in New York in 1922. Between 19221929 he made tours and gave concerts in the USA and
Canada. In 1925 he appeared in Paris, London and Copenhagen. Later he founded the Art Institute of Light
in West Nyack, New York. He continued lecturing, creating and writing, until his death in 1968.
See also: [COLOR ORGAN].
Additional Reading: The Art of Light & Color, Tom Jones (1972).
GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY (1892)
Created in 1892 through a merger of Edison's General Electric with ThomsonHouston Electric Co. The
Edison name was eliminated because it had lost prestige since an electric chair fiasco two years earlier.
Edison still insisted that DC not AC current should be used.
Today, General Electric has grown to be one of the largest suppliers of electrical components, appliances,
equipment and machinery, in the world. The company is a major manufacturer of lamps (light bulbs) for all
applications. In 1985 General Electric purchased RCA and its National Broadcasting Co. for $6.3 billion US
dollars.
http://www.ge.com
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THEATRICAL STAGE EMPLOYEES
(1893)
I.A.T.S.E. (IATSE) is a professional union with more than 75,000 members in over 500 locals, throughout
the United States and Canada. The 'I.A.' serves the technical needs of most professional stage productions,
arena shows and films, throughout North America.
ARGON (1894)
Argon, (Ar), from argon, or inactive, was discovered in 1894 by Scottish chemist William Ramsay, who
removes from air, various known gases including nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide and find an inert gas
remains. The most abundant of noble gases, argon is used in welding applications, as it provides an inert
atmosphere, in which welded metals will not burn. It is also the gas that fills most incandescent lamps.
ROENTGEN, WILHELM (c 1895)
About 1895, Roentgen (German) discovered XRays. These rays could penetrate most forms of solid matter,
as ordinary light passes through glass. Today his discovery is used for a number of medical diagnostic and
therapeutic uses. Roentgen died in 1894 at the early age of 37.
KLIEGL BROTHERS (1896)
Kliegl Brothers of New York, was founded in 1896 and was one of the oldest if not 'the oldest' stage lighting
manufacturer, established in North America. The company made high quality lighting fixtures and control
systems for the stage and studio industries. Unfortunately after a turbulent decade of changes, the company
ceased operation in the 1990's.
The company was founded by American lighting experts John H. Kliegl (18691959) and Anton Kliegl
(18721927). Kliegl was the manufacturer of the 'Klieglight, a powerful carbonarc lamp, producing an
intense light, used initially for film lighting. It was first introduced in 1911 and then later, the 'Klieglight' was
redesigned for the incandescent lamp.
NEON (1898)
Neon, (Ne), from neos, or new, was discovered in 1898 and is the best known of the inert gases. When an
electric current is passed through a minute amount of neon, enclosed in a glass vacuum tube, it glows bright
orange red.
Red neon tubes (for display) were first made by Claud in France in 1910. On January 19, 1915, the first
patent was issued for a neon sign. In 1925, blue tubes containing argon and mercury first appeared in central
London, and sometime later, a green light was produced (simply by enclosing a blue tube in yellow glass). It
wasn't until 1933 that fluorescent power coating of neon and mercury discharge tubes produced a whole new
range of colors. Neon lamps have almost an indefinite life.
XENON (1898)
Xenon, (Xe), (pronounced: Zeenon) from xenos, or stranger, was discovered in 1898. The properties of an
electric discharge arc in an atmosphere of xenon gas under high pressure was investigated by Aldington in
1947, and a few limited but important commercial applications followed. Today, the Xenon lamp is used in
the commercial [STROBE] (or stroboscopic or high speed flash), as well as a source for projection
equipment and followspots.
RADIUM (1898)
Radium (Ra), from radius, or ray, was discovered in 1898 by Pierre and Marie Curie. It is the sixth rarest of
the elements. Radium bromide is often mixed with zinc sulphide to produce a mixture used for luminous
watch dials. The radium gives off dangerous radiation which causes the zinc sulphide to glow.
ELECTRICITY (1899)
Although many early men experimented with electricity, none knew that electricity was atomic in nature. It
was the English physicist Joseph John (later Sir Joseph) Thompson, who finally lifted the veil shrouding the
phenomenon of electricity. In 1899, he demonstrated that electrons are the carriers of electricity, and, further
that each of them carries an elementary quantum of a negative electric charge.
1900
THE 20TH CENTURY (1900's)
Although the principals of lighting design had been well established during the oil and gas light eras, it
wasn't until the development of the incandescent lamp (c1879), that stage lighting could really flourish as an
art form. Now for the first time in history it was possible to provide odorless and controlled lighting. The
development of lighting fixtures flourished. The gas; striplight, box flood and footlights were redeveloped
using the incandescent lamps.
BOX FLOOD / SCOOP / FLOODLIGHT (1900's)
The 'Box Flood' is an early type of basic stage lighting fixture. Before the widespread use of electricity and
the incandescent lamp, candles, oil lamps and gas were all used for stage lighting. Long ago, some brilliant
designer enclosed a typical flame source with a cube type housing, having only one open side. Voila, a
significant development in lighting fixture design. First, the enclosure would have shielded the source from
the audience, increasing visibility and visual comfort. Second, the enclosure would have acted as a crude
reflector, helping to direct additional reflected light out of the front opening (or aperture).
Soon after the development of the incandescent lamp, the gas floodlight fixture would have been redesigned
to incorporate this new technology. The electric box flood was the most basic of all stage lighting fixtures, as
all that was required was a metal box, a socket, a power cord and a lamp. No lens or mechanical controls
were required.
The illustration above shows a modern day floodlight fixture, using an electric filament lamp. This fixture,
known as the 'Scoop', evolved from the simple box flood and provides a soft wide wash of light. Today
modern fixtures often incorporate special asymmetrical reflectors, to help provide an even distribution of
light on a vertical surface (backdrop or cyclorama). Some floodlights are also available in multicell designs,
incorporating 2, 3 or 4 partitioned lamps, each with a different color filter. Modern floodlights typically come
in wattages of 300 1000 watts.
LINNEBACH PROJECTOR (c 1900)
Adolf Linnebach was the technical director of the Munich Opera in the early 1900's. He developed a simple
projector for background and scenic projection. The projector did not use a lens. Instead, it simply cast a
shadow of a silhouette cutout, placed in front of the shielded, light source. The results was a simple, effective
image projection, with a soft focus. (Bentham).
The modern Linnebach projector uses a slide size of 24x24 or 36x48 (inches). KLIEGL BROTHERS
lighting, claims to have introduced the Linneback projector to the American market in 1922.
FOOTCANDLE (and LUX) (a 1900)
It was in the early days of electric lighting that users began to ask how much light they needed. The
measurement unit of the footcandle was developed as a measure of 'illumination'.
DEFINITION footcandle, fc: The unit of illuminance when the foot is taken as the unit of length. It is the
illumination on a surface, one square foot in area on which there is a uniformity distributed flux of one
lumen, or the illumination produced on a surface all points of which are at a distance of one foot from a
directionally uniform point source of one [CANDELA]. (REF: IES Lighting Handbook, Ref. Vol. 1981).
The International (metric) unit of illumination is the 'lux'. It is the illumination produced on a surface one
square meter in area at a distance of one meter from a uniform point source.
Lux / Footcandle conversions:
FC = LUX x .0929 ‐ Example 1: 500 LUX x .0929 = 46.5 FC
LUX = FC x 10.76 ‐ Example 2: 50 FC x 10.76 = 538 LUX
Generally you may multiple FC by 10 to obtain LUX or, divide LUX by 10 to obtain FC.
The recommended illuminance levels for various activities and tasks are published by the Illuminating
Engineering Society. Today we know that it is not just the 'amount' of light that affects visibility. Other
factors such as contrast and glare are equally important.
The illumination from the sun on the earth's surface can exceed 100,000 LUX, (or 10,000 FC) during a
summer day. At night the reflected light from the moon might be as high as 0.2 LUX, (or .002 FC).
SALTWATER DIMMER (a 1900)
Soon after the development of the electric filament lamp, applications were immediately found in the theatre
for this exciting new invention. New lighting fixtures and methods of control were quickly developed and
put into use. One early means of lamp 'dimming' was through the use of the salt water dimmer. The dimmer
consisted of a tank (or barrel) of salt water brine with a permanent electrode submerged. As a second
electrode was slowly raised (or lowered) into the brine, the conductivity between the two electrodes would
increase (or decrease) respectively. Lamps connected in series to the dimmer, would be dimmed accordingly.
It was not uncommon for a theatre to have a large number of these dimmers and it is said that the heat from
the boiling brine would often help to heat the backstage areas. Undoubtedly messy and difficult to operate
and maintain, the electric salt water dimmer was soon to be replaced by the somewhat more efficient (and
dryer) electrical resistance dimmer.
See also: RESISTANCE DIMMER, AUTOTRANSFORMER DIMMER, SCR DIMMER.
MCCANDLESS, STANLEY (c 1900 1967)
Stanley McCandless (American) is often regarded as the 'father' of modern stage lighting design. He worked
as a teacher, educator and lighting designer, throughout his career. After graduating from the University of
Wisconsin, "Mac" got his degree in architecture at Harvard. He then worked as an architect for some time
and in the late 1920's he opened an office in New York City as an independent lighting consultant. He was
the architectural lighting consultant for Radio City Music Hall and many other important projects. With the
opening of the Yale School or Drama in the 1920's he was asked to teach stage lighting. He taught at Yale
between 1925 and his retirement in 1964.
McCandless wrote two very important books on stage lighting "A method of lighting the Stage" (1st
published, 1928), and "A Syllabus of Stage Lighting". McCandless provided a 'method' of lighting that is still
the foundation of modern lighting methods today. He taught visibility of the actor first, and illumination of
the surrounding scenery, second. He proposed a system of dividing a typical (proscenium) stage in to 'acting
areas'. Each area was lighted with two fixtures placed at 90 degrees to each other, and in a 45 degree frontal
position to the actor. For additional interest, McCandless recommended a 'warm' color from one side and a
'cool' color from the other.
McCandless was also the holder of numerous patents in the architectural lighting field. He consulted on some
of the largest and most important projects at the time in the American nation. He taught many lighting
professionals in the field and lectured and wrote extensively in architectural and illumination publications.
RAMBUSH, HAROLD W. (c 1900 1981)
Harold Rambush was the interior designer of many American and Canadian cathedrals and church interiors,
(over 500) as well as the decorator of numerous American theatres, including the Roxy and Radio City
Music Hall. He also served as the director of the Rambusch Company, a leading American manufacturer of
church lighting fixtures, founded by his father in 1898.
MIELZINER, JO (1901 1976)
Jo Mielziner designed sets and lighting for more than 300 productions. He designed his first Broadway play
in 1924 and was active in the theatre until his death in 1976. Among his most famous Broadway productions
were "Carousel", "Annie Get Your Gun", "A Streetcar Named Desire", "Death of a Salesman", "The King
and I", "South Pacific", "Look Homeward Angel" and "Gypsy". (BW)
Additional Reading: Theatre Design & Technology, May 1969
HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE (HID) LAMP (1901)
High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps and lighting have been in use since the early days of the 20th Century,
as an alternative to the electric filament lamp. The first HID lamp introduced was the mercury lamp in 1901.
Later, low pressure sodium, high pressure sodium and metal halide lamps, were developed. All of these
sources consist of electric arcs, operating in a gaseous environment, sealed within a glass tube or bulb. HID
light sources are all more efficient than the electric filament lamp, however they also have limited color
rendering abilities, due to their 'line' spectrum (not continuous spectrum). Many HID lamps are now also
provided with a phosphor coating on the inside of the bulb. This coating causes additional secondary
emissions of visual radiation, providing a wider 'spectrum' of light and color. Typical applications include
industrial, commercial and architectural lighting.
See also: [METAL HALIDE LAMP], [MERCURYVAPOR LAMP], [SODIUM LAMP]
MERCURYVAPOR LAMP (1901)
The first practical mercuryvapor lamp was the CooperHewitt lamp developed by Peter Cooper Hewitt in
1901. This was a tubular source about 4 feet long which produced light that was distinctly bluish green in
color. The first high pressure mercury lamps similar to the ones used today, were introduced in 1934 in the
400 watt size. Today, mercury lamps now available, range in size from 40 watts to 1000 watts. Mercury
lamps produce approximately 5560 lumens per watt.
Operation: the arc tube of the mercury lamp has argon gas and a little pearl of mercury as filling ingredients.
It's electrodes are made of tungsten and carry an emitter paste, e.g. a bariumyttrium compound, that reduces
the ignition voltage required to start the lamp. Within three to five minutes after ignition, the mercury is
completely vaporized and the characteristic bluegreen spectrum of the mercury discharge is emitted. It
contains strong ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 254 nm and 365 nm. Radiation in the red area of the
spectrum is virtually negligible. A mercury lamp's color temperature ranges between 4000K and 4500K,
while its color rendering index (CRI) is only approximately 20, for a clear bulb. Applying phosphor coatings
to the outer bulb increases the light output by 10 to 15 percent and improves the CRI to approximately 50.
