SURVEYING TECHNIQUES:

SURVEY: Surveying is defined as the science of making measurements of the

earth specifically the surface and subsurface of the earth. This is being carried
out by finding the spatial location (relative/absolute) of points, distance, angles
on or near the surface of the earth.
The primary aims of field surveying are :
• to measure the Horizontal Distance between points.
• to measure the Vertical elevation between points.
• to find out the Relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal angles with
reference to any arbitrary direction and
• to find out Absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles with reference to a
fixed direction.
These parameters are utilized to find out the relative or absolute coordinates of a point
/ location.

Purpose : The main object of surveying is the preparation of maps or plans which are
the basis in planning and design of engineering project such as route location of
railway line, roads and water supply scheme.
Basic Principles in Surveying: Ruling principle of survey is :
i) “ to work from whole to part”. For surveying Establish control points with high
precision by use of Triangulation and precise leveling. Area is further divided into
triangle, which are surveyed with less accuracy.
ii) to fix the position of new stations by at least two independent processes – By linear
and Angular
Preamble
Surveying is involved in a project from conceptual stage to construction and
afterwards in maintenance also. Depending on the stage at which surveying is
carried out it can be called.

i) Pre construction Feasibility survey

survey

ii) Construction To maintain alignment and Geometry

survey control during construction.

iii) Post construction Maintenance survey

Classification based upon equipment used:

i) Chain survey
ii) Compass survey
iii) Theodolite survey
iv) Plane Table survey
v) Tachometric survey
vi) Aerial Photographic Survey
vi) Remote sensing.
B) Based upon Method Employed :
i) Triangulation : Control points are established through a net-work of triangles.
ii) Traversing: Scheme of control points consisting of a series of connected lines.
iii) Trilateration: Distances are measured for exercising the control.
Geodetic surveying: It may be taken to consist of surveys covering such a large area
that the spherical or spheroidal shape of the earth has to be taken into account if
serious error is not to be incurred. It is the most accurate of all forms of survey, and its
main object is generally to provide points, very accurately fixed, which can be used as
fixed points whose positions and elevations can be accepted without question when “
tying “other surveys of lesser accuracy to them. Sometimes,however, geodetic surveys
are executed for purely scientific purposes,the main one being to determine the exact
size and shape of the earth.

Topographical surveys : They are surveys made for producing maps or plans
showing the main physical features on the ground, i.e. towns, villages, roads,
railways, rivers, lakes, woods and forests, etc., and also (by means of contours or form
lines) the “vertical relief ", or
heights, hollows, hills and mountains. If the scale of the resulting map or plan is about
1/10,000 or smaller (i.e. one unit of measurement on the plan represents 10,000
similar units on the ground), it is generally called a map. If the scale is greater than
1/10,000, it is usually called a plan. The well-known one-inch map of Great Britain
(1/03,360) is a topographical map, and the old 1/2500 and the new 1/1250 sheets are
plans.

Cadastral surveys : They are surveys made for producing plans showing property
boundaries or plans on which areas necessary for the Assessment
of property or land taxes may be computed.

Engineering surveys : They are surveys made specifically for engineering purposes.
Plane Survey :- For small projects covering Area less than 200 sq.km. Earth
curvature is not counted for in distances. Earth surface is considered as plane.
(Angular error of 1” in 200 sq. km. area by assuming plane).

Mining surveys: They are surveys of mining works and workings, surface and
underground, or other surveys made specifically for mining purposes.
Hydrographical surveys : They are surveys of water areas, particularly the sea, made
for the purpose of showing the depth of the water at different points, the nature of the
bottom, currents, the shore line or lines where the edge of the water merges with dry
land or earth, lighthouses, beacons, buoys, etc., and everything of importance to
navigation or needed in connection with engineering operations involving work under
water.
Levelling :
The art of determining relative altitudes of points on the surface of the earth of
beneath the surface of earth is called LEVELLING.

For execution of Engineering Projects it is very necessary to determine elevations of

different points along the alignment of proposed project.

Other applications are :

i) Taking rail levels existing before track renewals to finalise final rail level profile
including vertical curves.
ii) Initial ground levels for earthwork calculations.
iii) Levels for measurement of earthwork.
iv) Measurement of ballast etc.

