Detekcija Ostecenja
Detekcija Ostecenja
Detekcija Ostecenja
Printed in the UK
REVIEW ARTICLE
Abstract. Ultrasonic imaging and scanned acoustic microscopy are terms used to
describe similar imaging processes at different magnifications and frequencies.
Both processes form images by acquiring spatially correlated measurements of the
interaction of high-frequency sound waves with materials. With the exception of the
interference measurement, called V (z ), and the gigahertz frequencies used by the
higher frequency scanning acoustic microscopes, it is difficult to establish
operational differences between them. This is especially true since almost all
commercial ultrasonic imaging systems use transducers producing focused beams
and can display magnified high-resolution images.
Ultrasonic C-scan imaging was developed largely by the ultrasonic
nondestructive testing industry. The development was gradual and evolutionary.
Over a 50-year period, better and better broadband transducers, electronics and
scanners were developed for operation at progressively higher frequencies, now
ranging from 1.0 to 100 MHz. Conversely, scanning acoustic microscopes made a
relatively sudden appearance 20 years ago on the campus of Stanford University.
The first scanning acoustic microscopes operated at gigahertz frequencies and
used microwave electronics that produced acoustic tone bursts with many
wavelengths per pulse.
Three factors control resolution in an acoustic image:
1. Introduction and historical review acquire images of sound waves interacting with materials,
considerable effort has gone into defining the differences
Because both ultrasonic C-scan imaging and scanning between them. A typical ultrasonic imaging/microscopy
acoustic microscopy (SAM) describe processes used to system is shown schematically in figure 1. The early
0022-3727/96/061389+29$19.50
c 1996 IOP Publishing Ltd 1389
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Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
Year Event
1929 Muhlhauser and Sokolov independently propose ultrasonic waves for materials evaluation.
Scanned imaging is suggested outright in manuscripts by both [1–3].
1931 Muhlhauser obtains German patent for ultrasonic testing of materials using continuous wave transmission [1–3].
1936 Sokolov Tube patented and published; Sokolov observes 3 GHz acoustic images equal optical resolution [1–4].
1937 Bergmann writes Ultraschall (in German) with ∼ 600 references (English translation in 1938) [1].
1940 Firestone invents pulse–echo ultrasonic testing (patent awarded 1942). SNT (later ASNT)
chartered to provide a professional forum for nondestructive testing [2, 3].
1945 Sperry acquires Firestone patent (ultrasonic reflectoscope). Erdman, Krautkramer, Pringle, and
to Smack develop ultrasonic C-scan equipment. Hastings, using an Erdman system, makes
1958 greyscale C-scan images: film, paper [3].
1959 First ASNT handbook by McMaster. C-scans, focused probes, scanned images, CRT
greyscale, etc [3]. Dunn proposes scanned ultrasonic testing absorbtion microscope [5].
1966 Korpel et al at Zenith Corp. invent scanning laser acoustic microscope [7].
1967 First international symposium on acoustical holography (later changed to ‘imaging’) [8].
1969 Batalle founded Holotron Inc., later Holosonics Inc., to market acoustic holography systems.
1971 Fowler at Panametrics Inc. introduces and markets a quartz buffer–rod–lens focused 50 MHz transducer†.
1973 Lemons and Quate invent and introduce 1 GHz SAM [9]. Stanford group includes G Kino, P Khuri-Yakub,
and B Auld.
1974 Sonoscan Inc. founded by L Kessler to market SAM‡. E Ash builds SAM group at University
College, London, UK‡, that includes C Tsai and H Wickramasinghe.
1977 Tsai builds second SAM group in US at Carnegie Mellon University [10].
1980 EI Leitz Ltd and Olympus Ltd introduce scanning acoustic microscopes to international
market. Imaging is now seeing rapid growth.
1990s More than 30 firms manufacture industrial acoustic imaging/microscopy systems for an international market.
mechanical scanning systems initiated rapid development in In 1963 Jacobs et al [6] added an electron multiplier
ultrasonic pulse–echo testing and C-scan immersion testing. to the Sokolov Tube for a factor of ten increase in signal
The scanned ultrasonic systems developed by Erdman, strength. Even then Sokolov Tube images showed poor
Krautkramer, Pringle, and Smack during the 1950s were resolution and contrast in comparison to the ultrasonic C-
summarized and described in ASNT’s first Nondestructive scan images that were being developed during the same
Testing Handbook [3]. This work also referenced greyscale period, but they had the advantage of providing a real-
images that were originally published in 1955 by Buchanan time image. In presentations Jacobs et al usually showed
and Hastings [11]. Most of these scanning systems moving pictures because object motion gave the observer
recorded ultrasonic amplitude data on electrostatic paper. better apparent contrast than still images. Korpel et al [7]
The greyscale images were recorded on photographic film developed the scanning laser acoustic microscope during
through Z-axis modulation of the electron beam of an this period.
X–Y oscilloscope. Polaroid camera backs became the C-scan testing continued to develop. Because
most popular method for recording the brightness of the electrosensitive paper was manufactured in widths up to
oscilloscope displays. However, because the Polaroid 75 cm (30 in), large parts could be scanned and imaged with
images were limited to a 4 × 5 inch format and had to mechanically linked plotters. This made paper the most
be scanned and then viewed, they were more useful for popular C-scan recording medium for industrial testing.
research and development studies than for nondestructive The pulse–echo or pulse–transmission images were usually
evaluation. of flaw echos that exceeded an amplitude threshold. For
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FOCUSED MODIFIED
SAMPLE ACOUSTIC SCANNING
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
RECEIVER
SAPPHIRE
LENS
LASER LENS
AMP
FOCUSED
LIGHT SPOT RECEIVING
Y TRANSDUCER CRT
SOUND DISPLAY SCAN CONTROL
X AND CRT
WAVES DRIVE CIRCUITRY
ELECTRON
SCAN CONTROL BEAM
MECHANICAL SCANNING
AND CRT DRIVE
SCAN COILS
CIRCUITRY
SYNC X
(a ) Y
SYNC
SAMPLE CRT
LASER SIGNAL OUT
PROBE SQUARE LAW
(RECEIVER) DETECTOR STAGE
SOUND WAVES
BEAM LASER
SPLITTER TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER
LENS SCAN CONTROL PIEZOELECTRIC AMPLIFIER
AND LASER TRANSDUCER
SAMPLE DRIVE CIRCUITRY RECEIVER
Y
X
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of a scanning electron
MECHANICAL
SCANNER acoustic microscope (S Cargill [28]).
COMPUTER
CRT DISPLAY
SCAN CONTROL
(b ) AND CRT DRIVE
CIRCUITRY
Figure 3. Schematic diagrams of photoacoustic
LASER SCANNER
microscope systems: (a ) C Williams, Stanford University PHOTODETECTOR
and (b ) Y Martins and E Ash, University College, London.
LUCITE
COVER-SLIP
CRT KNIFE-EDGE
DYNAMIC RIPPLE
1.3. Scanning electron acoustic microscopy (SEAM) FLAW
SAMPLE
Electron acoustic microscopy is similar to photoacoustic
microscopy in that a pulsed or chopped electron beam
ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPE
is used to produce the acoustic waves. The apparatus is FREQUENCY STAGE
typically made by incorporating a piezoelectric receiver GENERATOR
PIEZOELECTRIC INCIDENT SOUND
on the stage of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). TRANSDUCER
Scanning electron acoustic microscopy is also most
effective on very near surface conditions, and the samples Figure 5. Schematic diagram of a scanning laser acoustic
must be small enough to fit on a SEM stage [28, 29] (figure microscope (L Kessler, Sonoscan Inc.).