ALBERT EINSTEIN 1905
THE SPEED OF LIGHT In 1905 Einstein postulated that nothing in the universe travels faster than the
speed of light and he put forward his Special Theory of Relatively. Although many scientists have tried to
test his theory, none have proven him wrong. In the vacuum of space, light travels at approximately 186,000
miles per second. This gave rise to a special Tshirt design worn at such places as MIT and Caltec:
186,000 MILES PER SECOND
IT'S NOT JUST A GOOD IDEA
IT'S THE LAW!
LIGHTYEAR
The lightyear is an astronomical measurement used to measure distance, not time. There are approximately
31.5 million seconds in a year. This means that light can travel a distance of 5.60 trillion miles in one year.
The metric light year is approximately 9.5 trillion kilometers. The Milky Way is approximately 100,000
lightyears in diameter.
ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING SOCIETY (1906)
I.E.S. (IESNA/IES) The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. The I.E.S. was formed in
1906 and has approximately 10,000 members world wide. Its membership includes; lighting consultants,
engineers, architects, users, educators, equipment sellers and others, dedicated to the areas of lighting and
illumination. Through its activities in research in all phases of lighting application, it has achieved
recognition as the authority for recommended illumination practices in North America. The I.E.S. also makes
available a great many lighting related publications. The society is located at 345 East 47 Street, New York,
NW, 10017 (212) 7057926.
Honorary IES membership was presented to Thomas Alva Edison on February 10, 1916 at the Hotel
Biltmore in New York City.
INVENTION OF THE VACUUM TUBE (1906)
In 1906, the American engineer, Lee De Forest, patented the triode vacuum tube. By 1920 the tube had been
improve to the point where it could be used to amplify electric currents for television.
TUNGSTEN FILAMENT LAMP (1907)
Prior to 1880 all filaments were either carbonized paper or cotton thread. From 1880 to 1894 bamboo was
the usual filament material. In the 18881890 period, the squirted cellulose filament appeared. The tantalum
lamp was introduced in 1908 and the first tungsten filament lamps were used about 19071910.
The first electric lamps using tungsten filaments first appeared in America in 1907, and were made in
wattages up to 500 watts. The filaments were extremely fragile however.
The ductile tungsten filament was developed about 1911 by William D. Coolidge, (General Electric,
Research Laboratory). This resulted in a much more durable and rugged lamp design. Tungsten has a melting
point of 3370 degrees C. (Visible light is produced when a filament reaches 572 degrees Fahrenheit
'DuroTest').
Additional Reading: LDA, July, 1980, file
ROSCO LABORATORIES (1910)
Rosco manufacturers and supplies a wide range of products for the entertainment industry and has offices in
New York, Hollywood, Toronto, London, Madrid and Sydney. Products include 'Roscolux' brand lighting
filters, stainless steel projection templates (gobos), scenic paints, fabrics, plastics, projections screens,
flooring, software and many other unique items.
"In 1915, the Rosco swatchbook had three blues: Medium Blue, Dark Blue and Green Blue. By the 1930's
the range had expanded to six blues, including Daylight Blue, Pale Blue and No Color Blue". Rosco began
producing color in 1910. (REF: quote, Rosco advertisements, Theatre Crafts, Feb/1989, pg 4).
See also: [ROSCOLUX].
Rosco Laboratories 30 Bush Avenue
Port Chester, NY, 10573, USA
Fax: 9149375984 (New York)
800ROSCONY (New York)
800ROSCOLA (Hollywood)
WWW/: http://www.rosco.com.
RESISTANCE DIMMER (a 1910)
One of the earliest electrical dimmers put to use in the theatre (after the [SALTWATER DIMMER]) was the
'resistance dimmer'. The resistance dimmer was simply a long length of wire, usually wound in the form of a
coil. A 'wiper' contact would move along the coil, usually controlled by a manual leaver (or motor control).
As the contact moved along the coil, the coil resistance would decreasing or increase accordingly. This coil
resistance was placed in series with one or more electrical filament lamps to provide a relatively efficient
means of dimming.
Stage lighting switchboards were large and heavy. Many used an elaborate system of subswitches and
interlocking control levers. Master leavers were often provided to allow a single operator to raise or lower
the control handles of a number of dimmers, all at the same time. It usually required considerable skill to
achieve a smooth fade.
KELLY, RICHARD (1910 1977)
Richard Kelly was an American, architectural lightning designer and consultant, with a vast number of
projects credits. He also did extensive work with day lighting. He was familiar with the destructive
characteristics of light (UV) and provided the lighting for a number of leading art galleries and museums.
BAY, HOWARD (1912 1986)
Howard Bay has designed the sets and lighting for over 170 Broadway shows. He had designed fiftyseven
Broadway productions by the time he was thirtysix. Among his credits are "Man of La Mancha", "Music
Man", and "Show Boat". His Broadway career began in 1933 with 'There's a Moon Tonight'. His first designs
for a musical were for 'Count Me In'.) His book, "Stage Design" is one of the most popular textbooks of its
type.
Additional reading: Theatre Design and Technology, December 1969.
ROSENTHAL, JEAN (1912 1968)
Jean Rosenthal born, N.Y.C. Studied at Yale with Stanley McCandless (c. 1932), and later went on to become
one of the leading lighting designers on Broadway and in modern theatre. She was a pioneer in the art and
craft of lighting design. Over her 30 year career, she is said to have designed over 400 productions, including
plays, musicals, opera and ballet. Among her best known Broadway shows were "West Side Story", "Plaza
Suite", "Becket", "Hello Dolly", "Hamlet" (with Richard Burton", "The Odd Couple", "Cabaret", "The Sound
of Music" and "Fiddler on the Roof". Her well known book; "The Magic of Light", is published by Little,
Brown and Company in association with Theater Arts Books.
COOLIDGE, WILLIAM DAVID (1913)
Coolidge was a General Electric research worker who in 1913 received a patent for "tungsten and method for
making same for use as filaments of incandescent electric lamps". Tungsten will now replace carbon
filaments in the manufacture of Edison and Swan lamps
GAS FILLED LAMP (1913)
Up to this time, all lamp filaments operated in a high vacuum. After the introduction of the tungsten filament,
by [COOLIDGE] the next highly significant step in the development of the incandescent lamp, came in 1913
when [LANGMUIR] (G.E. Research Lab.) made the first gasfilled lamp, at atmospheric pressure. He found
that the higher pressure did reduced evaporation of the tungsten, but so much heat was conducted away by
the gas that the lamp efficiency was reduced. He discovered that coiling the filament reduced the effective
area exposed to the gas and thus minimized the loss of heat. Coiled filament gasfilled lamps in 500, 750 and
1000 watt sizes were introduced in 1913. They gave a much better light at higher efficiency with the same
life as former lamps. Nitrogen gas was used in the first lamps but argon was substituted in 1914. Argon has
lower heat conductivity than nitrogen. These lamps could be made smaller than carbon lamps and produced
three times the light per watt.
Now the development of advanced lighting fixtures and projectors, using lenses, was possible. See also:
[IRVING LANGMUIR] (1881 1957).
HUB ELECTRIC COMPANY INC (c 1915)
Hub was a large American manufacturer of theatre lighting products, located in Illinois. The company was
active in educational theatre and provided a wide range of dimming products and design services.
MAJOR CONTROLS (1916)
'Major' was formed in 1916 and is one of the oldest manufacturers of theatre lighting systems.
Major Controls,
740 Industrial Drive,
Cary, Illinois, 60013, USA
Tel: (312) 6398200.
STRAND ELECTRIC COMPANY (1917)
STRAND LIGHTING
The Strand Electric Company was established in 1917 in London, to serve the needs of the London theatre
district. Strand Lighting Canada began operations in 1958. In 1969 the Rank Organization acquired both
Strand Lighting and the American company of Century Lighting and consolidated them as Strand Century.
Rank combined all of its Strand Century Companies into one international group under the Strand Lighting
name in August 1985. In 1986 Rank acquired Electro Controls (Controls Lighting) of Salt Lake City, Utah
and Calgary and Quartzcolor Ianiro SPA of Rome. In the fall of 1996 Schroder Ventures purchased the
Strand Lighting International Group of companies from Rank. Today 'Strand', with offices around the world,
manufacturers one of the most comprehensive ranges of lighting fixtures, dimming and control equipment
for theatre and television, in the industry.
See also: [CENTURY LIGHTING]
Strand Lighting
18111 South Santa Fe Avenue
Rancho Dominguea, CA, 90221, USA
3106377500
8007330564
WWW: http://www.strandlight.com
See also: [CENTURY LIGHTING].
ADB LIGHTING (1920)
ADB is a large European lighting company currently based in Belgian. The company was founded by Adrien
De Backer in 1920 and started as manufacturers of electrical equipment including rheostats.As eqrly as 1925
ADB had developed rheostats to control the lighting for stages, music halls and movie theatres. Today the
company manufactures a wide range of luminaires, accessories, dimming and controls, for the theatre and
television markets. ADB has been a 'Siemens' company since 1987.
STRIPLIGHT / COMPARTMENT BATTEN (1920's)
The striplight (compartment batten, in Britain) is a stage lighting fixture, designed to provide a linear 'wash'
of light. In addition to being used for the lighting of scenery, striplights are also useful for the lighting of
cycloramas and backdrops. Early striplights would have used candles, oil or gas and would have been most
unpractical to handle and difficult to control.
In England, the compartment batten was made popular by Adrian Samoiloff who used many for his color
lighting stunts, which hit the headlines in the early 1920's. Prior to the compartment batten, color was
obtained by dipping the individual lamps in lacquer.
Today, the modern striplight is 6 to 10 feet in length and, wired in 3 or 4 circuits. Usually lamps of 100 500
watts are used behind plastic or glass filters. Sometimes the primary colors of light, red, green and blue are
used. When the colors are 'mixed' together with dimmers, a wide range of dramatic colors may be attained.
Often striplights will be used to illuminate large sky cloths. They are usually placed end to end, above the
cloth, running from one side of the stage to the other. Additional striplights are often also placed on the floor,
parallel to the cloth. The floor strips can provide an assortment of horizon lighting including sunrise and
sunset effects.
FIRST FRESNEL LENS SPOTLIGHT (c 1920)
The modern fresnel spotlight is one of the most basic tools used by lighting designers for spotlighting
applications. The fresnel spotlight, in its simplest form consists of a housing, a light source and a 'fresnel'
lens. When the source is moved slightly towards (or away) from the lens, the size of the light beam changes,
from spot focus to flood focus. Early fresnel type lighting fixtures would have included, gas, oil, electric arc
and other sources, and were commonly used as lighthouse type fixtures, able to project a narrow
concentrated beam, a great distance.
The modern fresnel lighting fixture uses either a tungsten halogen or a discharge type of lamp. Fresnel
fixtures are available in lens diameters of 3 inches to 36 inches or more. The typical stage and studio fresnel
has a lens diameter of 6, 8 or 10 inches.
Today, the fresnel with its adjustable beam size is invaluable for area lighting and color wash applications.
The fresnel fixture produces a 'round' beam with an intense 'hot' center and a 'soft', yet defined edge. Fresnel
fixtures come in wattages of 150 to 10,000 watts and have adjustable beam spreads of from 10 to 60 degrees.
The fresnel lens and the early fresnel fixture was developed by and named for, [AUGUSTIN JEAN
FRESNEL], (1788 1827).
[KLIEGL BROTHERS] (in a 1969 catalog) claims the incorporation of a fresnel lens into a theatrical
lighting fixture, in 1929.
LEVE, CHARLES (1922 1985)
Charles Leve was a graduate of Yale University Drama School and later went on to be the director of
development of lighting, for Strand Century, a position he held for 34 years, since 1951. Leve was also the
designer of the Light Palette, a computerized lighting control system that did much to revolutionize theatre
lighting of Broadway shows. Prior to his death Leve also had worked with Colortran Inc. and Four Star Stage
Lighting.
SCHWABE (1923)
Schwabe (Germany) was a leader in the development of early stage lighting fixtures (not dimmers and
control). The firm of 'Reiche and Vogel' is a descendent of the Schwabe Company. Schwabe made a number
of theatre lighting installations in London, as early as 1923. (St. Martin's Theatre).
REICHE AND VOGEL (1923)
see: SCHWABE
NIETHAMMER, EMIL (c 1924)
Emil Niethammer, founded about 1924, is a large manufacturer of high quality stage and studio lighting
fixtures. The company is located in Stuttgart, West Germany and was purchased by [AVAB] in the late
1980's. All fixtures are designed and manufactured to a very high standard, and optical performance is
among the best in the world.
