Can hydrocarbon source rocks be identified on seismic data?

Helge Løseth1, Lars Wensaas1, Marita Gading1, Kenneth Duffaut1, and Michael Springer2
1
Statoil ASA, Research Centre Rotvoll, NO-7005 Trondheim, Norway
2
Statoil ASA, Forusbeen 50, NO-4035 Stavanger, Norway

ABSTRACT (average 42%, minimum 20%, maximum 70%;

Hydrocarbon source rocks contain significant volumes of organic matter, are capable of density 2.65–2.70 g/cm3), silt-sized quartz and
expelling petroleum when heated, and have produced most of the world’s known oil volumes. minor feldspar grains (average 39%, minimum
Recently, source rocks have also become recognized as unconventional economic reservoirs. 12%, maximum 62%; density 2.65 g/cm3), car-
Here we present a new way of identifying, characterizing, and mapping spatial distributions bonate (average 5%, minimum 0%, maximum
and variations of thick source rocks (>20 m) that is based on seismic data only. This has a 41%; density 2.7–2.9 g/cm3), pyrite (average
significant impact on the prospect risk assessment of petroleum plays. Rock property stud- 13%, minimum 2%, maximum 26%; density
ies of organic-rich claystones show that the acoustic impedance (AI), which is the product 4.8–5.2 g/cm3), other (average 0.6%, minimum
of compressional velocity and density, decreases nonlinearly with increasing total organic 0%, maximum 7%), and organic matter (3%–
carbon (TOC) percent. Claystones mixed with low-density organic matter (TOC > 3%–4%) 25% total organic carbon, TOC). Compared to
have significant lower AI and higher intrinsic anisotropy than otherwise similar nonorganic surrounding nonorganic or low-organic clay-
claystones. This gives the top and base source rock reflections characteristic negative and stones, the main difference is not the mineral-
positive high amplitudes, respectively, which dim with increasing reflection angle. In addi- ogical composition but the higher content of
tion, the TOC profile, which is a smoothed TOC percent curve, influences the top and base organic matter. In normal to rich source rocks
amplitude responses. An upward-increasing TOC profile has the highest amplitude at the (TOC to 25%) the volume of organic matter is
top, while the opposite asymmetry is observed for downward-increasing TOC profiles. By approximately twice the TOC percent, which
using seismic data, we therefore can map lateral distribution, thickness, variation in TOC is measured in weight, because the density of
profiles, and, with local well calibration, convert AI data to TOC percent. This approach to kerogen (1.1–1.4 g/cm3) (Passey et al., 2010)
mapping source rocks may change the way petroleum systems are evaluated. is roughly half the density of the mineral mass
(2.7 g/cm3). The density of kerogen is also very
low in oil and gas mature source rocks due to
INTRODUCTION INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC MATTER ON as much as 50% internal kerogen porosity (Son-
The petroleum system (Magoon and Dow, ROCK PROPERTIES dergeld et al., 2010). How this organic matter
1994) places the source rock as the first and The Late Jurassic Draupne (North Sea), influences the seismic response is described by
foremost element of the geological system Spekk (Norwegian Sea), and Hekkingen (Bar- the acoustic parameters: compressional velocity
required to produce a petroleum play (Allen ents Sea) Formations on the Norwegian Margin (Vp), shear velocity (Vs), bulk density, anisot-
and Allen, 2005). Recently, source rocks and the Kimmeridge Clay in England are good ropy, and attenuation. Our studies of cores and
have also become unconventional economic examples of marine source rock claystones well logs show that the acoustic impedance
reservoirs. A source rock contains a signifi- (Vollset and Dòre, 1984; Dalland et al., 1988; (AI), which is the product of compressional
cant volume of organic matter and is capable Morgan-Bell et al., 2001; Keym et al., 2006). velocity and density, decreases nonlinearly with
of expelling petroleum when heated. Source Such rocks typically comprise clay minerals increasing TOC percent (Fig. 1). Therefore,
rock lithologies vary across a continuum from
wholly organic sediments (coals), through
siliciclastic shales and marls, to carbonates. A B
Acoustic impedance (m/s*g/cm3)