4).
1.5. Ultrasonic testing versus ultrasonic imaging
Manual observations of ultrasonic waveforms are still the
1.4. Scanning laser acoustic microscopy (SLAM) most widely used industrial ultrasonic test method. This has
been primarily due to the low cost of the instrumentation
The scanning laser acoustic microscope was the first
in comparison to the cost of an imaging system. Scanned
acoustic imaging system that used the term acoustic imaging systems have steadily expanded in industrial use,
microscope in the description of the apparatus. This method especially where the highest probability of detection for
introduces a broad and uniform acoustic beam through flaws is required. This is because the spatial correlation
one surface of the object being imaged and then scans provided by C-scan images gives a higher probability of
the displacement patterns of the opposite surface with a detection than is possible with manual observations, even
focused laser. While the resulting displays are often clear with the use of automatic flaw alarms and mechanical
and informative, they are transmission shadowgraphs, like scanners. Because scanned acoustic microscopy utilizes the
those formed by the Sokolov Tube and Pohlmann Cells, same technology as ultrasonic C-scan imaging, acquiring
rather than images. As for all shadow-graphs, the resolution magnified images of detected flaws is becoming a natural
of a feature is dependent on its depth from the scanned extension of ultrasonic immersion testing.
surface [7, 23, 24] (figure 5). Until the development of greyscale imaging, little
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ultrasonic surface wave scanning was done because of the PAM Photoacoustic microscopy—a pulsed light source
sensitivity of sharply inclined beams to finish roughness, scanned to image a material surface/ volume
finish direction, and to flaw orientation. This surface finish SEAM Scanning electron acoustic microscopy—an
noise made ultrasonic surface wave testing one of the electron beam scanned to image a material
least dependable methods of interrogating surfaces. The surface/volume
surface waves generated by scanning acoustic microscope SNR Signal to noise ratio
techniques are also sensitive to surface roughness but, X Lateral coordinate direction, X = 0, specified
because it images the material structure, surface finish, and at the intersection of the material surface with
any detected flaws, it is less sensitive to the direction of the axis of symmetry of the acoustic beam
the finish or the orientation of a flaw. Therefore, SAM Z Vertical coordinate direction, Z = 0, also
methods have greatly contributed to surface inspection at at the intersection of the material surface with
all ultrasonic frequencies. In addition to the detection of the beam axis
flaws, acoustic images also contain substantial information
for materials characterization. Grain size can be measured 3. Description and theory of acoustic
with standard observational techniques applied to acoustic imaging/microscopy
greyscale images of surfaces. Weglein [15], Liang et
al [17], Briggs [26], Kushibiki and Chubachi [19] and To describe the process of acoustic imaging/microscopy,
others [16, 23, 25] have developed analytic methods for consider the steps required to acquire and display an
tone burst microscopy, and similar calculations have been acoustic image.
and are being developed for broadband systems. These
developments will be surveyed and summarized for NDE (1) A sample is selected for imaging and mounted on
and materials characterization. a scanning stage, and the type of imaging is selected, i.e.
surface or subsurface.
(2) A transducer (size, frequency, and focus) is selected
2. List of symbols and abbreviations on the basis of
type of imaging to be done;
CL Velocity of longitudinal wave (mm µs−1 )
acoustic velocities in the sample;
CS Velocity of shear or transverse wave
resolution required for the image.
(mm µs−1 )
(3) Based on the beam diameter (resolution) produced
CR Velocity of surface wave (Rayleigh wave)
by the transducer, a pixel size and spacing (of no more
(mm µs−1 )
than half the beam diameter) is selected, and a scan plan is
C1 Longitudinal velocity in acoustic lens (mm µs−1 )
loaded into the scan controller.
C2 Longitudinal velocity in coupling (focusing)
(4) Data for the image are acquired in the form of
medium (mm µs−1 )
signal amplitude, amplitude and phase, time of flight from
C3 Velocity in test material, this could be Cl , CS ,
a reference, or fully sampled waveforms which can be
or CR , depending on application or equation
processed to give all of the preceding information.
(mm µs−1 )
(5) Colour or greyscale is selected to display the image
DR Diameter of entry circle for mode-converted
data, and the dynamic range of the acquired/processed data
surface wave (mm)
is gain adjusted to coincide with the dynamic range of the
d Diameter of lens or transducer generating
display.
acoustic wave (mm)
EX Lateral acoustic beam diameter (mm) To describe the process fully, it is necessary to treat
ER Diameter of surface wave focus (mm) each of these steps in detail, especially the transducers, the
EZ Depth of focus for acoustic beam (mm) materials, and the procedures for surface and subsurface
Z Focal length of lens or curved element imaging.
transducer (mm)
Z2 Focal length in couplant medium with 3.1. Focusing acoustic beams
velocity C2 (mm)
Z3 Focal length/depth in test material with Most commercial focused transducers are constructed with
velocity C3 (mm) a flat piezoelectric element producing a quasi-plane wave
f Frequency of acoustic wave (Hz) pulse that is focused by a spherical lens. More recently,
λ Wavelength of acoustic wave (mm) transducers with spherically curved piezoelectric elements
λ2 Wavelength in velocity C2 (mm) have become available. Both methods produce convergent
NDE Nondestructive evaluation—a term becoming spherical waves and well defined focal zones in the coupling
more commonly used than nondestructive testing fluid. However, when highly focused beams are projected
2L First critical angle (longitudinal waves) into solid substrates with high acoustic velocities, the beams
2S Second critical angle (shear waves) become badly aberrant.
2R Rayleigh critical angle (surface waves) Figure 6 summarizes the focusing of acoustic beams.
SAM Scanning acoustic microscopy—a focused The point focus produced by a spherically curved
piezoelectric transducer scanned to image a piezoelectric element or a very high index lens (figure
material surface/volume 6(a)) would be subject to at least some spherical aberration
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HIGH VELOCITY
HIGH VELOCITY LOW VELOCITY SPHERICAL
SPHERICAL PARAXIAL SPHERICAL PARAXIAL LENS
LENS RAY LENS RAY
C1
C1
C1
C2 C2 C2
C3
MARGINAL MARGINAL HIGH
DIFFRACTION ABERRATED RAY
LIMITED
RAY VELOCITY
FOCUS
FOCUS SUBSTRATE
(a ) (b ) (c )
ASPHERIC LENS
DESIGNED FOR
ASPHERIC LENS
SUBSTRATE DESIGNED FOR
C1 SUBSTRATE
C1
C2
C2
PARAXIAL
C3 FOCUS, WATER
HIGH (FPW) WITH SUBSTRATE
REMOVED
VELOCITY MARGINAL ASPHERIC
SUBSTRATE FOCUS, WATER WILL NOT FOCUS
(d ) (e )
Figure 6. Five general conditions for focusing acoustic beams: (a ) point focus from a spherically curved element; (b )
aberrant focus produced by a low index spherical lens; (c ) aberrant subsurface focus produced by a high-velocity material;
(d ) point focus produced by a Fermat lens or element; (e ) distributed focus produced in water by a Fermat lens or element.