STROBOSCOPE (ELECTRONIC STROBE) (c 1926)
EARLY STROBOSCOPE
The stroboscope is a device for viewing a rotating object by making the object appear to be at rest. In its
simplest form, it consists of a rotating disk with one or more viewing slits, through which the object can be
viewed. The observer looks through the viewing slit and sees the object in exactly the same position each
time the slit passes the observers eye. The disk must be rotated in precise synchronization with the object. If
the disk is rotated slightly slower than the object, the object will appear to be moving slowly in the direction
of its actual motion. If the disk is turning faster that the moving object, then the object will appear to move
slowly in the direction opposite to its actual motion.
The stroboscope is of great use in engineering studies of moving parts, as they can actually 'freeze' and view
the image in real time.
ELECTRIC STROBOSCOPE
Modern stroboscopes no longer use the rotating wheel with slits. Instead electric lamps are utilized that
produce short flashes of light at the same rate that the object is revolving. The high speed gas discharge
lamp, stroboscope was developed by Harold Eugene Edgerton and his associates at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology around 1926 to 1931. Today, [NEON] lamps are also commonly used for low power
stroboscopic applications, producing a flash rate synchronized with a 50/60 cycle frequency, of the standard
A.C. (alternating current) power line.
ENTERTAINMENT APPLICATIONS
On a darkened stage in a theatre, a single flashing light source can provide a very striking and dynamic stop
action effect, of all moving objects on stage.
During the mid1900's, a device known as the 'lobsterscope' was developed for theatre and stage
applications. The device consisted of a spinning disk with apertures to mechanically 'chop' the beam of light
produced from an incandescent spotlight. This produced a rapid flickering light, able to 'freeze' the action on
stage.
During the 1960's the [XENON] 'Strobe' was frequently used for discotheque lighting applications.
Designers tried to build the 'ultimate' strobe and units continued to became larger, brighter and more
sophisticated. Often several powerful strobe units would be used in a single stage production, with control
systems developed to synchronize their firing from a number of inputs (audio beat, keyboard, programmer,
etc.)
Today strobe technology in the entertainment industry is stronger than ever. Large productions might
incorporate 50100 or more units, usually mounted in banks of several fixtures each.
FIRST PUBLIC TELEVISION (1926)
On January 27, 1926, the first public demonstration of television was given. The first commercial color TV
broadcast was presented by CBS on June 25, 1951.
CENTURY LIGHTING (1926)
Century Lighting opened for business in New York in 1926. The company later was purchased by [STRAND
ELECTRIC] to become 'Century Strand', then 'Strand Century' then finally [STRAND LIGHTING], in the
1990's. 'Century Lighting' (USA) made many fine lighting products, including fixtures, dimmers and
accessories for stage and television lighting. Century also produced the well known 'leko', (ellipsoidal
reflector spotlight), in a number of different sizes and wattages.
The company was founded by Ed Kook and Joseph [LEVE].
MOLERICHARDSON CO. (c 1927)
Established about 1927, Mole Richardson is one of the leading manufacturers in the world of motion picture,
television and professional photographic lighting. They manufacturer an extensive range of lighting fixtures
and related accessories and are located in Hollywood California, USA.
MoleRichardson
937 North Sycamore Avenue
Hollywood CA, 900382384, USA
Tel: (213) 8510111
Fax: (213) 8515593
SKELTON, THOMAS R. (1928 1994)
Tom Skelton, was an well known American stage lighting designer. He died, August 10, 1991. at the age of
66. "The late Tom Skelton was an artist truly revered in the entertainment industry. He began his lighting
career as an apprentice to Jean Rosenthal. He went on to inspire other great designers including Jennifer
Tipton and Paul Gallo. Skelton was a brilliant lighting designer and innovated color techniques for both
theatre and dance. He designed for the Jeffrey, New York City, Paul Taylor, Jose Limon and the Ohio Ballet,
which he cofounded. His Broadway credits include "A Few Good Men", "Peter Pan", "Oklahoma",
"Brigadoon", "The King and I", "Carousel", and the revivals of "The Iceman Cometh", and "Death of a
Salesman". He received 3 Tony nominations, the Carbonelle Award. and the Los Angeles Drama Critics'
Award during his career." (REF: quote from, Rosco, Pattern Catalog, 1996).
CLEMANCON (1928)
The French firm of Clemoncon, was founded in Paris in 1928, and has a long record in the manufacturing of
stage lighting equipment.
UNION CONNECTOR CO., INC. (1929)
In 1929, the Union Connector Company was founded by William J. Wolpert, as a manufacturer of stage
lighting connectors. Today, the company makes a large variety of high quality electrical connectors for the
stage, motion picture and television industries.
Union Connector Co., Inc.
300 Babylon Turnpike
Roosevelt, New York, 11575, USA
Tel: (616) 6237461
Fax: (616) 6237475
PANI, LUDWIG (1930)
The Viennese firm of Ludwig Pani, is one of the world's leading manufacturers of projection and lighting
equipment. The firm was formed in 1930 as a division of the optics firm: 'Optischen Werke C. Reichert,
Wien'. Herr Pani who headed the projection division of the parent company, gave his name to the new firm.
Pani manufacturer a number of different high powered, optical projectors, accessories and lenses. Pani has
several models including a 2000 and 5000 watt incandescent model and a super bright 4000 watt HMI
model. These projectors are suitable for large scale scenic projection, for opera and other large scale
projections including outdoor architectural and building projection, at night. Pani projectors are very
expensive, but very impressive. In the USA, the firm is represented by Production Arts, (New York City,
USA).
FLASHBULB (1930)
The photographic flashbulb was patented by a German inventor, Johannes Ostermeir. A small filament in the
'flash lamp' heated to ignite foil inside the bulb, providing a bright, smokeless, flash of light. This provided a
much safer and more practical means of photographic illumination than did previous methods using flash
powder.
TIMES SQUARE CORP. (a 1930)
TIMES SQUARE THEATRICAL AND STUDIO SUPPLY CORP. was established around 1930 in New
York City. Since its inception, the company has grown to be a leading supplier lighting equipment and
accessories to the stage, studio and entertainment industries, around the world.
Times Square Lighting,
Industrial Park, Route 9W.
Stony Point, N.Y., 10980, USA,
Tel: (914) 9473034,
Fax: (914) 9473037
COMMISSION INTERNATIONAL DE L'ECLAIRAGE, (CIE) (1931)
C.I.E. (CIE) The International Commission on Illumination, in 1931, adapted a set of tables to define the
color matching characteristics or a standard observer and establish a framework for the specification of
colors. This was the trichromatic system of color measurement. The recommendations were for pure
spectrum colors and were based on a number of research programs which dated from at least as early as
MAXWELL'S work in 1854, and continued by other researchers until 1931.
Additional reading: Measurement of Color, W.D. Write, 1964, Hilger & Watts Ltd., London.
LAND, EDWIN HERBERT
See: [POLAROID FILTER], [POLAROID CAMERA]
POLAROID FILTER (1932)
The principals of polarized light have been known for many years, having been discovered by [HUYGENS]
in 1678. It was the American inventor Edwin Herbert Land however who in 1932 invented a material to
conveniently produce polarized light from ordinary light. The light gray glass or plastic filters are relatively
inexpensive, and only pass light waves vibrating in one direction. The filter material is now known by the
trademark 'Polaroid'.
Today, there are several modern uses of polarized light. Glare from the sun (or other source) reflecting off of
a shiny surface will often reflect polarized light. If the glare is viewed through a polarization filter, the glare
will disappear and reappear, as the filter is slowly rotated around a central axis. This is the exact principal
used in polarized sunglasses. The orientation of the filter tends to block any reflected polarized glare, that is
not on axis with the filter. 'Polaroid' sunglasses were introduced by LandWheelwright Laboratories in 1936.
The following year the company changed its name to the Polaroid Corp.
Polarized light also has several spectacular visual properties associated with it. For example many crystals
and plastics produce impressive and dramatic colors when illuminated with and viewed under polarized light.
This principal is used in the study of stress in engineering structures. A scale model (of a bridge for example)
will be constructed from clear plastic. The model will be illuminated with polarized light and viewed through
a polarized filter. Any loads or stresses placed on the scale model will immediately produce dynamic color
effects, showing stress lines throughout the structure. The crumpled plastic from a cigarette package and two
small polarized filters can demonstrate this colorful experience.
In the 1960's and early 1970's many 'light shows' made and projected slides, made from crumpled and
scrunched pieces of clear plastic sandwiched with a polarized filter. When projected from a source with a
polarized filter on the lens, the image would become alive with color. When the filter at the lens was rotated
the images would swirl, flicker and dance in a psychedelic display of color.
See also : [POLARIZATION/POLARIZED LIGHT]
SODIUM LAMP (LOW PRESSURE) (1932)
L.P.S. (LPS) Research into low pressure sodium gas discharge lamps started in the 1920's. The first
commercial application was a road lighting installation that was put into service between Beek and Geleen in
the south of the Netherlands on July 1, 1932. The installation employed low pressure sodium lamps with a
lumen efficacy 40 lumens per watt. In the same year, the Purley Way in London was also lit by low pressure
sodium lamps. Today, the modern low pressure sodium lamp, is considered to be the most efficient lamp
available, providing more than 220 lumens per watt. Low pressure sodium lamps can be recognized from
their deep amber color.
Additional Reading: LDA, June 1983, Low pressure sodium lighting, the past, present and future (file)
See also: SODIUM LAMP (HIGH PRESSURE)
ELLIPSOIDAL REFLECTOR SPOTLIGHT (1933)
Although not completely certain, the invention of the modern ellipsoidal reflector spotlight often goes to
[KLIEGL BROTHERS] (USA). In 1933, the first KLIEGLIGHT, was used in the spectacular outdoor
pageant "Romance of the People", at the Polo Grounds in New York. Its first indoor use was in the Earl
Carrol Vanities of the same year. Century Lighting (USA) produced a similar fixture in the same year known
as the [LEKOLITE].
Today, the ellipsoidal reflector spotlight is still one of the basic tools of the stage lighting designer for spot
lighting applications. The 'ER' as it is often known, is also used to a lesser extent in modern television and
film lighting applications. In Britain the 'ER' is referred to as a 'profile spotlight' or a 'mirror spot'.
In its simplest form, the ER fixture consists of a housing, a light source, an ellipsoidal reflector and a plano
convex lens. The light beam produced by an ER fixture is round (or 'conical') with a sharp defined cutoff
edge. The fixture is actually a simple projection device and will optically project the image of anything
placed at its focal point. The typical ER fixture has 4 integral framing shutters or an iris to provided limited
beam shaping. In addition, and of particular importance the ER fixture will also accept and project the design
of a metal pattern, commonly known as a template or gobo. There are hundreds of different stock patterns
and designs available from various manufacturers.
The typical ER spotlight uses a tungsten halogen type of lamp. Fixtures are available in lens diameters from
about 4" to 10" and with wattages from 500 to 2000 watts. The typical stage and studio ER fixture has a lens
diameter of 6 inches and a 1000 Watt lamp.
The ER spotlight is selected by beam spread. Fixed beam spreads are available as follows: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25,
30, 35, 40, 50 degrees. Formerly in North America (1950's1980's) beam spread was designated by
specifying first the diameter and then the focal length of the lens. Example: a 6x9 (pronounced 6 by 9) was a
fixture with a 6" diameter lens and a 9" focal length. In order to determine the spread in degrees of any
particular fixture, the designer still needed to consult the manufacturers data sheet as the designation did not
accurately identify the beam spread of the fixture. Today spotlights are specified in 'degrees' only. The
following table shows approximate beam spread of several common ER spotlight fixtures:
6x9 40 degrees
6x12 30 degrees
6x16 25 degrees
6x22 15 degrees
8x9 20 degrees
8x13 13 degrees
10x20 15 degrees
'LEKO' (also LEKOLITE) (1933)
About the same time that [KLIEGL BROTHERS] developed the first ellipsoidal reflector spotlight,
[CENTURY LIGHTING] also developed a similar type of lighting fixture known as the [LEKO] or
[LEKOLIGHT].
Joseph [LEVE] and Edward F. Kook were founders of Century Lighting and in 1933 they filed a patent for a
new type of reflector spotlight. Each gave one half of their names LE and KO to their joint development. The
'leko' used an ellipsoidal reflector with beam shaping controls (shutters & templates). The leko is still
manufactured today by [STRAND LIGHTING], however it has gone through many improvements over the
years. Although the term 'Lekolite' is often used to generically refer to any type of ellipsoidal reflector,
lighting fixture, the name is now owned by Strand and Strand alone, has the right to use the name.
See also: [ELLIPSOIDAL REFLECTOR SPOTLIGHT]
GOBO/TEMPLATE (a 1933)
The development of the modern [ELLIPSOIDAL REFLECTOR SPOTLIGHT] (1933), provided an effective
acting area type of fixture. It also provided, however, a 'crude' but effective method of image projection.
Typically a pattern is cut or etched into a thin metal plate. When the plate is inserted into a slot, at the focal
point of the fixture, an image of the pattern is projected. As the pattern or template was 'to go between' the
lamp and the lens it is was nicknamed: 'gobo'.