Terms used in Levelling –

a) DATUM – or Datum plane is an arbitrarily assumed level surface or line with
reference to which level of other line or surface are calculated.

b) REDUCED LEVEL (RL) – Height or depth of a point above or below the

assumed datum is called Reduced level.
c) BENCH MARK – (BM) – B.M. is a fixed reference point of known elevation. It
may be of the following types.
i) GTS Bench mark (Geodetic Triangulation Survey) :
These Bench marks are established by national agency like Survey of India. They are
established with highest precision. Their position and elevation above MSL is given
in a special catalogue known as GTS Maps ( 100 km. interval).
ii) Permanent Bench Mark : They are fixed points of reference establish with
reference to GTS Bench mark (10 km. interval).
iii) Arbitrary Bench mark : These are reference points whose elevations are
arbitrarily assumed. In most of Engineering projects, the difference in elevation is
more important than their reduced levels with reference to MSL as given in a special
catalogue known as GTS Maps ( 100 Km. interval).
Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.) : M.S.L. is obtained by making hourly observations of the
tides at any place over a period of 19 years. MSL adopted by Survey of India is now
Bombay which was Karachi earlier.
e) Level Surface : The surface which is parallel to the mean sphereoidal surface of
the earth is known as level surface.

f) Line of Collimation : It is the line joining the intersection of the cross hair and the
optical center of the objective and its extensions, it is also called line of sight or
collimation.
Height of Instrument (HI) : The elevation of the line of sight with respect to assumed
datum is known as HI.

h) Back sight : (B.S.) - The first sight taken on a levelling staff held at a point of
known elevation. B.S. enables the surveyor to obtain HI +sight i.e. Height of
Instrument or line of sight.
i) Fore Sight : (F.S.) – It is the last staff reading taken from a setting of the level. It
is also termed as minus sight.
Fore sight is the sight taken on a levelling staff held at a point of unknown elevation
to ascertain the amount by which the point is above or below the line of sight. This is
also called minus sight as the foresight reading is always subtracted from height of
Instrument.
j) Change Point (CP) : The point on which both the foresight and back sight are
taken during the operation of levelling is called change point.

k) Intermediate Sight (IS) :

The foresight taken on a levelling staff held at a point between two turning points, to
determine the elevation of that point, is known as intermediate sight.

It may be noted that for one setting of a level, there will be only one back sight and
one foresight but there can be any number of intermediate sights.
Type of Levelling Equipments:
i) Dumpy level
ii) Tilting level
iii) Automatic level
iv) Digital Auto level
Dumpy level : It is simple compact and stable. The telescope is rigidly fixed to its
support therefore cannot be rotated about its longitudinal axis. A long bubble tube is
attached to the top of telescope. Dumpy literally means short and thick.

Tilting level : It consists of a telescope attached with a level tube which can be tilted
within few degrees in vertical plane by a tilting screw.

The main peculiarity of this level is that the vertical axis need not be truly vertical,
since the line of collimation is not perpendicular to it. The line of collimation, is,
however, made horizontal for each pointing of telescope by means of tilting screw. It
is mainly designed for precise levelling work.
The Automatic level : Also termed as self aligning level. The fundamental
difference between automatic and the classic spirit level is that in the former the line
of sight is no longer levelled manually using a tubular spirit level, but is levelled
automatically within a certain tilt range. This is achieved by compensator in the
telescope.
Advantage of automatic level
i) Much simpler to use
ii) High precision – Mean elevation error on staff graduated to 5mm division varies
between +0.5 to 0.8 mm per km of forward and backward levelling.
iii) High speed : For fly levelling the progress achieved by various level-wise
compared.