when focused by a low-index spherical lens as in figure distance to the point where the ray crosses the axis is Z,
6(b). Regardless of the focus of the beam in the coupling then X = RC sin 21 , Z 0 = RC (1 − cos 21 ) and
fluid, it becomes badly aberrant if a high-velocity substrate
X RC sin 21
is inserted between the lens and the focal point (figure Z − Z0 = = (2)
6(c)). An aspheric lens or piezoelectric element (figure tan(21 − 22 ) tan(21 − 22 )
6(d )) can be designed to produce a well behaved focus and finally
in the solid of a specific velocity and at a specific depth;
however, it will not produce a focused beam in the coupling sin 21
Z = RC + 1 − cos 21 . (3)
fluid (figure 6(e)). Transducers with spherical piezoelectric tan(21 − 22 )
elements do produce converging spherical waves and
diffraction limited beams in the coupling fluid, where For small values of 21 , 22 = (C1 /C2 )21 , both Z 0
spherical lenses produce aberrant beams, hence the term and (21 − 22 ) are small, cos 21 = 1.0, and sin(21 −
spherical aberration. However, for those spherical lenses 22 ), tan(21 − 22 ) and (21 − 22 ) can be taken as equal.
with very high indices of refraction to the coupling fluid, Equation (3) now becomes the ‘lens makers equation’.
the aberration in the fluid is very small. Consider a family
1
of acoustic rays parallel to the axis of symmetry (figure Z0 = RC . (4)
(1 − C2 /C1 )
7(a)), where each ray is incident to a spherical surface
of radius RC at some angle 21 . If the spherical surface Equation (4) is in fact precise for small-angle low-index
bounds two media characterized by acoustic velocities C1 lenses and for large-angle high-index lenses. Comparing
and C2 , then the refractive relationships between the rays the focal lengths determined by equations (3) and (4) shows
in medium 1 and 2 are how large angles and low-index lenses can and do produce
C1 spherical aberration. Figure 7(b) shows the aberration
sin 21 = sin 22 (1) curves (Z/Z0 ) for acoustic lenses manufactured from five
C2
commonly used lens materials. Note that sapphire and
where equation (1) is Snell’s law and C1 /C2 is the index [111] silicon produce very little aberration and form a point
of refraction for the fluid-to-solid interface. Note that high- focus even for lenses with significant curvature.
velocity lens materials such as quartz, silicon, and sapphire Regardless of how perfectly the beam is focused in the
produce large values of C1 /C2 , the refracted angle 22 is coupling fluid, figure 6(c) shows that significant aberration
small, and the refracted ray falls close to the radius of will occur upon entry into a high-velocity substrate. In
curvature of the lens. If the lateral distance from the axis the case of fluid-to-solid or low velocity to high velocity,
of symmetry to the ray–lens intersection is X, and the the high indices of refraction produce greater aberration
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θ1
x
Z'
C1 X
C2
θ1
θ2
C
R
Z
a circular lens.
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Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
4.5˚
0.7 θL = 1 CL = 5.97
17.5 8˚ LENS θL
˚ 26.
9.9 =
= 2 θS θ
θ
θR S
R
10 MHz
0.4
εz (mm)
10.0
STEEL
C
0.3 7.5
Z (Cw)L
CL = 5.90
25 PARAXIAL CS = 3.28
Z (CCw) PARAXIAL
LONGITUDINAL
FOCUS CR = 2.97
0.2 5.0
S
SHEAR
FOCUS
Z
0.1 50
2.5
100
θR
0 5 10
(a )
Figure 10. The angular spectrum for a water–steel
.100 2.5 interface showing the critical angles for longitudinal and
shear waves, and the Rayleigh critical angle.
2.0
HZ
.08
5M
εX (INCHES)
0˚
2.2
5.5˚6.8˚ POLYCRYSTALLINE
εX (mm)
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DL
(1) (6) L
C1
lens (5)
(2)
θR (I) θR θR
C2 Z2
RC
(3) (4) liquid
CR solid
θL
θR ZA
ZB
DR
3 4
Flaws
D = DR/2 60°
3 4
(60°)
3 4
Figure 12. Schematic showing 50 MHz surface wave arrival from a superalloy steel at defoci of ZA and ZB or water paths of
Z2 − ZA and Z2 − ZB . The entry circle ray geometry producing these signals is shown with two different-sized flaws, L and S.
The angular spectrum changes with the material. Figure point metals (such as gallium and mercury), mineral or
11 shows three schematics indicating the critical angle fluorocarbon oils, gases under high pressure, and liquid
behaviour for the water–material interface for each of the gases, depending on the frequency of the acoustic beam,
materials. Five general conclusions can be drawn from a the material velocities, chemical reactivity, and temperature
consideration of Snell’s law, table 2, and figure 10 and respectively. Regardless of how the beam is focused, the
figure 11 with respect to the interaction of focused beams indices of refraction of the coupling fluid to test material
with fluid–solid interfaces. control the imaging process.
The highest acoustic velocity measured to date is the
(1) Transducers with foci that include longitudinal,
extentional velocity in a highly crystalline carbon whisker
shear, or surface wave critical angles will produce aberrated
(19.3 mm ms−1 ). However, for solids not in whisker
foci.
form, at temperatures near ambient (22 ◦ C) the longitudinal
(2) Beyond the first critical angle 2L , longitudinal
acoustic velocities are bounded above by the [111]
waves do not penetrate into the test material.
crystallographic direction in diamond (18.6 mm ms−1 ) and
(3) Beyond the second critical angle 2S , shear waves
below by the [100] direction in caesium (approximately
do not penetrate into the test material.
1.0 mm ms−1 ). Shear or transverse velocities are also
(4) Beyond the Rayleigh critical angle 2R (surface
bounded by the same materials, the maximum being in
waves), no acoustic waves penetrate the test medium
the [100] direction in diamond (12.7 mm µs−1 ) and
or interact with the water–material interface, i.e. total
the minimum being in the [111] direction in caesium
reflection occurs for angles of incidence greater than 2R .
(approximately 0.4 mm ms−1 ). Depending on Poisson’s
(5) Surface waves cannot be generated by mode
ratio for the material, the surface wave propagates at 0.87
conversion when the surface wave velocity is slower than
to 0.95 times the velocity of the transverse wave. These
the longitudinal velocity in the fluid coupling medium.
data and the acoustic velocities of other materials have been
(This can be avoided by the use of a lower velocity fluid).
compiled by several authors [35–37].