The use of template projection is a very valuable tool for the modern lighting designer. Many designers use
gobos to provide 'texture' to acting area lighting. Other designers use gobos to provide interesting floor
patterns, or to texture the scenery. The image may often be slightly softened, by placing the lens out of focus.
Alternately a sharp image may be produced, by 'hard' focusing the lens. Focus may sometimes be made even
sharper by the addition of a 'donut' in the color frame. Typically a donut for a 6" ellipsoidal reflector spotlight
consists of a 7.5" x 7.5" foil mask, with a 23 inch hole, punched in the center. Although the image will be
sharpened, by the use of the donut, some intensity, will also be lost.
Several companies produce 'stock' pattern designs precision etched in stainless steel. Both the [GREAT
AMERICAN MARKET] and [ROSCO] produce hundreds of unique designs in several different sizes. It is
also possible to custom etch your own projection templates using brass shim stock and an etchent of
potassium ferrachloride.
AUTOTRANSFORMER (DIMMER) (c 1933)
The first autotransformer was developed and patented about 1933 by General Radio Company (USA). This
device was a continuously variable transformer with the trade name of "Variac". The Variac provided a much
more efficient means of dimming electric lighting fixtures in theatres, than did the existing resistance and
saltwater dimmers of the time.
In the 1960's, the American Superior Electric Company, produced a number of autotransformer dimming
systems for theatre and television applications. These products had the trade name 'Luxtrol' or 'Powerstat'
and were used extensively across Canada and the United States. Portable systems of 6 or 12 dimmers in a
single (heavy) metal enclosure were common. Each dimmer had a handle to provide direct and individual
control. When the operator 'rotated' a dimmer handle, it would interlock to a 'master' handle to facilitate the
fadeup or fadedown of all selected dimmers at once. Some theatre installations remained in operation in
North America well into the 1970's. Now all modern theatre dimming systems employ the [SILICON
CONTROLLED RECTIFIER] dimmer.
Autotransformers can also be motorized for remote operation. The autotransformer dimmer is still used today
in some applications (recording studios & hospitals) as they do not generate radio frequency interference
(RFI) as does a modern SCR type dimmer.
See also: [SALTWATER DIMMER], [RESISTANCE DIMMER], [SCR DIMMER].
FLUORESCENT LAMP (1937)
The fluorescent lamp was first introduced to the public at the New York World's Fair in the late thirties
(1937). The lamps were introduced commercially in about 1938. The fluorescent lamp is a low pressure gas
discharge source, in which the light is produced predominantly by fluorescent powders activated by
ultraviolet energy generated by a mercury arc. Typically, a fluorescent lamp must efficiently generate 253.7
millimicron ultraviolet radiation to excite the phosphors coating the inside of the tubular glass bulb.
The lamp is usually in the form of a long tubular bulb with an electrode sealed at each end. The modern
fluorescent lamp has an efficacy of approximately 6580 lumens per watt. Today fluorescent lamps are also
available in circular and 'folded' shapes. Lamps with various different color temperatures and color rendering
properties are commonly available. The most common fluorescent lamp is the CW or cool white version,
although new 'warmer' versions are now gaining popularity, worldwide. All fluorescent lamps require a
ballast, for operation.
Developed in the late 1980's the compact fluorescent lamp revolutionized the lighting industry. This lamp
(also referred to as the PL lamp), is simply a folded fluorescent tube, sometimes no larger than a standard
'light bulb'. The ballast is usually mounted in the base pf the lamp. This new lamp allows most household
incandescent lamps to be replaced with these new energy saving fluorescent lamps. In addition to retrofit
applications, new 'pot light' fixtures have been developed specifically for the PL lamps, for residential,
commercial and industrial lighting applications. PL lamps are available in various wattages from
approximately 9 50 watts, and are available from all major lamp manufacturers.
PAR LAMP (SEALED BEAM LAMP) (a 1940)
The PARABOLIC ALUMINIZED REFLECTOR (or PAR lamp) is a sealed beam type of lamp, similar to an
automotive headlamp. The filament, reflector and lens are all optically aligned at the factory, and sealed into
a single lamp resulting in a highly efficient source. As the PAR lamp is a complete lighting unit, fixtures for
them are very simple indeed. Today, PAR lamps are available in various diameters (4.5" to 8"), and various
wattages (751000 w.) The highly efficient PAR64 lamp (8' lens) is extensively used by the theatre and
entertainment industry and the fixtures are often referred to as 'PAR cans'.
The PAR lamp is also sometimes known in Europe as the 'pressed glass reflector lamp'.
There are some historical pictures showing one of the inventors, Dick Thayer, with prototype lamps made
from "Pyrex" custard cups purchased from the local hardware store. That was in 1937. The first sealed beam
automotive headlamps appeared on the 1940 model cars.
The author's research has also uncovered an early patent drawing of a sealed beam lamp dated Feb. 21, 1939.
The drawing is numbered 2,148,314 and is signed Daniel K. Wright, Inventor. The lamp looks very similar to
a modern PAR lamp. The lamp was thought to have been placed into production, shortly thereafter.
HEMSLEY, GILBERT V. JR. (a 1945)
Gilbert Hemsley (USA) was a Professor at the University of Wisconsin at Madison and a well liked and
respected stage lighting designer. Unfortunately, he passed on, before his time.
PHOTOGRAPHY POLAROID CAMERA (1947)
In 1947, American Edwin Land invented the Polaroid instant camera. Land's big contribution was to develop
a film that developed a positive image within seconds. Both the negative film and the positive paper were
sandwiched together in the film pack. After being exposed, when the film is pulled from the camera it passes
through rollers that break a chemical pod releasing chemicals that develop the film and transfer the image to
the positive paper. The Polaroid camera is still very much in use today by both professional and amateur
photographers alike. Film packs are available for both black & white and color prints. In 1963 onestep color
film became available.
See also: [POLAROID FILTER].
FROST, ROBERT (1947)
It Bids Pretty Fair (from Steeple Bush 1947)
The play seems out for an infinite run.
Don't mind a little thing like the actors fighting
The only thing I worry about is the sun.
We'll be all right if nothing goes wrong with the lighting.
STRONG ELECTRIC COMPANY (a 1947)
STRONG INTERNATIONAL, (established about 1947) is the oldest American manufacturer of motion
picture projection light sources and followspots in the entertainment industry. 'Strong' followspots are of high
quality and performance and are known around the world. Their products include: the Super Trouper (carbon
arc spot), the Gladiator and the Trouperette. Most current models now use a [XENON] lamp.
Strong International
4350 McKinley Street
Omaha, NE, 68112, USA
4024534444.
WWW: http://www.strongint.com
CANDELA (1948)
The modern unit adapted in 1948 for the measurement of light intensity is the candela (cd). One candela is
equal to one square centimeter of a blackbody radiator at the temperature at which platinum solidifies (2046
degrees Kelvin). The former unit of intensity was the candlepower. This term is sometimes still used
interchangeably with candela, today.
See also: [CANDLEPOWER].
SYLVANIA/OSRAM (a 1950)
Sylvania is a large North American based lamp manufacturer. They are one of the largest in the world. About
1994, they combined forces with 'Osram' a large European lamp manufacturer. They are now known world
wide as 'Osram/Sylvania'.
UNITED SCENIC ARTISTS (a 1950)
The United Scenic Artists is an American based association of professional stage designers. Membership in
the USA is generally considered necessary in order to be able to design on Broadway in New York City.
Members include set designers, lighting designers, costume designers, and others. Requirements for
membership are quite stringent and require both a written and practical examination, in most cases.
SON ET LUMINAIRE (a 1950)
The French phenomenon of the Son et Luminaire (or light and sound show) has been produced at various
antiquities around the world. These shows use large scale automated lighting and sound systems to produce
scripted presentations, usually for the tourist. Large Son et Luminaire shows are regularly provided in Rome,
Athens and Cairo.
PATTERN 23 (1952)
The famous Pattern 23, 500 watt Baby Mirror Spot, was introduced by STRAND ELECTRIC in 1952. This
highly efficient and compact spotlight, became known as the PATT23 and used for many years in theatres
around the world. Different lens configurations were available, 4 framing shutters were standard, and the
PATT23 had optional accessories, including iris and template holder. The PATT23 was finally retired about
1980, with fixtures of an even more efficient design. Note: many modern theatre spotlights (of similar size,
weight and wattage) do not perform as well as this early fixture.
FIBER OPTICS (1955)
The invention of fiber optics changed the world of communications and technology. The principal of 'total
internal reflectance' had been known for some time and was demonstrated about 1870 by TYNDAL, when he
shone a light at a spout of water as it gushed out of a tank. The water fell in an arc and the light went with it.
See also: LIGHT PIPE, 1880.
The invention of modern fiber optics is credited to Kapany (British) in 1955 and at about the same time to
Brian O'Brien Sr. at the American Optical Company in America. During the 1960's early fiber optics were
developed as a means of transmitting messages as an alternative to electrical wires. By 1970 the Corning
company produced the first practical fiber optic cable. It could transmit light about a third of a mile before
most of the light was absorbed. By 1990 fiber optics were transmitting light more than 20 miles without a
repeater. Fiber optics consist of small hair like optical fibers, bundled together within a plastic jacket. They
come in various diameters and are quite flexible. Using high speed light pulses (traveling at the speed of
light) fiber optics are able to transmit data, audio, video and telecommunications from location to location.
Fiber optics can transmit far more information than electrical wire transmission systems, making them
invaluable for computer and telephone applications.
Unlike conventional copper wires, fiber optic signals are not subject to electromagnet interference from
nearby motors, ballasts, relays or electronic dimmers.
Fiber optics also transmit light in automotive, aircraft and medical equipment. Often car headlights are
simply 'monitored' by running a fiber optic from the headlight to an indicator on the dashboard. The driver
always knows 'for sure' if a headlight is operating or not, as the fiber optic is literally 'watching' the light
from the headlight. In addition, there is no 'bulb' to burn out (and replace) in the dashboard. The system is
truly maintenance free.
Fiber optics may also be manufactured as 'coherent' bundles, that is with all of the hundreds of individual
similarly aligned at each end. An optic of this type is able to transmit and actual picture or image from one
end to the other. This principle is used in the endoscope, an instrument used to look inside the body.
Endoscopes are used to explore and biopsy such areas as the colon and the bronchi of the lungs as well as to
perform surgery through small incisions.
See also: [LIGHT PIPE].
DICHROIC LAMPS (a 1955)
These special reflector floods incorporate a dichroic reflector. In a lamp with a conventional reflector, much
of the infrared energy (heat) from the source is reflected into the beam. In a lamp using a dichroic reflector,
some infrared energy is dissipated out through the reflector, and not into the beam, resulting in a cooler
beam. These 'cool beam' lamps are particularly useful for museum or gallery lighting applications where
excess heat [INFRARED] could damage precious artwork or artifacts. Dichroic lamps are manufactured in
MR11, MR16 and in various PAR sizes to PAR38.
ALTMAN STAGE LIGHTING (c 1955)
The Altman Stage Lighting Company (U.S.A.) was established in the 1950's and has become one of the
leading manufacturers of stage lighting fixtures, in the world. The Altman 360Q series of ellipsoidal reflector
spotlights have become an international standard for performance and efficiency vs size and weight. Altman
manufacturers a full range of all equipment types in various sizes and wattages. The company is located in
Yonkers New York.
The company is very much a family business, started by Charlie Altman. In the startup days, Charlie liked
to compete with his brothers; Edward owned Capital Stage Lighting, Arthur owned Eastern Stage Lighting.
Charlie Altman, Alice his wife, and other family members worked hard over the years. By the 1980's,
Altman was the dominate lighting fixture manufacturer in North America and perhaps in the entire world.
Alice Altman died in 1990. Charlie Altman died on May 5, 1995. He lived to be over 90 years old. The
company is now run by Robert Altman, by children of Ronald Altman, and by other family members.
Altman Stage Lighting
57 Alexander Street
Yonkers, NY, 10701, USA
9144767987
8004ALTMAN
WWW: http//www.altmanltg.com
COLORTRAN (a 1955)
Colortran is a leading American manufacturer of theatre and television lighting fixtures, dimmers, control
systems and accessories. In 1964 Colortran won an Academy Award for its development of the tungsten
halogen fixture. During the 1970's and 1980's the company built a full and comprehensive range of products.
The company changed ownership several times becoming first 'Berkey Colortran' and then later 'Lee
Colortran'. In the late 1990's, the product line was taken over again by 'NSI Corporation', an already existing
manufacturer of stage fixtures, dimming and control.
Colortran
A division of NSI Corporation
9126 SW Ridder Road
Wilsonville, OR, 97070, USA
5035766060
WWW:http//www.colortran.com
SCR DIMMER SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (1958)
S.C.R. (SCR) In 1958, General Electric announced the introduction of the silicon controlled rectifier. This
semiconductor device was about to revolutionize dimming applications for theatre and television lighting
around the world. Previous to this time, dimming systems were large, generally inefficient and mechanically
very complex.