Prismatic Compass
• Prism allows Siting Object & Reading Angle
• Parts: Prism, Brake, Wire, Peep-site, Vane
• Compass Card
– Imprinted Degrees
– 0 = North; 180 = South
• 90 & 270 = East OR West
– 0 to 90 degrees
• 0 = North and South 90 = East and West
• Brunton Compass
– Uses Mirror instead of Prism
• Instrument Error
– mis-alignment of Vane, Peep-site, Wire
– inaccurate tic marks on compass card
• External Error
– “local influences” or “local iron”
– Magnetic North
• changes daily up to .3 deg
• Magnetic Declination - Singapore = +19 degrees (est.)
– User Error
• compass not flat or moving
• Use Tripod, Stick or Arm brace
• 1/4 of a degree (15 minutes)
– Maximum accuracy = rare
• under 1 degree
– assuming no ‘Local Influences”
• .5 degrees
– based on averaging or repeated readings
• Theodolite
– accuracy of 1 minute (1/60 degree)
• Advantage of a Compass
– error limited to individual readings
• not compounded from previous reading
• Two Methods: Triangulation and Traverse
• Compass Triangulation
– aka “Compass Sketch” or “Intersection and Resection”
– fixing positions of landmarks by Intersection
• then fixing objects near landmarks by Resection
– allows detailed field mapping of a large area
– requires:
• Prismatic or Brunton Compass
• Sketching Board with light graph paper
• Protractor
• Sharp pencil and an eraser
Compass Triangulation Method
 • Measure a base line on the ground
– from each end can see all landmarks to map
– length should be at least 10 cm long on the final map
• Take Landmark Bearings from each Baseline End
– use the Protractor to draw Bearing Rays on graph paper
– Intersections = location
• Right Angles Intersections = most accurate
– New baseline & additional bearings if necessary
• 3 Bearings = second best accuracy
– allow “First” and “Second Class” point precision
– Objects further away = less accurate
• other objects and details are identified and mapped
– based on their Bearings to the Landmarks
• Similar to Plane-Table Surveying
– flat table is used to sketch bearing rays on
• Similar to Theodolite Triangulation
– each points is part of a triangle in a Triangular Grid
• Uses of Compass Sketch
– Reconnaissance mapping prior to triangulation
– Sand dune distribution
– Tree and Shrub positions
The Compass Traverse
• Surveying Routes and Lines
– bed of a stream, route of a trail
– boundary of an area (polygon)
• “Leg”
– a straight line segment w/ distance & direction
• Mapping is done after measurements
– different from Compass Sketch
• “Chain Survey”
– uses Compass and a measuring Chain
Chain Survey of a Area