This study focuses on organic-rich marine

claystones that have produced most of the 10 000 10 000
world’s known oil volumes (Klemme and
Ulmishek, 1991). The ability to identify a
source rock in the subsurface and quantify 8000
distribution, thickness, and richness has a
significant impact on prospect assessment
and risk. Traditionally this is done by geo- 6000
chemical analyses of hydrocarbon or source
rock samples, but well wireline data can also 4000 4000
identify and give a good estimate of poten-
tial source rocks (Passey et al., 1990, 2010). 0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
However, such analyses only give local infor-
mation. A remote sensing tool that examines Total organic carbon (wt%) Total organic carbon (wt%)
the subsurface and maps the source rock Figure 1. A: Total organic carbon (TOC) weight percent versus acoustic impedance (AI)
basinwide would be a better means to reveal plot for Metherhills Quarry well in Kimmeridge Clay in southern England (Morgan-Bell et
the hydrocarbon potential. In this paper we al., 2001). Maximum burial is ~1.5 km. TOC percent is based on geochemical analyses of
describe characteristic acoustic parameters of core samples. B: Similar plot for Hekkingen Formation, Barents Sea, from 9 wells at depths
between 1700 m and 2500 m. Maximum burial was ~1 km deeper. TOC percent is based
organic-rich claystones and associated seis- on geochemical analyses of samples of cuttings. Dotted curve in A, which shows nonlin-
mic responses that allow their identification, ear AI increase with increasing TOC percent, is shifted ~1000 AI units up to fit with deeper
characterization, and mapping on seismic data. (~1–2 km) buried Hekkingen Formation.

© 2011 Geological Society of America. For permission to copy, contact Copyright Permissions, GSA, or [email protected].
GEOLOGY,
Geology, December
December 2011
2011; v. 39; no. 12; p. 1167–1170; doi:10.1130/G32328.1; 6 figures. 1167

Downloaded from https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/39/12/1167/3540214/1167.pdf

by guest
 the AI of good source rocks (TOC > 3%–4%) sic anisotropy. Interbedded centimeter to meter some top claystone reflections with AVO class 4
is significantly lower than in otherwise similar thick beds of variable organic content (e.g., as in responses. Compared to top source rock reflec-
nonorganic claystones. The AI of source rocks the Kimmeridge Clay Formation; Morgan-Bell tions, these reflections have weaker amplitudes
is also significantly lower than in most other et al., 2001) may give additional anisotropy on and smaller AVA dimming. Top sand reflec-
rock types. The AI contrast between nonorganic seismic scales (tens of meters). Calculating the tions also have restricted basinwide distribution
and organic-rich claystones remains stable with AVA response at the top source rock reflection compared to source rocks. However, we have
depth down to 4500 m, i.e., oil mature source from an isotropic model, which only consid- not studied all rock types and therefore cannot
rock (Fig. 2). The top and base of thick (>20 m) ers the AI and Vp/Vs ratio, normally only gives rule out that there may also be other lithologi-
organic-rich claystones are therefore expressed a weak dimming with offset. The dimming cal boundaries with high-amplitude AVO class
by a significant reduction and increase in AI, increases significantly if the intrinsic anisotropy 4 reflections.
respectively. is added. Such clear dimming was found in
Together the Vp/Vs and the anisotropy con- our studies of top source rock reflections (e.g., SEISMIC DATA QUALITY
trasts at a rock interface determine the amount of Fig. 3). Theoretical models also reveal signifi- In order to confidently interpret seismic
amplitude variation with incidence angle (AVA) cant dimming with offset (Carcione, 2001). We amplitudes and changes in amplitude with off-
for a reflected seismic wave (Thomsen, 1993). define the significant drop in AI together with set, the phase of the data must be known, the
The intrinsic anisotropy rises with increasing the clear dimming of amplitude with offset as near and far offset data must be time aligned,
TOC percent, and in normal organic-rich clay- a characteristic top source rock behavior (i.e., and the near and far amplitudes should be
stones (TOC >3%–4% and <25%) the velocities AVO class 4 seismic response) (Castagna and properly scaled and matched for phase and fre-
are significantly higher parallel to the bedding Swan, 1997). A source rock interval that is quency. The seismic sections presented here are
than perpendicular to the bedding (Vernik and thicker than ~20 m (above tuning thickness) zero phased. A black-blue peak reflection rep-
Landis, 1996; Sondergeld et al., 2000). The will also have a distinct base source rock reflec- resents an increase in AI, whereas a red-yellow
compressional velocity in organic-rich clay- tion. The increase in AI at the base gives a high- trough represents a reduction in AI.
stones therefore rises with increasing deviation amplitude positive reflection that also dims with
angle of the wells (Hornby et al., 2003). As in offset, i.e., an AVO class 1 response. SEISMIC EXPRESSION OF SOURCE
the epoxy and glass experiment by Melia and Generally, distinct AVO class 4 reflections ROCK
Carlson (1984), we assume that mixed layered are not very common. Coal, which is a source This study shows that reflections from rich
aggregates of acoustic soft organic matter and rock, has this type of reflection. We have locally (>3%–4% TOC) and thick (>20 m) source
acoustic harder minerals cause the strong intrin- identified both shallow buried top sands and rocks have very high amplitudes compared to
most surrounding reflections. Top and base
0
source rock reflections are therefore easily
48323 identified on seismic sections. Generally, the
359
0