The SCR allowed the design of compact, remote controlled dimming systems with no moving parts in the
dimmer. By 1960 [KLIEGL] was installing SCR systems, and [CENTURY] Lighting was installing their C
Core line. The SCR is still the basis of modern electronic dimming systems today.
The typical modern SCR dimmer employs two PNPN semiconductor devices commonly know as silicon
control rectifiers, or thyristors, connected in inverse parallel and in series with the lamp load. A signal
applied to the control gates of these devices is utilized to control their conduction period. The dimmer
thereby controls the effective power dissipated in the lamp load and, thus the intensity of the lamps. The
dimmer is completely inert and requires no maintenance.
MANITOBA THEATRE CENTRE (MTC) (1958)
M.T.C. In Canada, the 1950's to mid1960's constituted the "regional theatre era". Each province was
endowed with a government supported, permanent professional theatre. The Manitoba Theatre Centre
founded in 1958 was the country's first. It was built following the landmark report issued by the government
sponsored MasseyLevesque Commission which 1.) affirmed such a thing as Canadian culture did exist; 2.)
devised the current system of government arts funding; and 3.) recommended the establishment of a federal
arts funding body (The Canada Council) to be supplemented by provincial and municipal agencies.
The Manitoba Theatre Centre is still active today, producing or coproducing approximately 10 12
productions a year, between its two stages (Mainstage and Warehouse Theatres).
LASER (1960)
The 'laser' or (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) was perfected in 1960, by research
scientist Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Laboratory in Malibu California. The actual term 'laser' originated
about 1957 by Gordon Gould (40) at the University of Columbia, where his notarized notebooks show the
basic laser concept. Gould tried to interest American defense officials in the development of a potential
'deathray', but as he was involved in some leftwing political activities in the early 1940's, the Defense
Department classified his patent application secret, denied him security clearance, and confiscated his
notebooks.
Physicists Charles H. Townes and his brotherinlaw Arthur Schawlow were the first to actually apply for a
patent on the laser and they were the first to publish their findings in scientific journals.
The HeNe laser (red beam) was in commercial use, by 1968. Today many different types of lasers exist, for
a wide range of applications. Lasers are used for surgery, for cutting metal, for determining distance, for
projecting 3dimensional holographic images, for computer printing and for entertainment lighting
applications.
Laser light differs from ordinary light in four ways. Briefly it is much more intense, directional,
monochromatic and coherent. Most lasers consist of a column of active material with a partly reflecting
mirror at one end and a fully reflecting mirror at the other. In a typical solid laser material, a ruby crystal, the
active ingredients are chromium atoms interspersed in the crystal lattice of aluminum oxide. The laser is
primed by pumping these atoms, by means of a flash of intense light, to an excited state. This causes the
system to produce a cascade of photons, all of the same wavelength and all in step with each other.
See also: [HOLOGRAM/HOLOGRAPHY]
HOLOGRAM/HOLOGRAPHY (a 1960)
The term 'holography' was coined by Hungarian physicist Dennis Gabor in 1947, to describe a new form of
threedimensional images. His work related to the area of electron beam microscopes, however it became
evident that a coherent light source was required to make a hologram and it was not until the laser was fully
developed that his concepts were realized.
In the early, 1960's Emmet N. Leith and Juris Upatnieks of the University of Michigan working with a laser,
created the first hologram or holographic image.
A hologram is created by splitting the beam of light from a laser into two, using a beam splitter and mirrors.
One beam illuminates a photographic plate (the hologram). The other beam illuminates the object and
reflects its image to the plate. The two beams set up an interference pattern that is recorded on film. The
object can be captured in threedimensions. To reconstruct the image, simply shine a laser of identical
wavelength on the developed holographic plate. The image forms in midair. If you move around the image
you will be able to view it from different angles in threedimensions. Tear off a small piece of the hologram
and you will still see the complete threedimensional image. All of the information is contained in any part of
the hologram.
LUMINAIRE (a 1960)
A lighting fixture is properly referred to as a 'Fixture' or as an 'Instrument', in North America.....as a 'Light
Fitting' or a 'Lantern' in Britain...and as a Luminaire (the 'e' is silent), in other parts of the world and by the
engineering community. All of these terms are taken to mean: 'a complete lighting unit', usually consisting
of; a metal housing, socket, lamp, reflector, electrical cord, connector and (lens). The term 'luminaire' is also
commonly used by electrical engineers and architectural lighting designers. Although the word luminaire
(from the French) has been in use for sometime, it is only in the 1960's that the term started to be used in
North American theatre by the architectural and theatre lighting industries.
CCT THEATRE LIGHTING (a 1960)
CCT was a large British based manufacturer of high quality stage and studio lighting fixtures. Installations
include; the Bolshoi (Moscow), La Scala (Spain), the Lido (Paris), the Orpheum (Vancouver), the Sydney
Opera House and the National Theatre (Britain). W.J. Furse & Co. Limited (Nottingham, England) acquired
CCT about 1988.
FOUR STAR STAGE LIGHTING (a 1960)
Four Star is a large New York based lighting company with a long reputation for lighting sales, rentals and
service.
Four Star Lighting
30 Warren Place
Mount Vernon, N.Y., USA
9146679200.
IMERO FIORENTINO ASSOCIATES (1960)
Founded in 1960, Imero Fiorentino Associates was originally a firm of leading television lighting directors
and consultants. The firm has now expanded to provide lighting and staging consulting to concert, corporate
and industrial projects. IRA has offices in New York, Las Vegas and Hollywood.
TEATRO (a 1960)
Teatro is an Italian manufacturer of high quality stage and studio lighting fixtures. They make a wide range
of fixtures from fixed and zoom ellipsoidal reflector spotlights, to floodlights and fresnel type fixtures.
Teatro
slr Via Inghilterra
24602 Castel Goffredo (Mn) Italy
Tel +39 (0)376780702
Fax:+39 (0)376780888
UNITED STATES INSTITUTE FOR THEATRE TECHNOLOGY (USITT) (1960)
U.S.I.T.T. (USITT) Nonprofit membership association comprised of individuals, organizations,
manufacturers and suppliers specializing in all aspects of technical production and design in the performing
arts industry. USITT produces an Annual Conference and Stage Expo, publishes TD&T and Sightlines,
sponsors projects, programs, research symposia and exhibits, and assists in developing industry standards for
safe, efficient and ethical practices. Founded in 1960, the mission of the institute is to actively promote the
advancement of the knowledge and skills of its members.
USITT
6443 Ridings Road
Syracuse, NY, 13206, USA
3154636463 TEL
3154636525 FAX
80093USITT
WWW:http://www.ffa.ucalgary.ca/usitt/
QUARTZ HALOGEN LAMP (1960)
(Also the TUNGSTEN HALOGEN) lamp was introduced in 1960 for use by the stage and studio market.
General Electric often claims to have invented the halogen lamp in 1957.
The bulb of a typical tungsten filament lamp, blackens with age as the filament boils off and the tungsten is
deposited on the bulb wall. Halogen lamps are 'selfcleaning'. Halogen vapor present in the lamp combines
with particles of tungsten that have been evaporated from the filament and redeposits them on the filament.
For this process to take place, bulb wall temperatures should not be below. 482ø F., (250 øC.) Hot spots on
the bulb wall may go as high as 1250ø F., (700ø C.) Lamp base temperatures should not exceed 622ø F.,
(350ø C.), as above that point, lead wires may deteriorate and the basing cement may loosen, causing
premature lamp failure.
METAL HALIDE LAMP (a 1960)
The first metal halide lamp was developed about 1960. Metal Halide lamps are essentially mercury high
pressure discharge lamps that have additional metal halides in their arc tubes. Metal Halide lamps provide
improved efficiency and improved color rendering qualities over mercury lamps. The modern metal halide
lamp has a luminous efficiency of 85115 lumens per watt.
THORN LIGHTING (a 1960)
Thorn was a leading European manufacturer of high quality lighting fixtures, lamps and accessories. Their
lamp division was taken over by the General Electric Company in the early 1990's. Several years later the
company ceased all operations.
'CINEMOID' COLOR FILTERS (a 1960)
In the early days of the electric filament lamp, gelatin color filters were used to color stage lighting fixtures.
Gelatin filters dissolved when wet, and could not withstand the high heat from the tungsten halogen lamp
(developed in the early 1960's). As a result, a new type of filter, 'Cinemoid', was developed by [STRAND
ELECTRIC] (London). Cinemoid used a colored acetate sheeting, with inherent selfextinguishing
properties. Less than 60 colors were shown by a 1966 product catalog sheet. 'Cinemoid' is no longer
produced and has been replaced by polyester based materials, such as 'Roscolux' and 'Lee' filters.
See also: [ROSCOLUX], [LEE]
LIGHTING TEMPLATE (a 1960)
Lighting designers working in theatre and television often must produce a drawing known as the 'light plot'.
This drawing will use a number of specialized symbols to represent the specific type of lighting fixtures,
required. The fixtures will usually be shown to scale, and will be drawn in their exact position.
About 1960, the plastic drafting template was developed, specifically for the lighting designer. This greatly
assisted in the drawing of lighting symbols. Although plastic drawing templates are now widely available
through any stage lighting supply company, Lighting Associates has long produced a number of different
lighting templates specifically for the lighting, sound and scenic designer.
Lighting Associates
P.O. Box 229
Chester, CT, 06412, USA
Tel: (203) 5269315
LIGHT BULB JOKES (c 1960)
Somewhere around 1960, the 'light bulb' jokes started to appear throughout North America. Some of the best
of the worst, are as follows:
Q: How many Californians does it take to change a light bulb?
A: Six. One to turn the bulb, one for support, and four to share the experience.
Q: How many Oregonians does it take to screw in a light bulb?
A: Five. One to change the bulb and four more to chase off the Californians who have come up to share the
experience.
Q: How many New Yorkers does it take to screw in a light bulb?
A: None of your damn business!
Q: How many Union Electricians does it take to screw in a light bulb?
A: 50 its in the contract.
Q: How many straight San Franciscans does it take to screw in a light bulb?
A: Both of them.
Q: How many WASPs does it take to change a light bulb?
A: Two. One to call the electrician and one to mix the martinis.
Q: How many Psychiatrists does it take to change a light bulb?
A: Only one, but the bulb has got to really WANT to change.
Q: How many `Real Women' does it take to change a light bulb?
A: None: A 'Real Woman' would have plenty of real men around to do it.
Q: How many `Real Men' does it take to change a light bulb?
A: None: `Real Men' aren't afraid of the dark.
Q: How many Jewish mothers does it take to screw in a light bulb?
A: None. ("That's all right...I'll just sit here in the dark...")
Q: How many mice does it take to screw in a light bulb?
A: Two. (Hint:They are small enough to fit inside).
Q: How many valley girls does it take to change a light bulb?
A: Oooh, like, manual labor? Gag me with a spoon! For sure.
Q: How many managers does it take to change a light bulb?
A: Three. One to get the bulb and two to get the phone number to dial one of their subordinates to actually
change it.
Q: How many lawyers does it take to change a light bulb?
A: How many can you afford?
Q: How many JewishAmerican Princesses does it take to screw in a light bulb?
A: Two. One to get a Tab and one to call Daddy.
Q: How many accountants does it take to screw in a light bulb?
A: What kind of answer did you have in mind?
Q: How many mystery writers does it take to screw in a light bulb?
A: Two, one to screw it almost all the way in and the other to give it a surprising twist at the end.
Q: How many consultants does it take to change a light bulb?
A: I'll have an estimate for you a week from Monday.
Q: How many people from New Jersey does it take to change a lightbulb?
A: Three. One to change the light bulb, one to be a witness, and the third to shoot the witness.
ASSOCIATION OF BRITISH THEATRE TECHNICIANS (1961)
A.B.T.T. (ABTT) was founded in 1961 to provide a forum for discussion among theatre technicians, to
collect and disseminate information of a technical nature and to advise and assist all those involved in the
planning and construction or reconstruction of new and existing theatres. The organization is based in
London.
SKIRPAN ELECTRONICS (1965)
Skirpan Electronics was founded in 1965 by Stephen J. Skirpan. The company (located in Long Island City,
N.Y.) rapidly grew to be a leading manufacturer of computer assisted lighting control systems. Their control
system known as the "Autocue", used a light pencil and video monitor, for operator input. Their "Astral"
dimmer was one of the first compact dimmers produced by the industry. It was a small 'strip' (1.75" high),
dimmer, packaged for installation in a standard 19" rack. Unfortunately Skirpan Electronics closed their
doors about 1980.