The coupling fluid typically used in imaging is Eleven fine-grained homogeneous isotropic polycrys-
water, but studies have been done using low melting talline compacts are tabulated in table 2. Isotropic com-
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Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
2L 2S 2R
Density CL CS CR (degrees (degrees (degrees
Materials (gm cm−3 ) (mm ms−1 ) (mm ms−1 ) (mm ms−1 ) of arc) of arc) of arc)
Solids
Aluminum ‘2.71 ‘6.37 ‘3.11 ‘2.89 13.4 28.4 31.0
Diamond compact ‘3.51 17.05 11.51 ‘9.90 ‘5.5 ‘6.8 ‘8.6
Diamond [100]* ‘3.51 17.63 12.81 11.10 ‘4.8 ‘6.6 ‘7.7
Diamond [111]* ‘3.51 18.65 12.00 10.80 ‘4.6 ‘7.1 ‘7.9
Beryllium ‘1.85 13.05 ‘8.97 ‘7.89 ‘6.5 ‘9.5 10.8
Caesium† ‘1.87 ‘1.10 ‘0.59 ‘0.55 ** ** **
Copper ‘8.90 ‘4.76 ‘2.40 ‘2.20 18.1 38.1 42.3
SiO2 (fused) ‘2.20 ‘5.97 ‘3.75 ‘3.40 14.4 23.3 25.8
Si [100]* ‘2.33 ‘8.90 ‘5.84 ‘4.91 ‘9.6 14.7 17.5
[111]* ‘2.33 ‘9.37 ‘5.12 ‘4.70 ‘9.1 16.6 18.3
SiN ‘3.25 11.15 ‘6.16 ‘5.54 ‘7.6 13.9 15.5
Steel ‘7.89 ‘5.90 ‘3.28 ‘2.96 14.5 26.8 30.0
Al2 0 (sintered) ‘3.96 10.8 ‘6.35 ‘5.82 ‘7.9 13.5 14.7
Sapphire [001]* ‘3.99 11.22 ‘6.10 ‘5.50 ‘7.6 14.0 15.6
Silver (Ag) 10.50 ‘3.70 ‘1.69 ‘1.57 23.6 61.1 70.5
AgCl ‘5.59 ‘3.13 ‘1.20 ‘1.14 28.2 ** **
Polystyrene ‘1.10 ‘2.35 ‘1.09 ‘1.05 39.0 ** **
Plexiglass ‘1.23 ‘2.67 ‘1.12 ‘0.95 33.7 ** **
Lead (Pb) 11.32 ‘2.23 ‘0.86 ‘0.70 41.6 ** **
W 19.2 ‘5.20 ‘2.90 ‘2.70 16.5 30.7 33.2
WC (4% Co) 16.5 ‘7.02 ‘4.10 ‘3.90 12.2 21.2 22.3
Liquids (22 ◦ C)
Gallium (Ga) 5.9 2.90
Water 1.0 1.48
SAE 20 Oil 0.9 1.45
Freon-4 1.6 0.52
* Longitudinal shear and surface waves are dependent on both direction and polarization in single crystal and
other anisotropic materials.
† Caesium (like sodium and lithium) explodes in water.
** Propagation modes in materials with velocities slower than water cannot be produced by mode conversion,
and do not produce critical angles.
pacts have been chosen as example materials because they Systems that record only the maximum amplitude
are the easiest to describe and understand. These materi- pulse in the signal gate usually use gated peak detectors.
als essentially cover the entire range of acoustic velocity Additional circuitry can detect the phase and arrival time of
behavior for isotropic solids. Having discussed diamond, the maximum signal in the gate. Full waveform acquisition
beryllium (Be) is the highest velocity metal, and lead (Pb) requires digitizers with sampling frequencies of at least
the lowest velocity material that is encountered in practical twice the highest carrier frequency component of the pulses.
situations such as materials joining (soldering). Once full waveforms are acquired, they can be processed
Acoustic velocities in liquids have also been compiled to extract the information in any other acquisition method.
by several investigators [16, 38]. The highest velocity is The price one pays is in the storage media required to
liquid gallium at about 30 ◦ C and the lowest is freon-4, one acquire and store the additional information on the signal.
of the heavier fluorocarbon fluids. Water and SAE 20 motor Amplitude alone is typically acquired at 8 bits per pixel,
oil are similar in velocity. and the position at which it is stored on the computer disk
corresponds to its spatial position in the image. Amplitude
4.1. Type of data to be acquired and phase, or amplitude and time of flight, would require
at least two 8-bit words per ultrasonic pulse. Multiple gate
Ultrasonic imaging systems usually fall into one of the acquisitions in turn require one or more 8-bit words for each
following four categories, with respect to data acquisition: gate, each ultrasonic pulse. If full waveforms are acquired,
(1) single or multiple gates are used to acquire peak then at least one 8-bit word is acquired for each sample,
detected amplitudes; and often hundreds of samples are acquired for each pixel
(2) single or multiple gates are used to acquire phase or image position.
and/or amplitude and phase; For example, a 1024 × 1024 amplitude image can be
(3) a single signal gate may be used to acquire contained in 1 Mb of computer memory; 2 Mb are required
amplitude and time of flight; for amplitude and phase or amplitude and time of flight
(4) fully sampled waveforms can be acquired. images. Finally, 256 Mb are needed if 256 samples are
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4.2. Imaging surfaces (1) The sample is selected, its surface checked for finish
and polished if necessary, and it is mounted on a scanning
Since the discovery of V (z) in the mid 1970s, imaging stage.
surfaces and near surface conditions have become (2) A transducer (size, frequency, and F /d) is selected
synonymous with V (z) imaging. V (z) can only occur on the basis of the surface wave velocity in the sample and
when multiwavelength pulses are used, and the direct the resolution required for the image. For normal incidence,
surface reflection overlaps the surface wave arrival in surface wave imaging the cone of focus must include
time. Figure 12 shows these arrivals time-resolved with the surface wave critical angle. For a high-resolution
broadband signals. Because the two signals are necessarily image, a pixel size/spacing is chosen of 1/6 of the surface
of the same frequency, their phase interference is directly wavelength, and the appropriate scan plan is loaded into
controlled by the path length and velocity of the surface the scan controller.
wave over the surface of the sample. As will be shown, this (3) Depending on system capabilities, data for the
is in turn controlled by the height of the transducer above image are acquired as signal amplitude, amplitude and
the sample surface and the critical angle for the surface phase, time of flight from a reference, or fully sampled
wave mode conversion. Because both time-resolved surface waveforms, which can be processed to give all of the
wave imaging and V (z) imaging are controlled by the same preceeding information.
wave–material interaction physics, the broadband methods (4) A colour or greyscale display is selected and
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Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
DT Lens
(1) (2)
C1
DIRECT
REFLECTION
DE Water l2
θR
Z2 C2
SURFACE
WAVE
C3
ZA Z3
FOCAL
GEOMETRY
εZ IN SUBSTRATE (3)
3
(1) Z2
εX
2 and 3
(2)
SIGNALS
GATE FOCAL
GEOMETRY
SURFACE WAVE IN WATER (2)
AMPLITUDE X ε2
2
BROAD BAND
SIGNALS (1)
SIGNALS
GATE
INTERFERENCE AMPLITUDE
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Figure 20. Table of sizes and image format for US Air Force resolving power test target 1951 as provided by
Teledyne-Gurley Inc., Troy, NY.
