Contouring

Introduction
Contour is an imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal
elevation. It facilitates depiction of the terrain in a two dimensional plan or
map. In other words contour is a line in which the ground surface is
intersected by a level surface obtained by joining points of equal elevation.
This line on the map represents a contour and is called contour line.
Contouring is the Science of representing the vertical dimension of the terrain
on a two dimensional map.

Fig. 1 Two dimensional Map

 Fig. 2 Contour Map
Contour Map
A map showing contour lines is known as contour map. A contour map gives
an idea of the altitudes of the surface features as well as their relative position
in plan serves the purpose of both, a plan and a section
Contour Line
A contour line is an imaginary outline of the terrain obtained by joining its
points of equal elevation.
Contour interval
It is the vertical distance between any two consecutive contours. If a map
includes contour lines of 101m, 100m, 99m, 98m and so on, the contour
interval here is 1m.
The contour interval depends on
a) The nature of the ground (i.e. whether flat or sleep)
b) The scale of the map
c) The purpose of the survey
Contour intervals for flat ground are generally small, e.g 0.25m, 0.5m, 0.75m
etc. Contour interval for a steep slope in a hilly area is generally greater i.e
5m, 10m 15m etc. Contour interval is kept large up to 2m for projects such as
highways and railways whereas it is kept as small as 0.5m for measurement of
earthwork building sides and Dams etc. It should be recommended that the
contour interval for a particular map is constant.
Horizontal Equivalent (HE)
It is the horizontal distance between two consecutive contour lines measured
to the scale of the map.
* It is not constant it varies according to the steepness of the ground
* For steep slopes, the contour lines run close together and for flatter
slopes they are widely spaced.
 Fig. 3 Horizontal /Vertical Equivalent
Characteristics of Contour
The following point are consider which are as follows
1) All points in a contour line have the same elevation
2) Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and
steep-slope where they run close together.
3) A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniform
spaced.
4) A plane surface when they are straight parallel and equally spaced

Fig. 4 Contour Profile

5) A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a hill, if the
higher values are inside.

Fig. 5 A Series of Close Contour higher values are inside

6) A Series of closed contour lines on the map indicate a depression of
the higher values is outside.

Fig. 6 A Series of Close Contour higher values are outside

7) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles. If the higher
values are inside the bend or loop in the contour it indicates a ridge.
8) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles. If the higher
values are outside the bend it represents a valley.

Fig. 7 Higher values are outside the bend

9) Contours cannot end anywhere but close on themselves either within
or outside the limits of the map

Fig. 8 Pattern of Contour

10) Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on map except in the
case of an overhanging cliff.

Fig. 9 Crossing of Contour

11) Contour lines never run into one another except in the case of a vertical cliff.

Line passing through the saddles and summits gives water shed line
12) Depressions between summits is called a saddle. It is represented by
four sets of contours as shown in given figure. It represents a dip in a
ridge or the junction of two ridges, and in the case of a mountain
range it takes the form of a pass.