48682
0 amplitudes from the source rock interfaces rise
with increasing organic content (Fig. 1), assum-
ing that there is otherwise uniform source rock
composition and there are only small varia-
tions in the embedding rocks. This is correct
2000 as long as the source rocks are thicker than
the tuning thickness (Widess, 1973). Marro-
Figure 2. Acoustic imped-
ance (AI) versus depth from
claystones in Lange, Spekk, A B
Depth below seabed (m)

and Melke Formations in 12

wells from Norwegian Sea. Sand Sand
Total organic carbon percent
values in Spekk Formation
3000 are calculated from well logs 3.0 s
(Passey et al., 1990). Organic- Top source rock
rich Spekk Formation (green
to red) has significantly lower
AI than surrounding non-
organic claystones (blue) at
all depths. Top source rock
reflections therefore have
high amplitudes at all depths + 3.5 s
in basin.
4000
- 1 km Base source rock

Figure 3. Amplitude-balanced seismic sec-

tions showing higher amplitude on near
(A) than on far (B) stack data at top source
4000 6000 8000 10 000 rock reflection (Spekk Formation). Dark gray
Acoustic impedance (m/s*g/cm ) 3 line shows position of well and red curve
is gamma ray log. Source rock has high
gamma ray readings, while sand has low.
0 10
Top and base sand reflections increase in
Total organic carbon (wt%) amplitude on far trace data.

1168 GEOLOGY, December 2011

Downloaded from https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/39/12/1167/3540214/1167.pdf