Writing the differences in round-trip travel time for the Equation (12) permits the Rayleigh group velocity
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(a )
(a )
(b )
(b )
Figure 23. (a ) Magnified image of groups 2, 3, and 4 as
described in figure 20. The 25 µm pixels are now visible as
is the loss of resolution as the line pairs approach
32 lines/mm. (b ) Image of the same area as in figure 23(a )
but undersampled in two directions by a factor of two. The
image now displays group 3 patterns with the same relative (c )
resolution as figure 23(a ) shows for group 4. Figure 24. (a ) 50 MHz, F /3.0 image of the sapphire
resolution target taken from the 1.5 mm surface to pattern
depth. The flaws evident in the image were actually very
to be determined from time measurements at two water useful. One of the smallest was used to define the point
path settings where both the velocity in the water and spread beam function used to provide the image
the material are determined. However, for temperature- enhancement shown in figure 24(c ). (b ) Magnified image of
the central portion of figure 24(a ). (c ) Wiener filter
stabilized water baths, C2 is known and invariant. enhancement of figure 24(b ) showing approximately a
Therefore, for a constant water velocity, a flat sample, and factor of two improvement in resolution.
an invariant waterpath during scanning, the time delay of
the surface wave arrival behind the direct reflection t1 − t2
can give the surface wave velocity directly. the curvature of the entry surface circle. Entry circles
The entry circle schematic (figure 12) shows that any of three to four surface wavelengths are required to time
discontinuities on the surface that interrupt or change resolve the leaky Rayleigh wave from the direct reflection.
direction of any of the converging bundle of surface wave But, unlike subsurface scanning, this does not obscure any
rays changes the amplitude received by the piezoelectric portion of the entry surface material. In isotropic materials
element. The mechanism by which this occurs can be the surface wave originates at an entry circle and provides a
clarified by considering the two opposing 60◦ segments 360◦ cylindrically convergent, pulse transmission, surface
of that entry circle, and again to consider only those rays wave inspection method that can detect surface features
propagating from left to right. The 60◦ segment depicts a with equal probability regardless of the direction of their
converging ray bundle, point focused at the centre of the surface strike. Utilizing broadband pulses with center
entry circle, and then diverging to the opposite side of the frequencies at 1.0 MHz extends the depth of interrogation
circle perimeter. What is in fact displayed is a surface of the broadband systems to three surface wavelengths,
wave transmission acoustic microscope that is focused by or 9.0 mm in steels and equivalent velocity media. This
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Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
surprising depth is due to the low-frequency components specifies the energy lost back into the coupling fluid for the
of the broadband pulse. range of frequencies that make up the ultrasonic pulse.
Two parameters describe the resolution of a time- Equations (11) and (12) show that DR is specified by
resolved surface wave imaging system. These are the the ratio of the surface wave velocity to the longitudinal
diameter of the entry circle DR and the spot size of the velocity in the coupling medium (usually water) and
surface wave focal zone or crossing zone of focus at the defocus distance Z. Written in terms of C2 , CR , and Z,
centre of the circle. The spot diameter ER can be calculated DR becomes
from the amplitude point spread function of the double C2
cylindrical lens system placed on the entry surface by the DR = 2Z q . (15)
entry circle. The point spread function produced by a CR − C22
2
cylindrical lens has been shown by Born and Wolf [6] and
Kino [7] to be of the form (sin X/X)2 , where X has the At constant Z, high values for CR result in smaller
same definition as equation (7) and figure 8, for a pulse– entry–exit paths DR ; lower CR , on the other hand, requires
echo system. Gilmore et al [12] used these results to larger Rayleigh angles to generate the surface wave and
calculate the −3 dB and −1 dB diameters for the point result in longer entry–exit paths.
spread function for the crossing zone at the entry circle When the surface wave velocity varies in the direction
centre: of travel in the plane of the surface, such as for images of
ER = KR λR (14) anisotropic grains, then the travel time along each entry–
where KR equals 0.32 and 0.16 respectively. The exit path around the entry circle is different, i.e. the entry
surface wave entry circle taken as 180◦ transmitter/receiver figure is no longer a circle. In this case the received
segments may be treated as F /0.5 lenses, which produce amplitude results from the sum of all of the arrivals back
very sharply focused spot sizes. The surprisingly small at the transducer in both amplitude and phase. In the case
−3 dB diameter (0.32) of the centre focus explains the of an image of a polycrystalline material, if the maximum,
consistently high resolution of mode converted surface minimum, and average velocities for each of the grains on
wave images that involve cylindrically convergent surface the surface can be uniquely related to the orientation of
waves. the surface with respect to the crystal axes of the grain,
The general rules for broadband surface wave imaging then the received amplitude (and therefore the greyscale
may be summarized from inspection of figure 12. The at which each grain is displayed) can be related to the
entry circle defined by DR must be at least three surface crystallographic orientation. The interaction between 1717
wavelengths in diameter in order to time resolve the surface anisotropic grains and single-frequency signals was first
wave arrival from the direct surface reflection. Therefore, considered by Somekh et al [21].
DR is typically nine times the −3 dB diameter of the Figures 13 and 14 show images of fully annealed
focus at its centre, which is approximately three times the titanium and copper alloys, specifically Ti83 –Al5 –Sn2 –Zr2 –
−20 dB size (1.0λR ). Cracks, seams, and other linear Mo4 –Cr4 and Cu99.85 –Ag0.15 . Each titanium grain shows
discontinuities having little width but with lengths that a consistent shade of grey and therefore a consistent
exceed DR are imaged as having a width that approaches amplitude. From grain to grain, however, the titanium
that circular diameter. Features with dimensions smaller signals vary over a range of 1–64 (six bits). The Cu–
than DR produce detectable changes in amplitude only Ag sample shows less grain-to-grain contrast (five bits) but
when they interact with the crossing zone of focus at the more intragranular variation. If the surface wave arrivals
centre. They will, however, produce some decrease in shown in figure 12 were produced by a tone burst generator
amplitude as soon as they become included in the entry instead of a half wavelength impulse, then, depending on
circle. the length of the resulting pulse, the surface wave arrival
In specifying a surface wave scan, half of the −3 dB
would be overlapped by the direct reflection from the
spot diameter, 0.16, should be used for the line-to-line
surface and the two would interfere. When the surface
spacing and the pulse-to-pulse spacing along the line. This
wave is delayed an even number of half-wavelengths, the
will limit the amplitude ripple in the scanned acoustic field
interference will be positive and the two signals add. When
and support the −3 dB resolution in the image. For 50 MHz
it is delayed an odd number of half wavelengths, the
surface wave images in most materials, this spacing is
0.02 mm or less. interference is destructive and the two signals subtract.
The difference in amplitude of the surface wave signals Raising and lowering the transducer increases and decreases
produced by the two water path distances (Z2 − ZA ) the surface wave pathlength regardless of the shape of the
and (Z2 − ZB ) in figure 12 is inversely proportional to entry figure or the anisotropy of the material being imaged
the distance each pulse travels across the surface of the (figure 15). The best contrast is achieved in a V (z) image
tungsten carbide. A small amount of this amplitude loss when the transducer is placed at a height midway between
is due to material attenuation, but most of the drop in a minimum and a maximum where the slope of the received
amplitude is due to the continuous radiation of elastic interference amplitude is greatest. Adjusting a signal gate to
energy, characteristic of leaky Rayleigh waves, back into a position in time where the arrivals overlap, and scanning
the water during propagation. The received amplitude at the described height, will produce the greatest net change
decreases proportionately with the length of the entry–exit in the contrast due to any velocity changes in the sample
path. Therefore, when path length DR is specified, this also or flaws blocking the surface wave arrival.
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R S Gilmore
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Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
Figure 26. 2.25 and 5.0 MHz images of a 2.0 in × 6.0 in × 3.3 in (50.8 × 152.4 × 83.8 mm) reactor pressure vessel
calibration block. The 5.0 MHz and 2.25 MHz beam diameters are 1.2 mm and 3.1 mm (0.048 in and 0.125 in) respectively.