Fig. 10 Pattern of Contour

Purpose of Contouring/Contour Map
Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as
a road, railways, canal, Dam, building etc.
i) Contour maps are prepared in order to select the most economical or
suitable site.
ii) It helps to locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a
ridge line.
iii) It helps to mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the
quantity of earthwork both in cutting and filling should be minimum.
iv) It helps for getting information about the ground whether it is flat,
undulating or mountainous.
v) It helps to find the capacity of a reservoir and volume of earthwork
especially in a mountainous region.
vi) It helps to trace out the given grade of a particular route.
vii) It helps to locate the physical features of the ground such as a pond,
depression, hill, steep or small slopes.
Uses of Contour Map
i) A Contour map furnishes information regarding the features of the
ground, whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
ii) From a contour map section may be easily drawn in any direction.
iii) Indivisibility between two ground points plotted on map can be
ascertained.
iv) It enables an engineer to approximately select the most economical
or suitable site for an engineering project such as a road, railway,
canal or pipe line etc.
v) A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.
vi) Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined from
the contour map.
vii) Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of the earth
work
Factors on which contour Interval depends
The contour interval depends upon the following factors
i) The nature of the ground: In flat and uniformly sloping country the
contour interval is small, but in broken and mountainous region the
contour interval should be large otherwise the contour will come too close
to each other.
ii) The purpose and extent of the survey: Contour interval is small if
the area to be surveyed is small and the maps are required to be used
for the design work or for determining the quantities of earth work etc.
while wider interval shall have to be kept for large areas and
comparatively less important works.
iii) The scale of the map: The contour interval should be in the inverse
ratio to the scale of the map i.e. the smaller the scale the greater is the
contour interval.
iv) Time and expense of field and office work: The smaller the
interval the greater is the amount of field work and plotting work.
Common value of contour interval
The following are the contour interval adopted for various purposes
i) For large scale maps of flat country for building site, detail design
work and for calculation of quantities of earth work is 0.2m to 0.5m.
ii) For reservoir and town planning schemes is 0.5m to 2m.
iii) For small scale maps of broken country and general topographic
work are 3m, 5m, 10m and 25m.
Methods of Contouring
The location of a point in topographic survey involves both horizontal as well
as vertical control. The method of contouring depends upon the instruments
used. There are mainly two methods of locating contour
i) Direct Method ii) Indirect Method
A) Direct Method: The contour to be plotted is actually traced on
the ground, only those points are surveyed which happen to be plotted and
contours are drawn through them. The method is slow, tedious and is
applicable for small areas and where great accuracy is required. Each contour
is located by determining the positions of series of point through which the
contour passes (As a lot of time is wasted in searching points of same
elevation for a contour)
a) Vertical Control
* The points on the contours are traced either with the help of a level,
staff or hand level.
* The level is set at a point to command as much area is possible to
level.
* The staff is kept on B.M and the height of the instrument is
determined. If B.M is not nearby, fly levelling may be carried out to
establish a temporary bench mark in that area.
* Having known the height of the instrument the staff reading is
calculated so that the bottom of the staff is at an elevation equal to the
value of contour to be plotted.
b) Horizontal Control
* After having located the points for various contours vertically they are
to be surveyed with a suitable control system for horizontally
located.
* For this the location of points are traced by the method of plane
tabling, chain survey or theodolite.
* After the completion of process of levelling contour are drawn
through these points.
* For accurate contouring sufficient number of the points at close
interval are required.
* The plotted positions of the consecutive points of any contour are
simply joined by straight lines to form contour lines
 Fig. 11 Horizontal Control
Procedure
* A temporary B.M is established near the area to be surveyed with
reference to a permanent B.M by fly levelling.
* The level is set up in such a position so that the maximum number of
points can be commanded from the instrument station.
* The height of instrument is determined by taking a back sight on the
B.M and adding it to the R.L of Bench Mark.
* The staff reading required to fix points on the various contours is
determined by subtracting the R.L of each of the contour from the
height of instrument.
* The new height of instrument and the required staff readings are
then calculated in a similar manner and the process repeated till all the
contours are located. The positions of the contour points are located suitably
either simultaneous with levelling or afterwards. A theodolite, compass or
plane table traversing is usually adopted for locating these points. The points
are then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by joining the
corresponding points by dotted curved lines.
B) Indirect Method: Some suitable guide points are selected and
surveyed (the guide points should not necessarily be on the contours but serve
as basis for interpolation of contours). This method of contouring is also
known as contouring by spot levels.
* In this method some suitable guide points are selected and their
elevations are found, theses points may form well shaped
geometrical figures.
* The location of such points are plotted by plane tabling and contours
are drawn by interpolation, theses guide points do not fall except by
coincidence on the contours to be located.
* While interpolating it is considered that the slope between any two
adjacent guide points is uniform.
* Several representative points represent hills, depressions, ridge,
valley lines and the changes in the slope all over the area to be
contour are also observed.
* Other guide points are then plotted on the plan and the contours
drawn by interpolation.
* This method is commonly employed in all kinds of surveys as this is
cheaper, quicker and less tedious as compared to direct method.
Depending upon the field indirect method of contouring has divided into
three broad categories.
A) By Squares or Grid Method
B) By Cross Section
C) By Tacheometric or Radial line Method
1) By Squares or Grid Method
* In this method the whole area is divided into number of squares or
Grid the side of which may vary from 5m to 30m depending upon the
nature of the ground and the contour interval.
* The corners of the squares are pegged out and the reduced levels of
these points are determined with a level.
* The important points within the squares may be taken when
required and located by measurements from the corners
* The squares are plotted and the reduced levels of the corners are
written on the plan.