ASSOCIATED DESIGNERS OF CANADA (1965)
A.D.C. (ADC) Founded in 1965, (Canada) the A.D.C. represents professional designers working in the
theatre and film industries. Members include; set, costume, lighting and sound designers located across
Canada. The organization is dedicated to promoting professional and public recognition of the designer's
role, as well as increasing communications among Canadian designers. Although not a union, the A.D.C.
provides a similar function, as does the United Scenic Artists, in America. Currently, the A.D.C. has
approximately 150 members, located across Canada.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (a 1965)
The light emitting diode (LED) is pn junction semiconductor lamp which emits radiation then biased in a
forward direction. The emitted radiation may be either invisible (infrared) or in the visible spectrum. Visible
solid state lamps are used for long life indicator service. Infrared diodes have outputs carefully matched to
silicon photoreceivers. They are used in conjunction with the receivers, for counting, sensing, and
positioning applications. LED's generally operate in the range of 1 to 3 volts at currents of 10 to 100,
milliamperes continuous.
LED's are commonly used in indicator lighting applications. Due to their very long life and low operating
current, they are ideal replacements for incandescent indicator lights. Early LED's came in red only. Next
green and amber were introduced. By the mid 1990's blue and white LED's had been developed.
PABLO LIGHT SHOW (a 1966)
Pablo, was a New York City company of light show artists, and technicians that performed throughout the
late 1960's and 1970's. Experts in projection techniques, the artists at Pablo provided some of the most
detailed and dynamic projection shows, using a wide range of photographic and hand painted slides.
One special projection technique used, was the 'amoeba'. The amoeba was performed using a horizontal
(overhead type) projector and two large watch glasses of about 14" and 12" in diameter. The larger glass was
placed on the projector and filled with various oils, alcohols and waters, colored with dye. Next the smaller
dish was gently placed on top of the mixture and then 'squashed' in time with the music. When projected on a
20 ft. x 20 ft. rear screen behind a performer the effect was usually quite spectacular, as a giant, kinetic,
dancing blob constantly changed in color, complexity and form. It was totally psychedelic.
Pablo's multimedia presentations included theatre and television productions, corporate presentations,
fashion shows, discotheques and concerts. The Pablo Light Show provided visual support to virtually all of
the major rock groups of the time. The founders of the company included: Patrick Firpo, Jay Moss and Bob
Quinn.
JOSHUA LIGHT SHOW (a 1966)
Under the creative guidance of Joshua White, the Joshua Light Show Group consisted of several talented
projection artists and technicians. For a period of time, the New York City based group was the resident light
show at the Fillmore East. They also provided special effects for films (including Midnight Cowboy), stage
productions and television.
The Joshua Light Show provided the colorful background to many musical performers and groups in the late
1960's and early 1970's. The show was projected on a large rear screen (20' x 40' typical) and used a wide
range of projection equipment, including slide, overhead and film projectors. Equipment was typically
modified to suit the specific needs of the 'light artists.' Usually working from a scaffolding behind the rear
screen, the artists would create a kinetic and always changing blend of light and imagery, always
synchronized with the music. The affect was mind blowing (or so it seemed at the time).
SODIUM LAMP (HIGH PRESSURE) (1966)
H.P.S. (HPS) The high pressure sodium lamp has steadily developed and gained in popularity, since its
introduction 1966. It provides a more economical source of illumination than mercury, fluorescent, or
incandescent and has a more natural color than low pressure sodium. The H.P.S. sodium lamp has a luminous
efficacy of approximately 80140 lumens per watt.
See also: SODIUM LAMP (LOW PRESSURE)
'LEE' COLOR FILTERS (1967)
'Lee' (by Lee Electric Lighting, Britain), manufacturers a wide range of filter and light control products for
stage, film and television lighting applications. The company was founded by David Holmes an
accomplished lighting cameraman. The company is known around the world for their extensive product
range of color filters for the stage and color correction filters for the film and television industries. All Lee's
light control and color effect filters are made from a tough polyester film base, which is impervious to water,
is totally transparent and has a high melting point. 1500 meter rolls of the film are coated with specially
prepared lacquers. Each formula is recorded on a computer, to ensure the exact reproduction of color, from
batch to batch. The lacquer coating is applied to both sides of the film, is also tough and flexible and has a
high resistance to water and heat.
Lee Filters
2301 W. Victory Blvd.
Burbank, CA, 91506, USA
8182381220
8005765055
Canada: 4168900935
COLOR ORGAN, (EARLY ELECTRONIC) (c 1967)
For centuries, man tried to provide a scientific correlation between the color spectrum and the audio
spectrum. It wasn't until mid 1960's that a practical color organ device was developed for entertainment
lighting applications. This was the 'electronic' color organ. At first transistors and then later SCR's were used
to drive a number of incandescent lamps. The typical color organ had three (3) channels. Different colored
lamps would be attached to each channel. Each channel would be controlled by a separate audio input, tuned
to a specific audio frequency. A typical three (3) channel unit might be wired as follows:
Channel Lamp Color Frequency
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
1 Red Hi (10‐20Kz)
2 Green Mid ( 5‐10Kz)
3 Blue Low ( 0 5Kz)
When activated, the 3 channels of lights would automatically dance and respond to the beat of the music.
More advanced color organs might contain as many as 15 individual channels. This color organ became
popular for discotheque and psychedelic lighting applications. Today, many entertainment lighting control
boards now also contain advanced color organ functions.
HMI LAMP (1969)
The HMI lamp (mercury medium arc iodides), first appeared in Germany. These metal halide lamps were
developed by OSRAM GmbH to meet a need established by the German Federal Television System in 1969,
and their use quickly spread throughout Europe and to the rest of the world. Although originally designed for
television lighting, they are now used for location film lighting and as a source for many common followspot
spotlights. The modern HMI lamp is highly efficient (100110 lumens per watt), and produces a daylight
type spectrum with a color temperature of 5600 degrees K. Lamp wattages currently range from 200 to more
than 12,000 watts.
The HTI lamp is a more recent version of the HMI. They area available with an integral reflector and are
often used in followspots, fiber optic illuminators and in slide projectors.
Although not widely know in the name HMI, the H stands for mercury (Hg), M indicates presence of Metals
and the I refers to the addition of halogen components (iodide, bromide). HMI is the registered trademark of
Osram Lighting.
See also: [OSRAM] and [METAL HALIDE].
USHIO (c 1969)
Ushio is a leading manufacturer of stage, studio and specialized lamp products.
Ushio America, Inc.
20101 S. Vermont Avenue
Torrance, CA 90502
Tel: (800) 3261960
Tel: (213) 3291960
GREAT AMERICAN MARKET (a 1970)
G.A.M. (GAM) The Great American Market Company supplies a great many products to the professional
theatre and stage industries. Products include color filters, [GOBOS], projection equipment, lighting control
systems, and other speciality products. They are also the North American distributor for the RDS projection
system, marked under the name of the Great American Scene Machine.
Great American Market
826 N. Cole Avenue
Hollywood, CA 90038
Tel: (213) 4610200
Tel: (213) 4614308
EARLY AUTOMATED LIGHTING (a 1970)
Automated luminaires first started to appear in the USA in the early 1970's. One of the first was the 'Moto
Light' manufactured by DynaLight, Springfield, MO. Another early automated lighting fixture was the 'Mac
Spot' from Europe. The Mac Spot retrofitted a conventional Par64 fixture, allowing remote horizontal and
vertical positioning (physical movement of the fixture). It did nothing else. Modern automated fixtures, in
addition to pan and tilt movement, also provide variable color, focus and template adjustments.
See also: [VARILITE] and [AUTOMATED LIGHTING FIXTURES].
AVAB (1972)
AVAB Electronik AB, one of the world's leading manufacturers of professional stage and studio dimming
products, has its headquarters in Gothenberg, Sweden. Their control and dimming systems have always been
considered to be stateoftheart in design and engineering around the world. AVAB purchased EMIL
[NIETHAMMER] (c 1982) a large German manufacturer of lighting fixtures. Avab founded around 1972
now also has an office in the USA.
AVAB Transtechnik AB
Salsm„staregatan 32
S422 46 Hisings Backa Sweden
+46 31 585 200
Email: [email protected]
DHA LIGHTING INC (1972)
(D.H.A.) Founded by lighting director [DAVID HERSEY], the British firm specializes in lighting
equipment design and manufacturing, with products ranging from slides to moving effects, fiber optics and
software. The company also specializes in etching metal and glass [GOBOS] from custom artwork. In North
America, the company is represented by [ROSCO].
DHA Lighting Ltd.
284302 Waterloo Road
London SE1 8RQ
Tel: 441717712900
Tel: 441717712901

THEATRE MAGIC (1974)
Founded in 1974, Columbus OH USA based Theatre Magic, sells special effect equipment and accessories
for the stage and studio industries. They have an extensive range of etched metal projection patterns
[GOBOS]. In 1992 they changed their name to SFX DESIGN.
SFX Design
6099 Godown Road
Colombus OH 43235 USA
Tel: 6144593222
Fax: 6144595087
AUTOMATED LIGHTING FIXTURES (c 1975)
The development of the automated lighting fixture in the early 1980's caused a revelation and a breakthrough
in entertainment lighting design. Although several different automated fixtures first appeared in the 1970's,
most were crude and mechanically awkward. Early products included the 'MacSpot' and the 'Motolite'. They
used conventional stage lighting fixtures (PARS's, lekos, etc,) fitted with a large mechanized yoke. The yoke
allowed the fixtures to pan, tilt, and not much else.
In 1981 the American company [VARILITE] was the first to make a successful automated fixture that
gained wide acceptance. The fixture was called the Vari*Lite and allowed remote control of pan, tilt, and
color. The fixtures were and are still today, mechanically, electrically and optically complex. For this reason
Vari*lite provides a technician, onsite to service equipment as needed.
Today, there are now several other manufacturers providing reliable and comprehensive automated lighting
fixtures. Both [HIGH END SYSTEMS INC] and [MARTIN], now provide a wide range of automated
lighting products gaining acceptance throughout the world. Other manufactures include Clay Paky, Coemar
Nat and [STRAND].
ELECTRONIC THEATRE CONTROLS INC. (1975)
E.T.C. (ETC) is a leading American manufacturer of theatre; control, dimming, and lighting fixtures. Their
dimmers and control systems are clearly among the best in the industry. In the mid 1990's E.T.C. developed a
series of 575 watt spotlights, known as the 'Source4' series. These fixtures are generally smaller, more
compact, and more efficient than any similar fixtures, available to date marking a new generation in fixture
design and development.
E.T.C. also makes a fixture known as the 'Source4Par'. This fixture, provides a beam similar to a PAR64
lamp, except the beam is round and not oval. All fixtures use the same single ended tungsten halogen lamp,
however the beam spread is controlled by using one of the four 'spread lenses' included with each fixture,
allowing; spot, medium flood, wide flood and flood capabilities, all from the same fixture.
Electronic Theatre Controls
3030 Laura Lane
Middleton, WI, 53562, USA
6088314116
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF LIGHTING DESIGNERS (a 1975)
I.A.L.D. (IALD) is a professional organization for lighting designers whose education and training may be
in architecture, interior design, theatre or electrical engineering. Dedicated to the professional advancement
of lighting design, IALD members may not be involved in any way with the sale of lighting products.
I.A.L.D.
18 East 16th Street
Suite 208
New York, NY, 10003
2122061291.
DESISTI LIGHTING (a 1975)
De Sisti Lighting, (also Desisti) is a leading manufacturer of high quality lighting fixtures and accessories for
the stage, film and television industries. Desisti makes a wide range of spotlights and floodlights, for both
incandescent and discharge type lamps. They have offices and representatives, located around the world.
De Sisti Lighting Srl
00040 Cecchina Albano Laziale (Rome) Italy
Tel: 06/9344414
Fax: 06/9343489
JULIAT, ROBERT (a 1975)
Robert Juliet a French based firm, manufactures a broad line of HMI and tungsten profile spotlights, fresnels,
and followspots. Many units are of extremely high quality in respect to design, engineering and construction.
Robert Juliat
62/64 rue Danielle, Casanova F
93207 SaintDenis Cedex
tel: (33) 1.42.43.35.35
fax: 1.42.43.08.05.
THEATRE BOOKS (1975)
Theatre Books (Book shop) was established in 1975 in Toronto Canada. It is a large specialized store (at 11
St. Thomas Street) handling a vast collection of arts, theatre and motion picture books. (416) 9227175.
AMX192 (c 1975)
AMX192 is an older control protocol standard for dimmers. The standard, adapted by the United States
Institute for Theatre Technology, is non proprietary and may be used by all manufacturers. AMX192 uses a
small twisted pair cable to communicate with a maximum of 192 dimmers. The data signal is 'de
multiplexed' (usually at the dimmers) resulting in individual 'analog' control signals (usually 010 volt, DC).
A newer control protocol [DMX512] provides digital control to a maximum of 512 dimmers, on a single
twisted pair cable.