The 0.62 in (1.5 mm) side-drilled holes are easily detected in both images.
be scanned to a uniform amplitude throughout the length, be evaluated with respect to the detectable flaw size by a
width, and depth of the inspected material. For this to suitable calibration target. In this case fracture mechanics
be accomplished in an economical number of scans, the and probabilistic analysis must be used either to approve
interrogating beam must have a depth of focus (equation or disapprove the test with respect to its noise-limited
(9)) that is, if not equal to, at least an appreciable fraction detection capability.
of the material depth. For many industrial parts this could The first concern of an ultrasonic inspector, however, is
be 1 to 10 cm or considerably greater. Typically the to make sure that the critical flaw is detected. If a reflecting
image is scanned to a uniformity of 1 dB, using the 1 dB flaw is smaller than the focused beam, then the reflected
beam diameter (equation (8)) to establish the pixel spacing. amplitude is in proportion to the ratio of the area of the
However, because it is not unusual for the dynamic range flaw to the area of the beam [34]. To a first approximation,
of the data acquisition to be 40+ dB (eight bits is 48 dB), the shape of the flaw cross section may be ignored if it is
for many industrial inspections, the −3 dB diameter and planar, perpendicular to, and totally contained in the beam
depth of focus may be used. For industrial NDE, the flaw area. Therefore, this analysis will discuss flat flaws that
size to be detected is the key parameter that establishes the are located on the central axis of the interrogating beam at
sensitivity for the nondestructive evaluation of a volume some time during the scan.
of material. This flaw (figure 16) must block a sufficient One method of determining the beam diameter required
fraction of the focused beam that a detectable signal is for an inspection is to determine the flaw diameter required
reflected back to the transducer. The detectable size can to block it totally. A circular reflecting flaw in the shape of
be expressed as a fraction of the beam area, or as a fraction a disk of diameter Df , perpendicular to and centred on the
of the reflector size used to calibrate the system. Once axis of symmetry of an acoustic beam focused at distance
detected, a flaw may be characterized with respect to its size Z in a material of longitudinal velocity C3 producing a
and shape by imaging with a much higher resolution beam. wavelength λ3 , by a lens of diameter d, will totally block
For small flaws there may be no economical solution. A the beam if the back-reflected beam half-angle from the
beam diameter small enough to detect the flaws may require disk is equal to the half-angle of convergence of the focused
a considerable length of time to complete a scan of the beam. Taking the sine as equal to the angle and setting the
material volume. half-beam angle [12, 34] for a flat circular reflecting flaw as
In cases of substantial coherent acoustic noise from the equal to the half-angle of convergence of the focused beam
focal zone, an alternative would be to specify the detectable gives
1.2λ3 dC3 Z
flaw in terms of the ratio of its reflected amplitude to that = or Df = 2.4λ2 . (16)
of the noise. The detectable amplitude is usually given as Df 2zC2 d
two to five times the mean acoustic noise, depending on Note that equation (16) has the same form as equation (8)
the permissible false alarm ratio. This amplitude can then with K = 2.4.
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R S Gilmore
Figure 27. Positioning the focus for successful flaw detection. Three scanning depths with respect to an array of sixteen
0.015 65 in (0.4 mm) flat-bottomed holes at 2.0 in (50.8 mm) depth in ring forged Ti–6Al–4V. The 5.0 MHz beam is 0.096 in
(2.4 mm). Ultrasonic amplitude is plotted vertically. Note improved signal-to-noise ratio as the focal zone approaches the
same depth as the holes.Horizontal distances are in mm.
While the insonification by the focused beam across 0.25 mm in diameter. The layer goes from the top surface
the face of disk Df does not have the uniformity that is on the left side of the sample to 12.7 mm depth over its
assumed in the derivations, experimental measurements on 50 mm diameter, giving it an angle of approximately 15
flat-bottomed holes show that equation (12) does give a degrees of arc with respect to the plane of that surface.
reasonable blocking diameter. Similar measurements show The longitudinal velocity in the nickel-based super alloy is
that smaller flaws are usually detectable and that for data 6.1 mm ms−1 .
acquisition systems with at least 32 dB dynamic range, The images shown in figure 18 were made with
flaws with reflecting areas equal to 1/20th of the beam area three 50 MHz transducers focused at Z/d values of two,
can be detected when they reflect echos that are at least three, and four respectively. These transducers produce
twice the acoustic noise in the material. progressively larger lateral (−3 dB) beam diameters of 0.75,
With the critical flaw size assigned, and expressions for 0.115, and 0.150 mm respectively, and hence poorer lateral
the blocking flaw size Df and the diameter and depth of resolution. They also produce greater (−3 dB) depths of
focus for the acoustic beam, a scanning plan can now be field in proportion to the square of their Z/d ratio, giving
established for an inspection volume. Figure 17 shows such 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mm respectively. Even the Z/d = 4
a representative volume. This is a hot isostatically pressed transducer, however, can focus over only a fraction of the
and sintered sample with a slant layer of alumina spheres, 12.7 mm depth over which the layer ranges.
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Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
1409
R S Gilmore
(a ) (a )
(b )
Figure 30. Silicate flaw in a 1.2 in (31.2 mm) circular (b )
trepan from a Ni–Cr–Mo–V turbine rotor forging. (a ) The
15 MHz beam diameter is 0.024 in (0.6 mm); (b ) the
50 MHz beam diameter is 0.010 in (0.25 mm). The cross is
a cursor on the CRT display, 512 × 512 images. (Courtesy
of L B Burnet, General Electric Company.)
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Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
1411
R S Gilmore
(a ) (b )
(a )
(c ) (d )
Figure 36. (a ) Silicon wafer, 1.5 in (38 mm) diameter,
0.020 in (0.5 mm) thick. (b ) 50 MHz image of a badly
cracked guard ring under an uncracked silicon entry surface
in (a ), also the 37.5 mm diameter thyristor gate array in
that device. (c ) 50 MHz surface wave image of a 25 mm
[100] silicon wafer fragment containing surface flaws and
(d ) a zoomed image of the surface wave structure around
defect caused by [100] anisotropy in silicon.
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Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
(a )
(b )
Figure 39. 2.7 GHz V (z ) image of the structure of a FET
transistor. Note that this image resolution is very close to
the best optical microscopes. (Courtesy of C Quate,
Stanford.)
1413
R S Gilmore
2.6 mPa) was used to bond a 1.5 mm thick unetched • Evaluation of attachment integrity of welds and
single crystal [001] sapphire slab to a 3.0 mm thick etched composite structures, as a process development and process
slab of the same [001] orientation. This produced the control tool as well as a quality assurance tool.
USAF-1951 target embedded in a volume of single crystal • Inspection of electronic devices and materials.
sapphire. The target contains bar–space patterns 0, 1, 2, 3, Most industrial inspection and medical diagnostic
and 4, as described in figure 20 with an entry-surface-to- imaging is done at ultrasonic frequencies from 1.0 to
target-pattern depth of either 2.0 or 4.0 mm. Referring to 10.0 MHz. In this frequency range, metal and composite
figure 20, these range from 1 to 28.5 lines per millimetre. sections multiple inches in thickness may be penetrated, and
Note that in addition to providing the geometrical precision equivalent depths of penetration are achieved in medical
required for image calibration these void arrays are truly imaging. Almost all in vivo (in living) medical imaging is
buried flaws surrounded by intact solid material. They done in this frequency range.
scatter sound like the subsurface cracks they are. Calibration blocks are the key to a successful and well
A display of the raw data, as shown in figure 24, is designed inspection; therefore, they should be carefully
able to resolve only the first two patterns in group 2 (a evaluated before using them. Figure 26(a) shows a reactor
little better than 4.5 lines/mm or 220 m). The resolution pressure vessel calibration block. The upper surface of the
inherent to the high spatial frequency of the image (25 m block is clad by 0.3 in (8.0 mm) of roll-bonded stainless
pixel size), however, can still be utilized. Figure 24(b) and steel cladding, and four 0.062 in (1.5 mm) side-drilled holes
figure 24(c) zoom in on the outlined portion of figure 24(a) are located at three positions in the clad and just below the
and then enhance the resolution using a Wiener filter image cladding-to-basemetal interface. Figure 26(b) and figure
processing technique [42, 43]. Note that in figure 24(c) 26(c) show 2.25 MHz and 5.0 MHz pulse–echo images
the patterns resolved in group 3 suggest that the processed of the cladding and clad-to-steel interface. The inspection
image shows twice the resolution (is able to resolve line– frequency, 2.25 MHz, clearly shows all four flaws but
space combinations one half those) of the unprocessed shows large edge effects at the block ends. The higher
image. resolution provided at 5.0 MHz gives much more detail
at the cladding interface and is better for characterizing
5. Applications and qualifying the calibration block. Both images can be
acquired by most industrial C-scan inspection systems.