Fig. 12 Square Method

 Fig. 13 Interpolation of Contours
B) By Cross Section
* This method is most suitable for the surveys of long narrow strips
such as road, railways or canal alignment etc.
* In this method cross sections perpendicular to the centre line of the
area are set out.
* The spacing of the cross-section depends upon the contour interval,
scale of plan and the characteristic of ground.
* The common value is 10 to 20m in hilly country and 20-30m in flat
country.
* The centre line and cross sections are plotted along with important
features on the desired scale and their R.Ls are entered.
* The contours are then interpolated with respect to these R.Ls.
* The levels of the points along the section lines are plotted on the
plan and the contours are then interpolated as usual.

Fig. 14 Depression under Cross-section method

C) By Tacheometric
* A Tacheometer is a transit theodolite having a diaphragm fitted with
two stadia wires one above and other below the centre wire.
* The horizontal distance between the instrument and staff station may
be determined by multiplying the difference of the staff readings of
the upper and lower stadia wires with the stadia constant of the
instrument which is usually 100.
* Thus the tacheometer is used for both the vertical as well as
horizontal measurements.
* This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the number of stations
which can be commanded by a tacheometer is far more than those by
a level and thus the numbers of instrument settings are considerably
reduced.
* A number of radial lines are laid out at a known angular interval and
representative points are marked by pegs along these radial lines.
* Their elevations and distances are then calculated and plotted on the
plan and the contour lines are then interpolated.

Fig. 15 Radial lines

Difference between direct and indirect methods of contouring
S. No Direct Method Indirect Method
1. Very accurate but slow and tedious Not very accurate but quicker & less tedious
2. Expensive Reasonable Cost
3. Appropriate for small projects requiring high Suitable for large projects requiring moderate to
accuracy, e.g. layout of building factory low accuracy, e.g; layout of highway, railway,
structural foundation, etc. canal etc.
4. More suitable for low undulating terrain Suitable for hilly terrain
5. Calculation need to carried out in the field Calculation in the field in not mandatory
6. After contouring calculation cannot be checked Calculations can be checked as and when needed
Interpolation of Contours
The process of spacing the contours proportionally between the plotted
ground-points is termed as interpolation of contours. This becomes necessary
in the case of indirect contouring as the spot levels are taken in this method.
While interpolation of contours the ground between any two points is assumed
to be uniformly sloping
There are three main methods of interpolation
A) By Arithmetical Calculation
B) By Graphical method
C) By Estimation
A) By Arithmetical Calculation
* This is very tedious & time consuming but accurate method.
* The positions of contour points between the guide points are
located by arithmetic calculation
* Used for small areas where accurate results are necessary

Fig. 16 Arithmetic representation

B) By Graphical method
* Graphical method of interpolation is simpler as compared to
arithmetical method and also the results obtained are accurate.
* Out of several graphical methods the most common is as given
below.
As shown in figure below suppose the contour interval is 5m then on a piece
of tracing cloth or tracing paper a number of parallel lines spaced at 0.5m
(usually1/10th of the contour interval) are drawn every tenth line being made
thick. Suppose it is required to interpolate contours between two points A and
B of elevation 51.5m and 62.5m respectively.
* If the bottom line represents an elevation of 50m then the successive
thick lines will represent 55m, 60m and 65m etc.
* Place the tracing cloth so that the point A is on the third line from the
bottom now move the tracing cloth until B is on the fifth line above the 60m
thick line.
* The interpolation of the thick lines 1 and 2 representing elevations of
55m and 60m and the line AB give the position of the points on the
55m and 60m contours respectively and are pricked through on the
plan with a pin.

C) By Estimation
The points on the required contour are located by eye judgment or estimation
between points whose elevation are already known. This is a rough method
and is suitable for small scale maps, the position of the contour points between
ground points are estimated roughly and the contours are then drawn through
these points. Accuracy of work depends upon the skill and experience of
surveyor.
Plotting of a Contour Map
* Before plotting the contour map, suitable scale is selected
* e.g., 1cm =1m, 1cm =2m, 1cm = 2.5m, 1cm =4m, 1cm =5m etc.
* A horizontal line is drawn as the centre line.
* The chainages are marked along the horizontal line according to the
scale.
* Ground levels are written from the level book according to the
chainage.
* The cross-section (l/s and R/s) are also plotted (perpendicular lines)
at each of the chainage.
* By interpolation contours are joined by smooth curves keeping in
mind the characteristics of contour.
* First find out maximum and minimum RL values and then first plot
full values contour lines i.e., 50, 51, 52, 53 etc. Contour interval is
1m. After plotting these contour lines reduces contour interval and it
is taken 0.5m and contour lines i.e., 50.5, 51.5, 52.5 etc are plotted.
* Contour lines are then linked.
Fig. 17 Plotting of Contour Map