• Mark corners of the Area to be surveyed

• Take Bearing from first corner (A) to second (B)
• Measure A-B distance using Chain or Tape
– Optionally, take Offset Readings en route of:
• Objects Crossed & Nearby Objects
• and their Distance & Bearing (may be estimated)
• At Point B - take a Back Bearing to Point A
– if 2 or 3 deg off, use average the two readings
– if > 3 deg off, then redo initial reading
• Continue each subsequent leg in this way
• need to be very clear
– actual plotting is done away from location
– any surveyor should be able to understand
• make Sketches of Offset Objects
• Bearings should be Degree # and Decimal
– DO NOT INCLUDE Degree Symbol
 • too easily mistaken for a ‘0’
• Include:
– NAME and PURPOSE of the traverse
– Name of SURVEYOR
• Centre Column = Traverse LEG
– no real width
– Starts with a Station Point - identified by a CIRCLE
– ends with a Line
– only shows distances from last Station Point
– objects encountered/offset are sketched in
• although not to any particular scale
• Left Column = Bearings
– kept separate to avoid confusion with distances
• Plotting the Traverse
– Distance & Bearing information in AutoCAD
• entered as @m<ddm”s’ - e.g., @33<90d10'3”
• “Error of Closure”
– All surveying has some degree or error
• Two Types of Traverses
– 1 - Closed Polygons
• main error: polygon ends do not meet
– 2 - Open Lines
• main error: end of line not at expected point
• Bearing measurement
– instrument error
– external error
• local iron, magnetic North
• mentioned previously
• Distance measurement
– Longer Traverse = greater error
• but more “Error Averaging”
– Shorter Traverse
• error due to a single distance or bearing
• spread the error among the Station points
– recommended method
– Station’s share of error based on distance to it from last point
• First Station does Not Change
• Can adjust other station’s share of error if suspect
• Adjusting a Line Traverse
– ONLY if End Point is clearly known
• needed to determine Error of Closure at the end point
– same method of adjustment as Area Traverse
• to determine this, draw a line representing entire length of the traverse
– then mark off the distance from the POB of each station
– draw a perpendicular line at the end station that is equal to the closure
error distance (same scale)
– draw another line starting at the same POB, but ending at the top of the
perpendicular line
– draw perpendicular lines from each Station point to the second line
 – these show the proportion of the error that each point will bear in
adjusting the traverse
– NOTE: Can change the true locations of the stations along the first line
to adjust for one station that was more difficult to survey and more
likely to be the source of the error — forcing it to have a greater share
of the overall error than the method above would normally apply.
• Traversing with only a Ruler
– starting at a clearly defined landmark
– lay ruler on paper and mark direction to a landmark
– pace distance to the landmark
– using ruler - realign the paper to the last landmark (back bearing)
– draw a new line to the next landmark and Pace it
• Traversing with only a Rope
– takes two people
– hold rope taught and straight between two landmarks/stations
– mark direction on paper as with Rule
– can be Very Precise
Triangulation with a Theodolite
• Most common survey method
• Theodolite = a Telescope mounted on a Tripod
– moves Horizontally & Vertically
– gives readings at the minute (or less) level
• baseline is precisely measured and recorded
– Theodolite placed (using plumb-line) over end of the base line
– measure angle to the other end of the baseline
– measure angle to other stations
– move to next station
• Distances between stations are calculated on the Angles
– additional baselines are drawn to ensure overall accuracy
• Mapping is done back in office from field notes
• Used to create Control Point network in many countries
• Triangle sides in the UK average 56 km
– longest is 160 km
• Triangles in India range 18 to 48 km
• Theodolite can also measure:
– elevation changes
• Using Vertical angles (and, optionally, a Measuring stick)
– Latitude and Longitude of a point
• Using angle to the Sun and polar stars
• Brunton Compass can measure elevation changes
– using built-in Angle Measuring scales
Summary
• Surveying
– Distance and Direction
– COGO
• Compass
– Prismatic
– Brunton
• Compass Triangulation
• Compass Traverse
 – Error & Closure
• Theodolite Triangulation
– Triangular Survey Grid

Measurement:
Measurement is the determination or estimation of ratios of quantity or quality of the
object.
Measurement is the estimation of the magnitude of some attribute of an object, such
as its length or weight, relative to a unit of measurement.
Mainly two types of Measurement; Linear measurement and Angular measurement.
Linear Measurement: Linear measurement just means measurement in a straight
line.
Angular Measurement: A type of measurement method that compares an
unknown angle with a know angle as the difference in direction of two intersecting
line.
 Linear measurements are done for measuring the horizontal distance.
 The following instruments are used:
 Tape
 Chain
 Pacing
 Odometer
 Tachometer
 Electronic distance measurement (EDM).
 Pacing: this is rough method to measure the horizontal distance. It is done by
counting the number of steps of a man. One step is equal to appox.2.5 feet or
80 cm.
 Speedometer: some speedometer also for measuring distance.
 Tape :Taping refers to the exercise of physically measuring horizontal
distances.
 Chaining: This is the accurate method of measuring the horizontal distance.
 Accuracy :Accuracy is the degree of conformity with a standard or accepted
value. Accuracy relates to the quality of the result. It is distinguished from
precision that relates to the quality of the operation used to obtain the result.
The standard used to determine accuracy can be:
 An exact known value, such as the sum of the three interior angles of a plane
triangle is 180°.
 A value of a conventional unit as defined by a physical representation thereof,
such as the international meter.
 A survey or map value determined by superior methods and deemed
sufficiently near the ideal or true value to be held constant for the control of
dependent operations.
 Although they are known to be not exact, higher order NGS control points are
deemed of sufficient accuracy to be the control for all other less exact surveys.
 Precision :Precision is the degree of refinement in the performance of an
operation (procedures and instrumentation) or in the statement of a result. It is
a measure of the uniformity or reproducibility of the result.
 The accuracy of a field survey depends directly upon the precision of the
survey. Although through luck (compensating errors, for example) surveys
with high order closures might be attained without high order precision, such
accuracies are meaningless. Therefore, all measurements and results should be
quoted in terms that are commensurate with the precision used to attain them.
Similarly, all surveys must be performed with a precision that ensures that the
desired accuracy is attained. However, surveys performed to a precision that
excessively exceeds the requirements are costly and should be avoided.
 Blunders :a blunder is really an unpredictable gross mistake made by the
surveying team.
 Transposing two numbers (in field notes or computer input.)
 Misplacing decimal point.
 Incorrect reading (i.e. the foot value on a leveling rod.)
 Inadvertently altering set instrument constants in the middle of a project.
 Placing sighting device or the instrument at a wrong point.
 Misunderstanding verbal instructions or reading announcements (call out).
 Neglecting to level an instrument.
 Using the incorrect coordinates or benchmark values.
 Blunders are detected and eliminated by using proper procedures, such as:
 Checking each recorded and calculated value.
 Making independent and redundant measure check observations and
measurements.
 Making redundant measurements that allow closure computation of sections of
the entire survey.
 All blunders must be eliminated prior to correcting and adjusting a survey for
errors.
 Error: Error is the difference, after blunders have been eliminated, between
a measured or calculated value of a quantity and the true or established value
of that quantity.
 Systematic Errors
 Random ( Accidental ) Errors
 systematic errors are caused by physical and natural conditions that vary
in accordance with known mathematical or physical laws.
 A systematic error is an error that will always have the same magnitude and
the same algebraic sign under the same conditions.
 Equipment out of calibration
 Use of insufficiently accurate computation equations (too few terms in a
series.)
 Failure to apply necessary geometric reductions of measurements.
 Failure to apply necessary reductions of measurements due to weather related
conditions.
 Personal biases of the observer.
 Use of incorrect units (feet instead of meters.)