In considering the applications for acoustic microscopy, Positioning the focus for successful flaw detection and
it is important to remember that any industrial ultrasonic determining the effect of the material on flaw signals are
inspection system capable of producing magnified C-scan important for inspection development. Figure 27 shows
images can be used as an acoustic microscope. Therefore, three transducer scanning depths with respect to an array
although a complete applications summary of ultrasonic of sixteen 0.015 65 in (0.4 mm) flat-bottomed holes at 2.0 in
imaging/microscopy is beyond the scope of this work, (50.8 mm) depth in forged Ti–6Al–4V. The titanium block
figure 25 indicates what that range could be. was machined from a large forged ring. The transducer is
Since resolution in an ultrasonic image is dependent 5.0 MHz, focused to a −6 dB beam of 0.096 in (2.4 mm).
on both frequency and focal convergence, it is difficult to For this demonstration the amplitudes reflected by the holes
separate applications as a function of frequency without are plotted vertically rather than as a C-scan image. Note
some overlap. that as the focal zone of the transducer approaches the same
If most industrial ultrasonic systems can be used as depth as the holes, the signal-to-noise ratio of each of the
ultrasonic microscopes, it follows that most ultrasonic hole echos becomes much greater, even though the absolute
microscopes can be used to inspect parts, providing the amplitude is the same range (0 to 200 arbitrary units) for all
parts are small enough to be scanned. three scan depths. When the focal zone is in the same plane
Although few ultrasonic microscopes are constructed as the flaws, the enhanced signal-to-noise is produced by
large enough to inspect large industrial parts, many are large decreasing the noise with respect to the hole echos rather
enough to do inspection development for heavy sections. than enhancing the hole echos. The high microstructure
In these studies the transducer focus and bandwidth are noise in the first two plots clearly shows the curvature of
selected for the inspection, as well as the scan index. In the ring forging.
addition, the calibration standards for the inspection may Selecting the correct transducer, frequency, and focus
be qualified more precisely than would be possible with an for composite inspection requires careful studies of the
industrial inspection system. flaws that would be expected during manufacture. Figure
The broad area applications chosen for this discussion 28 shows four 10 MHz pulse–echo images of four
consist of the following. composite samples, each with dimensions of 4.0 in × 4.0 in
(101.6 mm × 101.6 mm). Three of the samples have
• Evaluation and qualification of calibration blocks intentionally seeded flaws. Each sample consists of two
at higher resolution and frequency than the inspection 0.025 in (0.635 mm) woven plys of Kevlar, five ply of
frequency. unidirectional carbon (0.005 in/0.127 mm each), and then
• Inspection development studies in metals and an additional two plys of Kevlar (same thickness). The
composites. total composite thickness is 0.125 in (3.1 mm). By gating
• High-resolution/frequency characterization of flaws each depth in the sample, the structural segments may be
detected by lower frequency inspections. imaged separately. Figure 28(a) shows the first 0.050 in
1414
Industrial ultrasonic imaging and microscopy
(1.27 mm) of Kevlar to be without flaws; (b) shows a the displays in figure 33(b), 33(c) and 33(d ). The modern
delamination between the second and third carbon ply; (c) US penny is made with copper-plated zinc. When such a
shows a backing paper flaw between the fourth and fifth coin is struck, the zinc body sustains many microfractures
carbon ply; and (d ) shows a Teflon-induced delamination such as shown in the 50 MHz image in figure 34(b). This
between the bottom two Kevlar ply. Note that even though deformation pattern was imaged by first lapping the raised
the 10 MHz image has a depth of focus that is greater coin surface flat and then focusing the 20 µm beam just
than the composite thickness, the images do degrade in below the surface.
resolution because of attenuation of the higher frequencies Electronic devices and assemblies have been one of the
in the broadband signal. A number of commercial systems largest benefactors of the development of high-frequency
now marketed permit up to eight images to be acquired ultrasonic imaging. Figure 35 shows the complex metal
simultaneously at increasing depths. circuitry in and at the surface of a ceramic chip carrier. The
Figure 29 shows 5 MHz pulse–transmission images of pulse–echo image was acquired at 50 MHz with a 20 µm
two six-ply carbon-fibre-reinforced epoxy samples. Sample beam diameter. The larger black features at the centre are
(a) good; the sample on the right (b) shows considerable irregularities in the manufacture of the device.
porosity, which attenuates the 5 MHz amplitude to produce Many silicon-controlled power devices require wafers
a darker image. several inches in diameter such as shown in figure 36(a).
As the frequency increases above 10 MHz, resolution Figure 36(b) shows a 50 MHz image of a badly cracked
increases, but attenuation increases also. In the range from guard ring under an uncracked 0.5 mm [100] silicon entry
10 to 50 MHz, medical applications are pretty much limited surface. The image also shows the finger structure of the
to in vitro (excised tissue) studies except for measurements 37.5 mm diameter thyristor gate array.
on the eye and studies of the structure of burns. However, Figure 36(c) shows a surface wave image of a [100]
there are many industrial applications in this frequency silicon wafer fragment that contained several small surface
range. flaws. Note the complex surface wave structure figure
Consider the role of ultrasonic microscopy in evaluating 35(d ) around such a defect caused by the anisotropy of
flaws trepanned from large steam turbine rotor forgings. the silicon wafer.
Figure 30 shows (a) 15 MHz and (b) 50 MHz images of a Most of the images displayed so far have been pulse–
flaw that was trepanned from a Ni–Cr–Mo–V medium alloy echo and acquired with mechanically scanned systems.
turbine rotor. The flaw was detected by a visual pulse–echo Figure 37 shows a pulse transmission image acquired with
inspection conducted at 2.25 MHz. Serial sectioning of the a 100 MHz stage in a scanning laser acoustic microscope.
largest segment of the flaw showed a silicate inclusion. The The image shows metalized ribbon leads on an Al2 O3
composition of the inclusion suggested that it resulted from ceramic substrate. The bonded areas (one is circled) are
the liner of either the furnace or the ladle when the steel was 125 × 125 microns.
poured. Note the 50 MHz image shows an improvement in Both metals and electronic assemblies can be studied
both resolution and detection. in the gigahertz frequency range. Figure 38 shows three
Figure 31 shows a 50 MHz image of a (electrical images of a small Inconel sample. Figure 38(a) and figure
resistance heated) solid state weld in a Ti–6Al–4V alloy. 38(c) show an optical and an acoustic image of an unetched
The ultrasonic beam diameter is 0.0024 in (0.063 mm). The surface respectively. The 2.7 GHz surface wave acoustic
surfaces to be attached were deliberately contaminated by image has a −6 dB beam diameter of 2 µm. By comparing
an artificial fingerprint (made with lanolin and NaCl). Note features in the acoustic image of figure 37(c) and the etched
that in the vicinity of this artificial flaw the microstructure optical image in figure 37(b), it is apparent that both display
shows a much narrower heat-effected zone. This is to the very fine-grain structure in Inconel. Figure 37 was
be expected since the contamination also decreased the acquired with the mechanically scanned V (z) surface wave
electrical conductivity at the weld inter-face. imaging technique.
