14250A ch1 PDF
14250A ch1 PDF
14250A ch1 PDF
Overview
In the Seabees, the Steelworker (SW) rating is recognized as the resident expert on the
use of metal. SWs lay airfields, erect towers, assemble pontoon causeways, reinforce
concrete, and erect buildings. They also use their expertise to fabricate all types of
metal objects, repair metal items, and resurface worn machinery parts.
Steelworkers need to know the two basic types of metal and be able to provide initial
identification. While they primarily work with the ferrous metals of iron and steel, they
also need to be able to identify and become familiar with the nonferrous metals coming
into more use each day.
In the civilian arena, the term “Steelworker” generally refers to those who make iron and
steel in the many steel plants, while the term “Ironworker” refers to those in the
construction industry who fabricate and build with iron and steel.
This chapter will present an introductory explanation of the basic types of metal and
provide initial instruction on using simple tests to establish their identity. For a more in-
depth presentation about the properties and uses of metal, refer to Steelworker
Advanced.
Objectives
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Identify the basic metal types.
2. Describe identification procedures associated with basic metals.
Prerequisites
None
This course map shows all of the chapters in Steelworker Basic. The suggested training
order begins at the bottom and proceeds up. Skill levels increase as you advance on
the course map.
Gas Cutting
Introduction to Welding
1.1.1 Iron
Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically
extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey,
bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red. Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig
iron, which is one of the main raw materials used to make steel. Ninety-eight percent of
the mined iron ore is used to make steel.
Iron is produced by converting iron ore to pig iron using a blast furnace. Pig iron is the
intermediate product of smelting iron ore with coke, usually with limestone as a flux. Pig
iron has very high carbon content, typically 3.5–4.5%, which makes it very brittle and
not useful directly as a material except for limited applications.
From pig iron, many other types of iron and steel are produced by the addition or
deletion of carbon and alloys. The following briefly presents different types of iron and
steel made from iron. Steelworker Advanced will present additional information about
their properties.
• Pig Iron — comparatively weak and brittle with limited use. Approximately ninety
percent is used to produce steel, although cast-iron pipe and some fittings and
valves are manufactured from pig iron.
• Wrought Iron — made from pig iron with some slag mixed in during manufacture,
it is almost pure iron. Wrought iron usage diminished with the increasing
availability of mild steel in the late 19th century. Some items traditionally produced
from wrought iron included rivets, nails, chains, railway couplings, water and
steam pipes, nuts, bolts, handrails, and ornamental ironworks. Many products
still described as wrought iron, such as guardrails and gates, are made of mild
steel.
• Cast Iron — any iron containing greater than 2% carbon alloy. It tends to be
brittle, except for malleable cast irons. Cast irons have a wide range of
applications, including pipes, machine and automotive industry parts such as
cylinder heads, cylinder blocks, and gearbox cases. A malleable cast iron is
produced through a prolonged annealing process.
• Ingot Iron — a commercially pure iron (99.85% iron). It is easily formed, with
properties practically the same as the lowest carbon steel. In iron, the carbon
content is considered an impurity; in steel, the carbon content is considered an
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alloying element. The primary use for ingot iron is for galvanized and enameled
sheet.
1.1.2 Steel
Of all the different metals and materials that Steelworkers use, steel and steel alloys are
by far the most used and therefore the most important to study.
The development of the economical Bessemer process for manufacturing steel
revolutionized the American iron industry. Figure 1-1 shows the container vessel used
for the process.
With economical steel came skyscrapers, stronger and longer bridges, and railroad
tracks that did not collapse.
Steel is manufactured from pig iron by decreasing the amount of carbon and other
impurities and adding specific and controlled amounts of alloying elements during the
molten stage to produce the desired composition.
CAUTION
When working with lead, take proper precautions!
Lead dust, fumes, or vapors are highly poisonous!
• Zinc — used on iron or steel in the form of a protective coating called
galvanizing.
• Tin — used as an important alloy adding resistance to corrosion.
• Aluminum — easy to work with; good appearance; light in weight; needs alloys
added to increase strength.