 EDM that measures 99.95 feet while indicating a measurement of 100.00 feet.
 Refraction in vertical angles.
 Observer’s tendency to sight on near or distant sights in a slightly different
manner
 the effect of these errors can be minimized as follows:
 Turning angles (with theodolite or total station) in direct and reverse modes.
 Balancing (maintaining similar distances between level and rod) foresights
and backsights.
 Calibrating all surveying equipment.
 Calibrating EDM’s yearly at a baseline calibration site.

 Random error (or accidental error) is an error produced by irregular causes

that are beyond the control of the observer.
 The occurrence, magnitude, and algebraic sign of a random error is truly
random and cannot be predicted.
 The average represents the adjusted value for the distance for which the
random error is minimized.
 Sources of Error:
 Errors in measurements stem from three sources: personal, instrumental,
and natural.
 Personal errors are caused by the physical limitations of the human senses of
sight and touch
 Personal errors can be either systematic or random. Personal systematic
errors are caused by an observer tendency to react the same way under the
same conditions. When there is no such tendency, the personal errors are
considered to be random.
 Common sense, self-calibration (estimating personal errors by experiments
and experience) and attention to proper procedures generally keep such errors
to a minimum.
 Instrumental errors are caused by imperfections in the design,
construction, and adjustment of instruments and other equipment. Instruments
can be calibrated to overcome these imperfections. Examples of instrument
error are:
 Imperfect linear or angular scales.
 Instrument axes are not perfectly parallel or perpendicular to each other.
 Misalignment of various part of the instrument.
 Optical distortions causing “what you see is not exactly what you are supposed
to see
 Since not all instrument errors can be eliminated by procedures, instruments
must be periodically checked, tested and adjusted (or calibrated.) Instruments
must be on a maintenance schedule to prevent inaccurate measurements.
 Natural errors result from natural physical conditions such as atmospheric
pressure, temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, and atmospheric refraction.
Examples of natural errors are:
 A steel tape whose length varies with changes in temperature.
 Sun spots activity and its impact on the ionosphere, hence on GPS surveying
 Natural errors are mostly systematic and should be corrected or modeled in the
adjustment. Some natural errors such as the effect of curvature and refraction
can be eliminated by a procedure. The leveling procedure to eliminate
curvature and refraction corrections is to average foresights and backsights.
 TAPE:
 Taping refers to the exercise of physically measuring horizontal distances.
 Accurate distances under 30 meters can be obtained with a calibrated
steel tape.
 Many surveyors believe that third order accuracy is a natural result of
taping a distance. This is not true. Taped measurements will produce a
linear accuracy of one part in 7,500 and yield a position closure of one
part in 5,000 only if correct procedures are used. Such correct procedures
would include standardization of tape, application of temperature
correction, application of correct tension (particularly if tape is
suspended), correct horizontal and vertical alignment of tape, and careful
plumbing procedures.
  Types of Tapes
 1 - 200' steel tape
 1 - 100' steel tape
 2 - 100' fiberglass (cloth) tape
 1 - 12' pocket tape, engineers
 1 - 6' folding rule, engineers
 Metallic tape: Standard tapes are 50 ft., 100 ft. and 200 ft. and are
graduated in feet, tenths and hundredths throughout their length. Metric
tapes are 30 meters in length and are graduated in meters, decimeters,
centimeters and millimeters throughout their length.
 Non-metallic tape: Standard Non-metallic cloth tapes are graduated to
0.05 foot throughout their length. They are available in 100-foot lengths
without cases. Metric tapes are 30 meters long and graduated in meters
and centimeters.