'ROSCOLUX' COLOR FILTERS (1978)
'Roscolux' color filters were introduced by the American company [ROSCO] in about 1978. Today Roscolux
with more than 140 different colors has become one of the most recognized and widely used filters in the
world. The filters are designed to withstand the high temperatures of stage and studio lighting fixtures, unlike
earlier filters made from acetate or gelatin. Some filter manufacturers simply surface coat clear plastic to
form their colors. These filters may scratch and the surface color may actually vaporize from the surface,
through atmospheric contact. Roscolux filters are colored when the plastic is in the resin stage before the
polymer is cast into film. This results in a tough, resistant and durable filter with the color actually part of the
plastic, instead of just applied to it.
WESTSUN (1978)
From its inception in 1978 as a local lighting rental house, Westsun has grown to a recognized international
supplier to the event and entertainment industries. With companies and equipment stocks located throughout
Canada and the United States, Westsun offers comprehensive lighting, sound, staging, and drapery sales
and rentals. Extensive fabrication shops allow for the design and construction of automated scenery,
specialized staging and custom lighting products. In 1997, Westsun International Inc. moved into a new
70,000 square foot corporate headquarters in Winnipeg, Canada. Recently, Westsun Show Systems Inc. has
provided lighting or sound to a number of 'megamusicals', including; Disney's 'The Lion King', 'Show Boat',
'The Phantom of the Opera', 'Rag Time' and 'Sunset Boulevard'.
Westsun Winnipeg Inc.
Attn: Marc Raymond
1390 Pacific Avenue
Winnipeg, Canada, R3E 1G6
2047747800
800WESTSUN
WWW: http://www.westsun.com
TIR SYSTEMS (a 1980)
The commerical light pipe is a Canadian invention, developed by TIR Systems Ltd., (Burnaby, BC). Single
point source luminaires direct light into hollow linear light guides to produce, through the principle of Total
Internal Reflection, lines of brilliant white or colored light. Light pipes are made of extruded, impact
resistant, clear acrylic, and use a 250 watt, metal halide lamp, with a life of approximately 10,000 hours. One
luminaire is required for every 44foot run of light guide.
Various architectural and decorative lighting applications are ideally suited to use of the light pipe. As the
entire length of the 'pipe' emits light, the light pipe might be used to provide lighting above a swimming pool
or to other generally inaccessible locations. The luminaire is usually located in an accessible location, along
the side of the pool area.
See also: [LIGHT PIPE].
VARILITE (1981)
VARI*LITE Although a number of attempts had been made in recent years at developing a 'moving' or
automated, lighting fixture, the Vari*Lite was the first to gain acceptance. In fact the Vari*Lite
revolutionized the music and entertainment lighting industry. Automated fixtures, that pan, tilt, change color,
project different patterns are extremely complex devices. The Vari*Lite, Model 1, was introduced on the
Genesis tour in 1981, by Showco, USA.
VL1 introduced in 1981
VL2C spot luminaire, introduced in 1993, (uses 600 watt HTI source)
VL5 wash luminaire. incandescent model.
VL5A wash luminaire, 575W MSR, twice as bright, as VL5.
Also see: [AUTOMATED LIGHTING FIXTURES]
Additional reading: Lighting Dimensions Nov. 1986 (great photos)
VariLite Inc.
201 Regal Row
Dallas, TX, 75247, USA
2146301963
WWW: http://www.varilite.com
DMX512 (1986)
DMX512 is a standard for digital data transmission between lighting controllers and dimmers. A committee
of the United States Institute for Theatre Technology developed DMX512 as a non proprietary digital
protocol to be used by all manufacturers. DMX512 uses a small twisted pair cable to communicate with a
large number of dimmers. It does so by digitally encoding the dimmer level information and sending the data
for multiple dimmers over the control cable, one dimmer at a time, one after another. The dimmer level is
encoded as one byte (eight bits). The information is sent to the dimmers at a rapid rate, and has to always be
present to keep the dimmer from going to black. Update rate of 20 40 times per second are common.
Up to 512 dimmers can be controlled on a single twisted pair. Often a second twisted pair is also run for
'talkback' or other applications. DMX applications typically use 5 pin XLR type connectors. The use of 3 pin
XLR connectors is not recommended by the USITT standard.
Pin 1 shield ground
Pin 2 black data ()
Pin 3 white data (+)
Pin 4 green spare data ()
Pin 5 red spare date (+)
See also: [AMX192].
Additional reading: Recommended Practice for DMX512 by Adam Bennette, 1994, published by PLASA &
USITT.
ENTERTAINMENT SERVICES & TECHNOLOGY ASSOCIATION (1987)
E.S.T.A. (ESTA) Founded in 1987, ESTA is a nonprofit trade association representing the North American
entertainment technology industry. Many of the members are equipment dealers or manufacturers. Other
members provide services only. In addition to members in the United States and Canada, ESTA has members
in a number of countries, throughout the world.
ESTA
875 Sixth Avenue
New York, NY, 10001, USA
2122441505
WWW: http://www.esta.org/
SUNLIGHT AND CANCER (a 1990)
It was in the early 1990's when modern medicine brought us the bad new regarding sun and skin cancer. Now
the evidence is clear and indisputable. There is no such thing as a 'nice natural tan' anymore . Although we
still worship the sun, as did our ancestors, we now do so with a whole new respect.
There are three kinds of skin cancer, basal cell carcinomas, squamous cell carcinomas, and melanomas. In
the US there were 500,000 cases of the first, 100,000 of the second, and 27,600 of the third in 1990. [Wayne]
More than 90% of the skin carcinomas in the US are attributed to UVB exposure: their frequency varies
sharply with latitude, just as UV does. The mechanism by which UVB induces carcinomas has been
identified the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule form dimers when stimulated by UVB radiation.
[Taylor] [Tevini] [Young et al.]. Fortunately, these cancers are relatively easy to treat if detected in time, and
are rarely fatal. Skin carcinoma rates vary sharply with latitude, just as UVB does. Fairskinned people of
North European ancestry are particularly susceptible; the highest rates in the world are found in Queensland,
a northerly province of Australia, where a population of largely English and Irish extraction is exposed to
very high natural UV radiation levels.
Malignant melanoma is much more dangerous, but its connection with UV exposure is not well understood.
There seems to a correlation between melanomas and brief, intense exposures to UV (long before the cancer
appears.) Melanoma incidence is definitely correlated with latitude, with twice as many deaths (relative to
state population) in Florida or Texas as in Wisconsin or Montana, but this correlation need not imply a causal
relationship. Some claim that UVA, which is not absorbed by ozone, may be involved. [Skolnick] [Setlow et
al.]
SULFUR LAMP (1994)
One of the more exciting recent developments in light source technology is the sulfur lamp. This source was
developed in 1994 by Fusion Lighting (USA), with support from the U.S, Department of Energy. About the
size of a golf ball, the sulfur lamp consists of a quartz bulb containing nontoxic sulfur and inert argon gas at
the end of a thin glass stick. A microwave energy source of 2.45 Ghz. (magnetron) bombards the lamp while
a fan cooled motor spins the lamp at 3400 rpm. The microwave energy excites the gas, which heats the
sulfur, forming a brightly glowing plasma that can illuminate a very large area.
The first early prototype lamps were 5.9 Kw. units with a system efficacy of 80 lumens per watt. Correlated
color temperature was about 6000K with a color rendering index of 79 CRI. The sulfur lamp starts within
seconds even at low ambient temperatures and can be dimmed. The surfer lamp emits no electric or magnetic
fields and the light output remains constant over its life.
A new version, the LightDrive 1000, is a 1425 watt device that produces 135,000 lumens after about 20
seconds. The current technology produces approximately 120 lumens per watt (including losses).
The energy output is continuous throughout the visual spectrum (much like sunlight) however the source is
low in both the ultraviolet and infrared energy. The design life of the lamp is currently approximately 60,000
hours, however the design life of the magnetron is currently only about 15,00020,000 hours.
One of the first early fixtures to use the sulfur lamp was developed by Cooper Lighting (USA). The fixture
was incorporated into a free standing kiosk, providing uplight to the ceiling and a fixture efficiency of 8588
percent. Other lighting companies are currently working with Fusion lighting to develop new fixtures and
equipment for the sulfur lamp.
Fusion Lighting, USA, 3012847236.
MODERN STAGE LIGHTING DESIGNERS
BENTHAM, FREDERICK
Frederick Bentham (Britain) is an acknowledged pioneer and authority on lighting for the stage. He was in
charge of research and development at [STRAND ELECTRIC] from approximately 1935, until 1965. He
was responsible for the technical development of many early Strand lighting fixtures and related products.
Bentham published a book on 'The Art of Stage Lighting' in 1968. This publication has been revised and is
still today considered to be a major textbook on the subject.
Bentham was also the author of "Tabs" from its inception in 1938 until 1973.
BILLINGTON, KEN
Ken Billington is a well known, New York based stage lighting designer. He studied at The Studio and
Forum of Stage Design in New York, and later went on to assist Tharon Musser, Tom Skelton, and others. He
has designed the lighting for over 50 Broadway productions (including; Fiddler on the Roof & Sweeney
Todd) and his concert credits include work with Shirley MacLaine, AnnMargaret and Liza Minnelli. He
won a Tony award for his lighting of 'Chicago'.
BRIDGE, ANDREW
"Stage lighting designer (British). Bridge won the Tony, Drama Desk and Outer Critics' Circle Awards for his
designs for the "Phantom of the Opera". West End credits include the Musicals, "Time", "Oliver", "An
Evening with Tommy Steele", "Troville and Dean", "Bing Crosby" and many others". (REF: quote from,
Rosco, Pattern Catalog, 1996)
CLARK, PEGGY
Peggy Clark is a leading American stage lighting designer (American).
DAVIDSON, DAVID
"Davidson, has designed the lighting for some of the most acclaimed performers and acts in the world. A
partial list of his most recent clients includes Bon Jovi, Van Halen, Jackson Brown, and Kiss. In addition, he
has designed lighting for such acts as Ted Nugent, Stray Cats, The Kinks, Englebert Humperdinct, The
Jacksons, Santana, The Blues Brothers and Hot Tuna." (REF: quote from, Rosco, Pattern Catalog, 1996)
FEDER, ABE
Abe Feder was one of the first independent lighting designers in both the theatrical and architectural worlds.
His Broadway credits include "My Fair Lady" and "Camelot". His architectural lighting credits range the
world and include the United Nations in New York, the Israel National Museum in Jerusalem, Philharmonic
Hall in Lincoln Center and the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C.
FEHER, ERWIN M.
Studied stage design at the Federal Institute of Technology, Graz, Austria and at Columbia University. He
worked in the graduate school of Yale UniversityMFA program. He joined with JO MIELZINER in
planning for the New York World's Fair in 1964, and for a time was a specialist for projection design at New
York's Metropolitan Opera. Erwin Feher published a number of books, including the very comprehensive
"Towards a Theater of Light".
FINGERHUT, ARDEN
Stage lighting designer (American)
FISHER, JULES
Jules Fisher is a well known American lighting designer, who works extensively in both theatre and
architectural lighting design. His Broadway credits include the lighting for "No No Nanette", "Hair",
"Lenny", "Pippin", "Butterflies are Free", "Half a Sixpence", "High Spirits", and many more. He has won 6
Tony Awards and in his spare time, he practices magic.
GALLO, PAUL
Paul Gallo (New York), has designed the lighting for many Broadway productions, including "Six Degrees
of Separation", "The Little Foxes", "Grown Ups", "Heartbreak House", and many others. He has received
Tony nominations for "Anything Goes" (1988), "The House of Blue Leaves" (1988) and "The City of
Angels" (1990). He is also the recipient of two Obe Awards and the Maharam Award. (REF: quote from,
Rosco, Pattern Catalog, 1996).
GLEASON, JOHN
Gleason (American) was the Associate Chair of the Department of Design at New York University and was
the resident lighting designer for the Repertory Theater of Lincoln Center from 1967 to 1972. He designed
the acclaimed revival of "A Streetcar Named Desire". On Broadway, he has designed more than 90 shows,
including: "My Fair Lady", "Hello Dolly", "The Great White Hope", and "Over Here".
HERSEY, DAVID
David Hersey, (American) stage lighting designer, has lived in London for over twenty years and has
designed over 200 production for major national theatre, operas and ballet companies. West End productions
include: Cats, Starlight Express, Les Mis‚rables, Chess and Miss Saigon. For ten years he was lighting
consultant for the National Theatre in London. His work has also been seen in New York on Broadway.
David Hersey also manages D.H.A., a leading British supplier of specialized lighting accessories and effects.
MUSSER, THARON
Tharon Musser is a well known American stage lighting designer. She has received three Tony Awards for
her work on "Follies", "A Chorus Line", and "Dream Girls". Her many contributions include being the first
lighting designer to use a computer lighting system on Broadway. She has designed plays and many musicals
and operas around the world. Her work on Broadway includes: "The Sunshine Boys", "A Little Night
Music", "Applause", "A Long Day's Journey Into Night", "42nd Street", "The Wiz", "Chorus Line", "Follies"
and "Ballroom".
Additional reading: Lighting Dimensions, March 1990.