Unfinished, unbroken
Freshly filed surface Newly fractured surface
surface
Iron, Cast-gray Dull gray Light silvery gray Dark gray: crystalline
Iron, Malleable Dull gray Light silvery gray Dark gray: finely crystalline
Steel, Cast and Dark gray Bright silvery gray Bright gray
Steel, Low-carbon
As you can see by studying the table, a metal’s surface appearance can help you
identify it, and if you are unsure, you can obtain further information by studying a fresh
filing or a fresh fracture. If a surface examination does not provide you with enough
information for a positive identification, it should give you enough information to place
the metal into a class.
In addition to the color of the metal, distinctive marks left from manufacturing also help
in determining the identity of the metal.
• Cast iron and malleable iron usually show evidence of the sand mold.
• Low-carbon steel often shows forging marks.
• High-carbon steel shows either forging or rolling marks.
Inspecting the surface texture by feel may also provide another clue to its identity.
• Stainless steel, in the unfinished state, is slightly rough.
• Wrought iron, copper, brass, bronze, nickel, and Monel are smooth.
• Lead is smooth but has a velvety appearance.
When visual clues from surface appearance, filings, fractures, manufacturing marks, or
textural clues from the feel of the surfaces do not give enough information to allow
positive identification, other tests become necessary.
Steels that have the same carbon content but include different alloying elements are
difficult to identify; the alloys have an effect on the carrier lines, the bursts themselves,
or the forms of the characteristic bursts in the spark picture.
The alloying element may slow or accelerate the carbon spark, or make the carrier line
lighter or darker in color. For example:
• Molybdenum — appears as a detached, orange-colored spearhead on the end of
the carrier line.
• Nickel — appears to suppress the effect of the carbon burst; however, you can
identify the nickel spark by tiny blocks of brilliant white light.
• Silicon — suppresses the carbon burst even more than nickel; the carrier line
usually ends abruptly in a white flash of light.
You can perform spark testing with either a portable or a stationary grinder, but in either
case, the outer rim speed of the wheel should be not less than 4,500 feet per minute
with a clean, very hard, rather coarse abrasive wheel. Each point is necessary to
produce a true spark
When you conduct a spark test, hold the metal on the abrasive wheel in a position that
will allow the carrier line to cross your line of vision. By trial and error, you will soon find
what pressure you need in order to get a stream of the proper length without reducing
the speed of the grinder. In addition to reducing the grinder’s speed, excessive pressure
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against the wheel can increase the temperature of the spark stream, which in turn
increases the temperature of the burst and gives the appearance of a higher carbon
content than actually is present.
Use the following technique when making the test:
• Watch a point about one third of the distance from the tail end of the spark
stream.
• Watch only those sparks that
cross your line of vision and try to
form a mental image of the
individual spark.
• Fix this spark image in your mind
and then examine the whole
spark picture.
An abrasive wheel on a grinder traveling
at high speed requires respect, and you
need to review some of the safety
precautions associated with this tool
(Figure 1-9).
• Never use a cracked or out of
balance wheel.
o Vibration can cause the Figure 1-9 — Example of a grinder’s
wheel to shatter, and when OSHA-designated safety points.
an abrasive wheel
shatters, it can be disastrous for personnel standing in line with the wheel.
• Always check the wheel for secure mounting and cracks before using.
• When you install a new wheel on a grinder, be sure it is the correct size and
designated RPM.
o As you increase a wheel’s radius, the peripheral speed at the rim
increases even though the rpms remain the same. Thus, if you use an
oversized wheel, there is a distinct danger the peripheral speed can
become so great that the consequent centrifugal force can cause the
wheel to fly apart. Guards are placed on grinders as protection in case a
wheel should shatter, but they cannot provide total protection.
• Never use a grinder when the guards have been removed.
o When you turn the grinder on, stand to one side; this places you out of
line with the wheel’s centrifugal force in case the wheel should burst.
• Never overload a grinder or put sideways pressure against the wheel unless it is
expressly built to withstand such use.
• Always wear appropriate safety goggles or a face shield while using the grinder.
• Ensure the work rest is adjusted to the minimum clearance for the wheel, and
move the work across the entire face of the wheel.
o This helps eliminate grooving and minimizes the need for wheel dressing,
thus prolonging the life of the wheel.