 30 metre tape: Steel tapes are manufactured under fixed conditions

of temperature and tensile force.
 Tension handle: Tension handles allow the user to apply a specified
tensile force on the tape.
 Tape grips: These allow the user to firmly grasp the steel tape and resist
the pull of the tape from the person located on the other end of the tape.
 plumb bobs: These are used to locate the tape precisely over a specified
point.
 chaining pins: These are used to mark tape lengths.
The measured length is determined by subtracting tape reading A from tape
reading B.
For example: Person A calls out a tape reading of 27.900
Person B reports a tape reading of 0.031
The measured length is computed as 27.900-0.031 or 27.869 metres.
These intermediate points typically consist of wooden stakes or chaining pins

Low
end Person B
Person
A T3 T4
A
T5 B
T2
T1
 The reference of any point, say X, has to kept with respect to, at least, two
permanent objects or well defined points, say Y and Z. Generally, this has
been achieved by taking measurement of two parameters.The location of
a point, say X can be done as shown in the figure below.
 Figure 1.4 Reference of a point using a distance and an angle

 Error
 In general, the distance measurement obtained in the field will be in error.
Errors in the distance measurement can arise from a number of sources:
 1) Instrument errors. A tape may be faulty due to a defect in its
manufacturing or from kinking.
 2) Natural errors. The actual horizontal distance between the
ends of the tape can vary due to the effects of:
 temperature,
 elongation due to tension, and
 sagging.
 3) Personal errors. Errors will arise from carelessness by the
survey crew:
 poor alignment
 tape not horizontal
 improper plumbing
 faulty reading of the tape

 a) Temperature Correction:
 The phenomenon of thermal expansion plays an important role in many
engineering applications.
 We need to establish a correction (CT) that can account for the change in
length of a steel tape due to the influence of temperature.

 where a is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion (1.17 x 10-5 °C-1)
 T is the temperature of the tape in the field (°C)
 TS is the temperature at which the tape was standardized
(°C)
 Lf is the measured length obtained in the field (m)

CT  a  T  TS  L f
 Sagging Correction:
 A steel tape not fully supported along its entire length will sag, no matter
how large the tensile force applied.
 As a result of sagging, your measured length will be too large.
 The sag correction (CS) is given by:

 where w is the weight of the steel tape per unit length (N/m)
 P is the tensile force applied on the tape (N)
 w2 L3f
CS 
24P 2

 Tension Correction
 When a steel tape is pulled with a tension greater than its standard value,
it elongates in an elastic manner.
 The elongation length (CP) caused by a tensile force can be calculated
using:

  where P is the tensile force applied on the tape in the field (N)
 PS is the tensile force at which the tape was standardized
(N)
 A is the cross sectional area of the tape (m2)
 E is Young’s modulus of elasticity (2.068 x 1011 N/m2)