Porosity in BaTiO3 capacitor blanks is both common The detail at which an integrated circuit can be imaged
and acceptable, as indicated by the four 12.7 mm (0.5 in) at 2.7 GHz is shown by imaging the structure of a FET
blanks displayed in the 50 MHz image in figure 32(a). transistor (figure 39). Note that the resolution of this image
The upper left blank, however, shows some connectivity is indeed very close to that of the best optical microscopes.
between the pores, and that may lead to cracking. Analysis
of the zoomed images shown in (b) and (c) suggests that the 6. Conclusions and future work
pores are all smaller than 100 µm (0.004 in). A number of
commercial image processing programs can pan and zoom Several definitive acoustic microscopy and acoustic
across large images. An example of this capability is shown imaging works have been referenced that have very
in figure 33. Here a 2048 × 2048 image is acquired of complete bibliographies—the works of Lemons and Quate
the reverse face of a 1973 Canadian penny by monitoring [16], Bennett [23], Kessler [24], Khuri-Yakub [25] and
the amplitude of a ultrasonic beam focused directly on the Briggs [26] are five. Briggs has the most recent and
surface. The ultrasonic beam used to acquire these 50 MHz complete bibliography but has written from the aspect
images is approximately 20 µm (0.0008 in) in diameter, of materials characterization rather than nondestructive
and the image is acquired with a pixel size of 10 µm. testing. Lemons and Quate and the papers edited by Bennett
This very high resolution image can then be zoomed for summarize the development of the instrumentation and
an additional magnification of as much as 8×, as shown in techniques as of 1979 and 1985 respectively. All of these
1415
R S Gilmore
reviews assume that the reader is well versed in the details [7] Korpel A, Adler R, Desmares P and Watson W 1966 A
of acquiring and displaying mechanically scanned images. television display using acoustic deflection and
This review has used these details as an outline to organize modulation of coherent light Appl. Opt. 5 1667–75
[8] El-Sum H and Larmore L 1967 Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on
the presentations for surface and subsurface imaging and Acoustic Holography (later Acoustic Imaging) ed A
is written specifically from the aspect of nondestructive Metherell (New York: Plenum)
inspection. The Acoustic Imaging Symposia, currently at [9] Lemons R A and Quate C F 1973 Acoustic microscopy by
volume 24 [46], provide an informative annual review of mechanical scanning Appl. Phys. Lett. 24 165–7
[10] Tsai C S, Wang S K and Lee C C 1977 Visualization of
the current state-of-the-art on ultrasonic/acoustic imaging.
solid material joints using a transmission acoustic
In addition, no discussion of ultrasonics or acoustics would microscope Appl. Phys. Lett. 31 791–3
be well referenced without a careful review of the Physical [11] Buchanan R W and Hastings C H 1955 Ultrasonic flaw
Acoustics series [38]; many of these volumes are edited by plotting equipment: a new concept in industrial
Warren P Mason. inspection Nondestruct. Test. 15 17–25
[12] Gilmore R S, Tam K C, Young J D and Howard D R 1986
Future progress in ultrasonic/acoustic imaging and Acoustic microscopy from 10 to 100 MHz for industrial
microscopy will almost certainly be driven by the dramatic applications Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 320 215–35
growth in computers, with respect to both availability [13] Nikoonahad M Yue and Ash E 1985 IEEE Trans. Sonics
and power, for image acquisition, processing and analysis. Ultrason. Special Issue on Acoustic Microscopy 32
Image data based on waveform capture is memory 130–375
[14] Weglein R D and Wilson R G 1978 Characteristic materials
intensive, but permits the operators developed for ultrasonic signatures by acoustic microscopy Electron. Lett. 14
spectroscopy to be used in analysis of the data as well 352–4
as the image processing operators such as Wiener filters [15] Weglein R D Acoustic micro-metrology IEEE Trans. on
and fast Fourier transforms. It seems reasonable to Sonics and Ultrasonics 32 225–35
[16] Lemons R A and Quate C F 1979 Acoustic microscopy
suggest that all of the analytic procedures for V (z), as
Physical Acoustics vol 14, ed W P Mason and R N
published by Weglein and Wilson [14, 15], Liang et al Thurston (New York: Academic) pp 2–90
[17], Kushibiki and Chubachi [19] and Somekh et al [21] [17] Liang K K, Kino G S and Kuri-Yakub B T 1986 Material
have corresponding operators which can be developed to characterization by the inversion of V (z) IEEE Trans. on
extract the amplitude–frequency information in broadband Sonics and Ultrasonics, Special Issue on Acoustic
Microscopy 32 213–24
ultrasonic images. Applicable work in ultrasonic spectral [18] Bertoni H L 1984 Ray-optical evaluation of V (z) in the
analysis, such as summarized by Fitting and Adler [39] can reflection acoustic microscope IEEE Trans. on Sonics
also be applied, extracting the multifrequency information and Ultrasonics 31 105–16
from broadband ultrasonic/acoustic images. [19] Kushibiki J and Chubachi N 1985 Material characterization
The lately re-emerging air-coupled acoustic imaging by the line-focus-beam acoustic microscope IEEE Trans.
on Sonics and Ultrasonics, Special Issue on Acoustic
methods such as originated by Wickramasinghe and Petts Microscopy 32 130–375
[47], developed by Fortunko et al [48, 49], and still later [20] Wichramasinghe K 1979 Contrast and imaging
developed by Bond and others [50] promise to provide a performance in the scanning acoustic microscope
considerable body of information in the oncoming decade J. Appl. Phys. 50 664–72
[21] Somekh M, Briggs G A D and Ilett C 1984 The effect of
on plastics and other low-velocity materials. Low-velocity
elastic anisotropy on contrast in the scanning acoustic
fluids such as the freons also promise to provide similar microscope Phil. Mag. 49A 179–204
opportunities. [22] Ash E (ed) 1980 Scanned Image Microscopy (New York:
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[23] Bennett S (ed) 1985 IEEE Trans. on Sonics and
Acknowledgments Ultrasonics, Special Issue on Acoustic Microscopy 32
130–375
[24] Kessler L 1989 Acoustic microscopy Nondestructive
The author wishes to acknowledge M Gigliotti, P Howard, Evaluation and Quality Control Metals Handbook
R Klaassen, K Mitchell, L Perocchi, R Trzaskos, E Nieters, (Materials Park, OH: ASM International)
J Young, and most of the authors cited in references for [25] Khuri-Yakub B 1992 Scanning acoustic microscopy
many helpful discussions over the years. Ultrasonics 31 361–72
[26] Briggs A 1992 Acoustic Microscopy (New York: Oxford
University Press)
[27] Martins Y and Ash E Photodisplacement microscopy, using
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