High-carbon steel —
• Spark stream is white.
• Spark stream is about 55 inches
long.
• Volume is larger than low-carbon
steel.
• Sparklers are small and repeating.
Wrought iron —
• Spark stream next to the wheel is
straw colored.
• Spark stream at the end is brighter
red.
• Spark stream is about 65 inches
long.
• Volume is large with few sparklers.
• Sparklers are forked near the end of
the stream.
Aluminum and Smooth with saw tooth edges. A chip can be cut as a continuous strip.
Aluminum Alloys
Brass and Bronze Smooth with saw tooth edges. These metals are easily cut, but chips are more
brittle than chips of copper. Continuous strip is not easily cut.
Copper Smooth with saw tooth edges where cut. Metal is easily cut as a continuous strip.
Iron, Cast-white Small brittle fragments. Chipped surfaces are not smooth.
Iron, Cast-gray About 1/8 inch in length. Metal is not easily chipped; therefore, chips break off and
prevent smooth cut.
Iron, Malleable Vary from 1/4 to 3/8 inch in length (larger than chips from cast iron). Metal is tough
and hard to chip.
Iron, Wrought Smooth edges. Metal is easily cut or chipped, and a chip can be made as a
continuous strip.
Lead Any shape may be obtained because the metal is so soft that it can be cut with a
knife.
Monel Smooth edges. Continuous strips can be cut. Metal chips easily.
Nickel Smooth edges. Continuous strips can be cut. Metal chips easily.
Steel, Cast and Smooth edges. Metal is easily cut or chipped, and a chip can be taken off as a
Steel, Low-carbon continuous strip.
Steel, High-carbon Show a fine-grain structure. Edges of chips are lighter in color than chips of low-
carbon steel. Metal is hard, but can be chipped in a continuous strip.
Summary
This chapter has introduced you to the basics of the different types of metals and the
simple field and shop methods you can use to identify them. From here, you can begin
to build on your experiences to become a seasoned Steelworker considered a resident
expert on metals. Steelworker Advanced will provide additional, in-depth information
about metal properties in their varied compositions and alloys, along with a discussion
of additional uses.
A. Steel erector
B. Iron placer
C. Steel fabricator
D. Ironworker
A. steel
B. iron
C. nickel
D. copper
A. magnetic
B. nonmagnetic
C. copper colored
D. alloy-free
4. Which type of iron is one of the main raw materials used to make steel?
A. Ingot
B. Cast
C. Pig
D. Wrought
A. Steel
B. Cast iron
C. Copper
D. Wrought iron
A. .5%
B. 1%
C. 1.5%
D. 2%
A. Remelting
B. Annealing
C. Plating
D. Alloying
9. What group of steel is best suited for the manufacture of crane hooks and axles?
A. High carbon
B. Medium carbon
C. Mild carbon
D. Low carbon
13. What common alloy steel is used to make high-quality hand tools?
A. Nickel steel
B. Chromium steel
C. Chrome Vanadium steel
D. Tungsten steel
A. Cast iron
B. Carbon steel
C. Aluminum
D. Pig iron
A. Copper-Zinc
B. Copper-Lead
C. Copper-Aluminum
D. Copper-Tin
16. What action does the letter “T” signify when used in conjunction with a numbering
system that classifies different aluminum alloys?
17. What manufacturing marks can you look for when a metal’s color does not
provide positive identification?
18. When applying the spark test to a metal, you notice the spark stream has white
shafts and forks only. What does this condition indicate about the metal under
test?
A. It is a high-carbon steel.
B. It is a low-carbon steel.
C. It is a nickel alloy.
D. It is a molybdenum alloy.
19. What metal produces a spark stream about 25 inches long with small and
repeating sparklers of small volume that are initially red in color?
A. Nickel
B. Stainless steel
C. Grey cast iron
D. Monel metal
A. High-carbon steel
B. Low-carbon steel
C. White cast iron
D. Nickel
21. You perform the chip test by removing a small amount of material from the test
piece with a _____.
22. (True or False) You can depend on a magnetic test for 100% accuracy to
determine a ferrous metal.
A. True
B. False
Description
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(Optional) Correction
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