 Scale correction:  P  PS  L f
CP 
AE
 Tape manufacturers do not guarantee steel tapes to be exactly correct.
 The true length of any steel tape must be obtained by comparing it to a
standard tape or distance.
 The correction (CL) for an incorrect tape length can be found from:

 where m is the total length of the standard tape (m)
 Dm is found by subtracting the length of the standard tape
from the length of the tested tape. (m)
Dm
CL  Lf
m

 The true length can be determined by incorporating a series of

corrections as shown below:
 LT  L f  CS  C P  CT  C L

 where LT is the true length (m)

 Lf is the length measured in the field (m)
 and
 CS is a correction for sagging (m)
 CP is a correction for elongation (m)
 CT is a correction for thermal expansion (m)
 CL is a correction for scale (m)
 In summary, although we measured a some length in meters in the field,
after applying all the appropriate corrections, we can established a true
length in meters, with a minor difference in mm.

CHAIN
A chain is a series of connected links with unit of measurements to measure
distance.
The operation of measuring linear distance with the help of a chain or a tape is
known as chaining, works of ordinary precision with great accuracy is required
to measure any distance.
.
Basic Principle:
 In Chain surveying the basic principle is based on
triangulation.
 Chain survey is used for small area having leveled
surface or where the possible of well conditioned triangles
are made.
 In this the whole area which is to be surveyed is divided
into the network of connected triangles.
 It is not recommended for crowded areas.
 The sides of triangles are directly measured with chain or
tape.
 All the angles of the triangle lies in between 30° to 120°

Equipment required:
 Chain or tape
 Ranging or offset rods
 Pegs
 Cross staff
 Theodolite
 Scale
 Compass
 Arrows
 Plumb bobs

Procedures:
 The possible triangles formed should be equilateral because they are easy
to plot.
 selection of sites the points or sites should be mutually visible.
 The working station is always whole to part.
 All triangles should be well conditioned.
 Each triangles are provided with check line.
 Testing of the following.
 Chain or tape
 Leveling
 Instruments
 Selection of sites
 Scale
Chaining Operation:
 Chaining operation involve the followings:
 Ranging: The method of alignment of intermediate
path with respect to two fixed ends.
 Offsetting: In survey the objects are located with
respect to survey or chain lines by means of lateral
measurements.
 Chaining: The operation of measuring linear
distances with the help of a chain or type.
 Distance along the chain line and length of the offsets are to be measured.
 Stations should be selected that whole of the area with the help of ranging
rod or pegs.
 Stations may be all the permanent objects like buildings, trees, roads etc.,
 Offsets are measured using the tape, chain or cross staff.
 The principle lies in the fact that in a right angled triangle the sum of the
squares of the two sides containing the right angle is equal to the third
side.
 Lateral distances are measured on the both sides of chain length.
Cross Staff:
 The instrument is based upon the principle that sighting as well as
perpendicular is done simultaneously with the help of slits or cuts present
in the instrument.
 It is used for setting out a angle at a given point on chain line.
 It is held vertically at the point where the perpendicular is to be erected.
 Point of slits are present perpendicular to each other.
Chaining:
 Chaining a line on Flat ground:
 Stations are selected on the ground generally leveled place.
 Location of the object can fixed with the help of compass or sun.
 Ranging rods or pegs are fixed at the stations.
 Marked the starting and ending point of the chain.
 Counting the length of the chains. From A station point to different
stations point.
 Along the slope horizontal distance can measure by fix the station as per
slopes A-B.
 Horizontal line along A – x1, P –X2, Q-x3.
 A to B = Ax1+Px2+Qx3.
Knowing the sloping distance say L and the angle of the slope say α, horizontal
distance, M or PR can be measured by the relation, M=L cos α,.

Obstacle in chaining:
 Those which can be chained but cannot be seen across i.e. chaining is free,
vision is obstructed e.g, hill, rising ground etc.,.
 Those can be seen but cannot be chained across i.e, vision free, chaining is
obstructed, e.g., pond, valley etc.,.
 Those which can neither be seen not be chained across i.e., both vision
and chaining are obstructed e.g., buildings etc.,