by guest
 quin and Hart (2004) found that reduced layer Interpreting the Source Rock Interval should be analyzed where the source rock inter-
thickness below tuning thickness causes top Lateral variations in amplitude from top and/ val is thick.
amplitude dimming for top coal reflection. A or base source rock layers can reflect basinwide A nonlinear correlation between AI and TOC
case study of the Spekk Formation at ~4000 m shifts in thickness, variations in organic con- percent is found (Fig. 1). If seismic data are
burial depth identified top source rock ampli- centrations, changes in TOC percent profiles, inverted to AI data it is possible to transform the
tude dimming when the thickness decreases to and/or changes in embedding rocks. Changes AI values in the source rock formation to TOC
<~20 m (Fig. 4). in embedding rocks are not discussed in detail percent values. However, such AI to TOC per-
here, but onlapping and truncating reflections cent conversion requires good local seismic to
TOC Profiles should be mapped and correlated with shifts well calibrations both to invert the seismic data
The amount of organic matter varies across in amplitude. We find it useful to first map the and to establish a local AI to TOC percent rela-
lamina and layers in scales from millimeters to source rock thickness by interpreting top and tion (Fig. 6).
tens of meters in most source rocks. A low fre- base source rock reflections. Second, ampli- Løseth et al. (2011) showed that thin-skinned
quent seismic wave is not able to reflect small tude variations of both the top and base source gravitational gliding structures that are large
variations but responds to the averaged acous- rock reflections are extracted. Areas where the enough to be imaged on seismic data commonly
tic rock properties from intervals tens of meters source rock interval decreases to less than the occur in organic-rich claystones. They are char-
thick. The TOC profile, which is a smoothed tuning thickness are correlated to the reduced acteristic but not unique for this rock type. In
TOC percent curve (Fig. 5), gives a qualita- amplitude strength of the top source rock reflec- addition to the acoustic characteristics, the seis-
tive relationship between the organic content tion (Fig. 4). A uniform increase or decrease in mic identification of layer-bound thin-skinned
and the associated seismic response from the both top and base source rock reflections that gravitational gliding structures may increase
top and base source rock formation. We have does not correlate with thickness variations the confidence in identifying organic-rich clay-
observed four typical TOC profiles. The Late may reflect the average TOC percent increase stones.
Jurassic Spekk and Draupne Formations often or decrease, respectively. Where the top source
have upward-increasing TOC profiles with rock reflection has a higher amplitude than the CONCLUSIONS
the highest concentration of organic matter in base, or vice versa, this can be linked to asym- Among the data types available today, the
the upper part, but locally a blocky pattern is metric organic profiles, as seen for the Spekk subsurface is best imaged with seismic data, and
also observed. The Hekkingen Formation has and Hekkingen Formations (Fig. 5). Lateral we have demonstrated that organic-rich clay-
a downward-increasing TOC profile, while the asymmetric top and base source rock reflections stones have characteristic seismic responses that
Kimmeridge Clay Formation has a ball-shaped variations may reflect shifts in organic profiles. allow identification. Mixing kerogen into clay-
profile that is richest in the middle part. Variations in intra–source rock reflection pattern stones gives a significant nonlinear reduction

Figure 4. Source rock A 2.5 m 5m 17 m 27 m 38 m 66.5 m A′

thicknesses in meters
from wells. A: Near trace
seismic data. B: Top +
source rock maximum
100 ms
trough amplitude map. Top source rock
Where source rock thins
N 6°40′E -
below ~20 m, amplitude
dims significantly west- 38 m
5 m 17 m 66.5 m 10 000
ward to crest of footwall
where well penetrated A
A′
–65°08′ 27 m
2.5-m-thick source rock. 2.5 m 20 000
For thicknesses <~10 m,
top source rock reflec- Base source rock
tion becomes weak, and B 2 km 30 000 2 km
below 5 m there is no
obvious top source rock reflection. No relationship between thickness and top source rock amplitudes is observed where source rock is
thicker than tuning thickness. A−A′ shows line of seismic section.

Figure 5. Density log

(ρ, g/cm3), total organic
RHOB
1.95 2.95
TOC Well A B
Well RHOB
1.95
TOC
2.95 0 20
TOC
carbon (TOC) log (0–20 profile profile
wt%) (Passey et al. 1990) + +
(for B only), TOC profile,
Top
and near trace seismic
section. A: Spekk Forma- Source
tion in Norwegian Sea. B: rock
Hekkingen Formation in
Barents Sea. Smoothed Base
TOC profile correlates
+
with seismic response
such that upward-in- 25 ms 0.5 km
creasing TOC profile A
-
has highest amplitude at top, while downward-increasing TOC profile B has highest amplitude at base. TOC profiles explain why the base
Cretaceous unconformity (common name for top source rock reflection, offshore Norway), has high amplitude in North Sea and Norwegian
Sea but low amplitude in Barents Sea. Color code and scales are same for both sections.