PILBROW, RICHARD
Richard Pilbrow (Britain) is a leading designer and authority on the subject of stage lighting. His work since
1958 has been seen in more than 200 productions, principally in London but also in New York and Moscow.
His excellent book on lighting; "Stage Lighting", first published in 1970, is often considered to be a leading
text on the subject. His new book "Stage Lighting Design" was published in 1997.
Richard Pilbrow is also founder of Theatre Projects, a large London based theatre consulting firm, now also
based in the USA. As theatre consultant, he has designed the stages and lighting for a number of theatres,
including the National Theatre of Great Britain, the Calgary Centre for the Performing Arts (Canada), and
the Barbican Theatre for the Royal Shakespeare company.
LESTER POLAKOV
Stage designer (U.S.A.) Polakov formed and ran the Lester Polakov Studio and Forum of Stage Design at
727 Washington Street in New York City for many years. Reid is a well known British lighting designer and
consultant. He is also the author of a great many articles relating to theatre and stage lighting.
SVOBODA, JOSEF
One of the most renowned and inventive designers in the world today is the contemporary Czech designer,
Josef Svoboda. With hundreds of productions to his credit, Svoboda is best known for his remarkable
technical innovations in lighting, projection and kinetic scenery. Svoboda views science and technology as a
means to an end, as instruments to be controlled by an artistic vision. More often than is generally thought,
his scenography employs the simplest of technical devices or virtually eliminates them. What is almost never
absent from his work however is a poetic, theatrically organized sensibility.
Additional reading: Theatre Design and Technology, Summer 1976 and February 1970)
TIPTON, JENNIFER
Jennifer Tipton (American), is a well known lighting designer for theatre dance and opera. She has designed
the lighting for such leading choreographers as Jerome Robbins, Mikhall Baryshnikov and Twyla Tharp. She
won a Tony award for her lighting of "The Cherry Orchard". Her many lighting awards include two Bessies,
two Tonys, a Joseph Jefferson Award, a Kudo, and others. Ms. Tipton also teaches lighting at the Yale
University School of Drama.
WECHSLER, GIL
Stage lighting designer (American)
WHITFIELD, MICHAEL
Michael Whitfield has designed over 50 productions for the Canadian Opera Company in Toronto and more
than 80 productions for the Stratford Shakespearean Festival where he is the resident lighting designer. The
operas cover the entire range from Albert Herring to Idomeneo and include among others Fidelio, Aida and
Electra. In addition to productions at Stratford, he has designed such productions as Cabaret, Carousel and
Our Town. His designs have also been seen at the San Francisco Opera, the Welsh National Opera, De
Nederlandse Operastichting, the National Ballet of Canada, Canadian regional theatres and in London's West
End. (REF: quote from, Rosco, ad. TCI. April 1993).
WILLIAMS, BILL
Bill Williams is a well known Canadian lighting designer, working in the fields of stage and architectural
lighting design. Williams studied lighting design in New York, at The Studio and Forum of Stage Design,
where his work was strongly influenced by one of his teachers, lighting designer Tom Skelton. In the 1960's
Williams worked as a designer with the New York based, multimedia group 'Pablo', where he designed and
developed special effects and projection equipment for one of the world's leading 'light shows'.
In the early 1970's, Williams returned to Canada and established an active design practice in Winnipeg.
When not designing for the stage, he works as a theatre consultant, assisting architects with the design of
theatres and cultural facilities. Subsequent work has included more than 500 projects in over a dozen
countries, around the world. Bill Williams is a member of the Associated Designers of Canada and is also the
author of this file.
LIGHT NATURAL PHENOMENA
SUN & SUNLIGHT
For years, man thought that the earth was the center of the known universe, not the sun. It was only in the
16th Century that COPERNICUS finally proved the sun to be the center of our solar system.
The main part of the sun's radiation at sea level, lies between about 290 and 3,500 nanometers The shorter
wavelengths are [ULTRAVIOLET], and the longer are [INFRARED]. Visible wavelengths lie in the
relatively narrow wavelength band of 380 to 770 nanometers. Intensity and spectral composition of natural
daylight vary with time of day, season, geographical location and weather.
MOON & MOONLIGHT
The moon shines solely by virtue of its ability to reflect sunlight. It is approximately 238,000 miles from the
earth. It takes about 8 minutes for the light of the sun to reach the moon and another 1.3 seconds for the light
reflected from the moon, to reach the earth.
Illumination on the earth's surface by the moon may be as high as 0.2 lux, (.002 fc).
LIGHTNING
Lightning is a meteorological phenomenon arising from accumulation, in the formation of clouds, of large
electrical charges. The charges are (usually positive) are suddenly released in a spark type of discharge.
About 100 times every second, the earth is struck with lightning, which streams down in belts 1,000 to 9,000
feet long. A single bolt may develop 3750 kilowatts. About 75 percent of the energy in lightning is dissipated
as heat that rises the temperature of surrounding air to about 27,000øF. This causes the air to expand quickly,
like the gases in an explosion. The movement creates sound waves that can be heard as thunder for distances
of up to 18 miles. ..(REF: Time, Energy, 1963) (PHOTO: Time, Energy, 1996)
Divide time delay (in seconds) between lightning and thunder by 5, to calculate approximate storm distance
(in miles).
AURORA BOREALIS (NORTHERN LIGHTS)
"These hazy horizontal patches or bands of greenish light on which white, pink or red streamers sometimes
are superimposed appear 60 to 120 miles above the earth. They are caused by electron streams spiraling into
the atmosphere, primarily at polar latitudes". (REF: quote from: I.E.S. Lighting Handbook Ref. Vol. 1881)
AURORA AUSTRALIS (SOUTHERN LIGHTS)
The same phenomenon of the Northern Lights, also exists in the southern hemisphere and is know as the
Aurora Australis. See also: [AURORA BOREALIS].
BIOLUMINESCENCE
"Living Light is a form of chemiluminescence in which special compounds manufactured by plants and
animals are oxidized, producing light. Although is has been proven that oxygen is required to produce bio
luminescence, there is no evidence that the light producing compound must be a 'living' material The light
producing compound may be dried and stored for many years and upon exposure to oxygen, emit light".
(REF: I.E.S. Lighting Handbook Ref. Vol. 1981)
MAN MADE LIGHT SOURCES
"Historically, light sources have been divided into two types incandescent and luminescent. Fundamentally
the cause of light emission is the same , i.e., electronic transitions from higher to lower energy states. The
mode of electron excitement is different, however, as well as the spectral distribution of radiation.
Incandescent solid substances basically emit a continuous spectrum, while gaseous discharges radiate mainly
in discrete spectral lines, however there is some overlapping. Incandescent rare earth elements can emit lines,
whereas high pressure discharge produces a continuous spectrum".
LIGHT QUOTATIONS
We owe a lot to Thomas Edison if it wasn't for him, we'd be watching television by candlelight. (Milton
Berne)
Many a man has fallen in love with a girl, in a light so dim, he would not have chosen a suit by it. (Anon)
And GOD said "Let there be light", and there was light, and GOD saw that is was good, and put the bloody
electricity bill up by 4 pence a unit. (Anon)
The weight of moonlight on the oceans causes the water to spread out to the edges of the land. (G.E. Last,
19th Century)
The Speed of light is very fast. (Carl Sagan)
Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night, God said, "Let Newton be," and all was light. (Anon)
Genius is one per cent inspiration and ninetynine per cent perspiration. (Thomas Alva Edison)
All art is quite useless. (Oscar Wilde)
No great artist ever sees things as they are. If he did he would cease to be an artist. (Oscar Wilde)
She is like most artists; she has style without sincerity. (Oscar Wilde)
Writing about art is like dancing about architecture. (Anon)
The sun was shining on the sea,
Shining with all his might:
He did his very best to make
The billows smooth and bright
And this was very odd, because it was
The middle of the night.
(Lewis Carroll)
We will have solar energy as soon as the utility companies solve one technical problem how to run a
sunbeam through a meter. (Anon)
CROSS REFERENCE
CENTER ‐ also try: CENTRE (for British references)
CENTRE ‐ also try: CENTER (for American references)
COLOR ‐ also try: COLOUR (for British references)
COLOUR ‐ also try: COLOR (for American references)
THEATER ‐ also try: THEATRE (for British references)
THEATRE ‐ also try: THEATER (for American references)
QUARTZ HALOGEN ‐ also try: TUNGSTEN HALOGEN
BLACKLIGHT ‐ see: ULTRAVIOLET and UV
BLACK BODY ‐ see: BLACKBODY
BLACK LIGHT ‐ see: ULTRAVIOLET
CAMERA ‐ see: PHOTOGRAPHY, CAMERA OBSCURA
FIXTURE ‐ see: LUMINAIRE/LEKO/FRESNEL/ELLIPSOIDAL
FLOOD LIGHT ‐ see: FLOODLIGHT
FOLLOW SPOT ‐ see: FOLLOWSPOT
FOOT CANDLE ‐ see: FOOTCANDLE
FOOT LIGHT ‐ see: FOOTLIGHT
GREECE ‐ see: GREEK
LANTERN ‐ see: LUMINAIRE/LEKO/FRESNEL/ELLIPSOIDAL
LIGHT HOUSE ‐ see: LIGHTHOUSE
LIGHT YEAR ‐ see: LIGHTYEAR
LIME LIGHT ‐ see: LIMELIGHT
MAGIC LANTERN ‐ see: LATERNA MAGICA
PHOTO CELL ‐ see: PHOTOCELL
PROFILE SPOT ‐ see: ELLIPSOIDAL REFLECTOR
ROME ‐ see: ROMAN
SALT ‐ see: PHOTOGRAPHY
SALT WATER ‐ see: SALTWATER
SPOT LIGHT ‐ see: SPOTLIGHT
STRIP LIGHT ‐ see: STRIPLIGHT / COMPARTMENT BATTEN
SULPHUR ‐ see: SULFUR
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bailey, Donald M. "Greek & Roman Pottery Lamps", British Museum (1972)
Bamber, Gascoigne "World Theatre" Little Brown & Co. (1968).
Bova, Ben "The Beauty of Light", John Wiley & Sons Inc. (1988).
Cohen, Bernard "Franklin & Newton", Harvard University Press, (1966)
Dogigli, Johannes "The Magic of Rays" Knopf Inc. (1961).
Feher, E.M. "Towards A Theatre Of Light", (c 1970).
Hartnoll, Phyllis "A Concise History of the Theatre" Thame & Hudson 74.
Holt, Reinhart & Winston Inc. "Modern Physics", (1960).
Illuminating Engineering Society, Lighting Handbook, Applications (1987)
Illuminating Engineering Society, Lighting Handbook, Reference (1981)
Life Science Library "Planets", (1966).
Life Science Library, "The Scientist", (1964)
McCandless, Stanley, "A Syllabus of Stage Lighting" Yale Univ. (1964)
Penzel, Frederick "Theatre Lighting Before Electricity" Wesleyan (1978)
Pilbrow, Richard "Stage Lighting" (1970)
Rodgers, A. "History of Light Sources" (Slide Set & text), c 1974).
TimeLife Books "The First Men Emergence of Man" (1973)
TrevorRoper, Patrick "The World through blunted sight" B.Merril (1970)
Sagan, Carl & Leonard. Jonathan "Planets", Time/Life. (1966)
Schawlow, Arthur "Laser Light', Scientific American, Sept. (1968).
World population figures: "The Beauty of Light", Ben Bova, (1988)
Write, W.D. "Measurement of Color", Hilger & Watts Ltd, London. (1964)
COPYRIGHT NOTICE
This electronic publication is copyright by the author and may not be distributed, copied or reproduced in
any way (in whole or in part), without the written permission of the author.
HELP
To SEARCH or FIND any topic, reference or word you may use the built in search capabilities of your own
particular HTML browser. Common browsers include 'Netscape Navigator' and 'Internet Explorer'.
We recommend that you perform most searches, with the [Cap Locks]: ON. This will locate all
CAPITALIZED, headings and major topics, (only). For example: if you search for 'LIGHT' you will find all
major references and topic headings, perhaps 50 items. (CASE SENSITIVE search)
If you search for 'light', 'Light' or 'LIGHT' with a CASE INSENSITIVE search you will find thousands of
references, both in the headings and in the text of the various articles. Use case insensitive searches for
'obscure' names, or if you wish to find ALL occurrences of a word, whether or not it is capitalized or
contains capitalization.
end of file
(c) 1999 by Bill Williams


Stage Lighting Design A History of Light and Lighting

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Stage Lighting Design A History of Light and Lighting

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Stage Lighting Design A History of Light and Lighting

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2017519 A History of Light and Lighting

You might also like

Stage Lighting Design A History of Light and Lighting

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Stage Lighting Design A History of Light and Lighting

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Stage Lighting Design A History of Light and Lighting

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2017­5­19 A History of Light and Lighting

You might also like

2017519 A History of Light and Lighting