GEOLOGY, December 2011 1169

Downloaded from https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/39/12/1167/3540214/1167.pdf

by guest
 A) Seismic profile + B) AI profile AI C) TOC % profile 10 Figure 6. A: Seismic sec-
100 ms tion. B: Acoustic imped-
9 ance inverted seismic
- 8000 section. C: Inverted seis-
8
mic section where source
Top source rock rock interval is converted
7
to total organic carbon
7000 6 (TOC) percent. Seismi-
cally derived TOC per-
5 cent values in source
rock intervals can be
4 imported to basin model-
6000 ing software to evaluate
3
Base source rock hydrocarbon generation
1 km TOC %
potential of a basin.

in AI with increasing TOC percent. Top reflec- Carcione, J.M., 2001, AVO effects of a hydrocarbon boreholes in south Dorset, UK: Geological
tions from good source rock intervals (TOC > source-rock layer: Geophysics, v. 66, p. 419– Magazine, v. 138, p. 511–539, doi:10.1017/
3%–4%) therefore have high amplitudes. Lay- 427, doi:10.1190/1.1444933. S0016756801005738.
Castagna, J.P., and Swan, H.W., 1997, Principles Passey, Q.R., Creaney, J.B., Kulla, F.J., Moretti, I.,
ered aggregates of organic matter cause strong of AVO crossplotting: Leading Edge, v. 16, and Stroud, J.D., 1990, A practical model for
intrinsic anisotropy that results in a significant p. 337–342, doi:10.1190/1.1437626. organic richness from porosity and resistivity
dimming of top and base source rock reflections Dalland, A., Worsley, D., and Ofstad, K., 1988, A logs: American Association of Petroleum Ge-
from the near to the far offset. An organic-rich lithostratigraphic scheme for the Mesozoic and ologists Bulletin, v. 74, p. 1777–1794.
Cenozoic succession offshore mid- and north- Passey, Q.R., Bohacs, K.M., Esch, W.L., Kilmen-
(TOC > 3%–4%) and thick (>20 m) claystone ern Norway: Norwegian Petroleum Directorate tidis, R., and Sinha, S., 2010, From oil-prone
therefore has a negative top response reflec- Bulletin 4, 65 p. source rocks to gas-producing shale reservoir—
tion that dims with offset, while the base has a Hornby, B.E., Howie, J.M., and Ince, D.W., 2003, Geologic and petrophysical characterization of
positive response that also dims with offset. In Anisotropy correction for deviated-well sonic unconventional shale gas reservoirs: Chinese
addition to the average organic content, the ver- logs: Application to seismic well tie: Geophys- Petroleum Society/Society of Petroleum Engi-
ics, v. 68, p. 464–471, doi:10.1190/1.1567214. neers International Oil and Gas Conference and
tical stacking of the organic content, which we Keym, M., Dieckmann, V., Horsfield, B., Erdmann, Exhibition, Beijing, China, 8–10 June 2010,
smooth and call the TOC profile, also influences M., Galimberti, R., Kuo, L.-C., Leith, L., and paper 131350-MS, 29 p., doi:10.2118/131350
the seismic response. Typical TOC profiles, Podlaha, O., 2006, Source rock heterogene- -MS.
where the amount of organic matter increases ity of the Upper Jurassic Draupne Formation, Sondergeld, C.H., Rai, C.S., Margesson, R.W., and
North Viking Graben, and its relevance to Whidden, K., 2000, Ultrasonic measurement
or decreases upward, are seen in the main petroleum generation studies: Organic Geo- of anisotropy in the Kimmeridge shale: Soci-
source rocks in the North Sea (Draupne Forma- chemistry, v. 37, p. 220–243, doi:10.1016/j ety of Exploration Geophysicists Expanded
tion) and Barents Sea (Hekkingen Formation), .orggeochem.2005.08.023. Abstracts, v. 19, paper RPB7.1, p. 1858–1861,
respectively. The different TOC profiles explain Klemme, H.D., and Ulmishek, G.F., 1991, Effective doi:10. 1190/1.1815791.
why the Hekkingen Formation, which is richer petroleum source rocks of the world: Strati- Sondergeld, C.H., Ambrose, R.J., Rai, C.S., and Mon-
graphic distribution and controlling deposi- crieff, J., 2010, Micro-structural studies of gas
in organic matter than the Draupne Formation, tional factors: American Association of Petro- shales: Society of Petroleum Engineers Uncon-
has weaker top but stronger base amplitude leum Geologists Bulletin, v. 75, p. 1809–1851. ventional Gas Conference, Pittsburgh, Penn-
reflections. Based on the established charac- Løseth, H., Wensaas, L., and Gading, M., 2011, De- sylvania, February 23–25, paper 131771-MS,
teristics, the source rock presence, thickness, formation structures in organic-rich shales: 17 p., doi:10.2118/131771-MS.
American Association of Petroleum Geolo- Thomsen, L., 1993, Weak anisotropic reflections, in
and basinwide variations in organic content gists Bulletin, v. 95, p. 729–747, doi:10.1306/ Castagna, J.P., and Backus, M., eds., Offset-
can be mapped using seismic data. Seismic AI 09271010052. dependent reflectivity: Theory and practice of
data from the source rock interval can be trans- Magoon, L.B., and Dow, W.G., 1994, The petroleum AVO analysis: Investigations in Geophysics 8:
formed to TOC percent values where good local system, in Magoon, L.B., and Dow, W.G., eds., Tulsa, Oklahoma, Society of Exploration Geo-
well calibration can be obtained. We believe The petroleum system—From source to trap: physicists, p. 103–111.
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Vernik, L., and Landis, C., 1996, Elastic anisotropy
that the findings from this study will change the Memoir 60, p. 3–24. of source rocks: Implications for hydrocarbon
way petroleum systems are evaluated in basin Marroquin, I.D., and Hart, B.S., 2004, Seismic at- generation and primary migration: American
analysis studies. tribute-based characterization of coalbed meth- Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
ane reservoirs: An example from the Fruitland v. 80, p. 531–544.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Formation, San Juan basin, New Mexico: Vollset, J., and Dòre, A.G., 1984, A revised Triassic
American Association of Petroleum Geologists and Jurassic lithostratigraphic nomenclature
We thank Knut Georg Røssland, former chief geol-
Bulletin, v. 88, p. 1603–1621. for the Norwegian North Sea: Norwegian Pe-
ogist, Statoil ASA, who suggested the idea of studying
Melia, P.J., and Carlson, R.L., 1984, An experi- troleum Directorate Bulletin 3, 53 p.
organic-rich claystones on seismic data. We are also
mental test of P-wave anisotropy in strati- Widess, M.B., 1973, How thin is a thin bed?: Geophys-
grateful to Statoil ASA for allowing the results of in-
fied media: Geophysics, v. 49, p. 374–378, ics, v. 38, p. 1176–1180, doi:10.1190/1.1440403.
house research to be published.
doi:10.1190/1.1441673.
Morgan-Bell, H.S., Coe, A.L., Hesselbo, S.P., Jen- Manuscript received 6 April 2011
REFERENCES CITED kyns, H.C., Weedon, G.P., Marshall, J.E.A., Revised manuscript received 4 July 2011
Allen, P.A., and Allen, J.R., 2005, Basin analysis, Tyson, R., and Willians, C.J., 2001, Integrated Manuscript accepted 28 July 2011
principles and applications (second edition): stratigraphy of the Kimmeridge Clay Forma-
Hoboken, New Jersey, Wiley-Blackwell, 500 p. tion (Upper Jurassic) based on exposures and Printed in USA

1170 GEOLOGY, December 2011

Downloaded from https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/39/12/1167/3540214/1167.pdf

by guest