Deformation and Strain (變形與應變)

Teaching Sources in Structural Geology, University of Leeds

http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm

Jyr-Ching Hu, Department of geosciences,

National Taiwan University
The Components of Deformation

Deformation is described by:

1. Rigid-body translation
(RBT)
2. Rigid-body rotation (RBR,
spin)
3. Strain
4. Volume change (or dilation)
Homogeneous Strain and the Strain
Ellipsoid

Define homogeneous strain by

its geometric consequences:

1. Originally straight lines

remains straight
2. Originally parallel lines
remains parallel
3. Circles because ellipse; in
three dimensions, spheres
become ellipsoid
 Homogeneous strain
Material lines (實物線): A material line connects features, such
as an array of grains. In a homogeneously strained, two
dimensional body, there will be at least two material lines that
do not rotate relative to each other.

Two material lines that remain perpendicular before and after strain are
the principal axes of the strain ellipse (應變橢圓的主軸 ).
 Material Lines
Material line: made up of a series of points in a
body; for example, a row of calcium atoms in a
calcite crystal or an array of grains in a
quartzite. There is no mechanical contrast
between the material lines and the body as
whole, so material lines behave as passive
makers.
Strain Ellipsoid and Principal Strain
Axes

In three dimensions we have three material lines

that remain perpendicular after strain and they
define the axes of an ellipsoid (strain ellipsoid).
The lines that are perpendicular before and after
strain are called the principal strain axes. Their
lengths define the strain magnitude and we use
the symbol X, Y, and Z to specify them.

X ≥Y ≥ Z
 Strain Path
Finite strain (有限應變, 總額應變 ): The
measurement of strain that compares the initial
and final configuration.
Incremental strains (增量性的應變, 階段性應
變): These intermediate strain steps. The
summation of all incremental strains is the
finite strain.
 Finite Strain with Different Strain Paths

The two paths would represent very different strain histories

of a region, yet their finite strains would be identical.
 Coaxial and Non-coaxial Strain
Accumulation
Coaxial stain accumulation (共軸應變的累積):
The case in which the same material lines
remain the principal strain axes at each
increment.
Non-coaxial strain accumulation (非共軸應變的累
積): The principal incremental axes rotate
relative to the finite strain axes.
Non-coaxial and Coaxial Strain
 Internal Vorticity (內部渦度 )
Internal Vorticity: The component describing the
rotation with respect to the principal strain
axes. It is a measure of the degree of non-
coaxiality.
Kinematic vorticity number (Wk,運動渦度數):
relates the angular velocity and the stretching
rate of material lines.

Wk = cos α
Pure Shear, Simple Shear and General Shear

Pure shear (純剪): There is zero internal

vorticity, the strain history is coaxial.
Simple shear (單剪): The non-coaxial strain
describes the case in which the distance
perpendicular to the shear plane remains
constant.
General shear (通剪): A combination of simple
shear and pure shear (General non-coaxial
strain accumulations).
A combination of simple shear and
pure shear

Two types of general shear are transtension (橫張性非

共軸應變) and transpression (橫壓性非共軸應變),
reflecting extension and shortening.
Particle paths or flow lines during progressive
strain accumulation
Flow lines: When tracking the movement of individual points within a
deformation body relative reference line, we obtain a displacement
field that enable us to quantify the internal vorticity.

Wk =0 0＜Wk＜1 Wk =1 Wk =∞
純剪的流線 剛體旋轉的流線
通剪的流線 單剪的流線 (rigid-body
(pure shear) (general shear) (simple shear) rotation)
Superimposed Strain (疊加的應變)
 一個應變橢圓可以區分為伸張的區域與縮短的區域。在
伸張的區域內，線是被拉長的，而在縮短的區域內，線
是被縮短的。
伸張 縮短 總額應變
共軸應變的疊加：
共軸應變
的疊加 (I)變長的繼續變長
(II)變短的繼續變短
(III)原本縮短的變成伸長
的。

非共軸應變 非共軸應變的疊加：
的疊加 (I)變長的繼續變長
(II)變短的繼續變短
(III)原本縮短的變成伸長
的。
(IV)原本伸長的變成縮短
的。
 Axial plane cleavage (軸面劈理)

How much strain does this deformation feature represent?

How do we go about determining this ?
 Strain Quantities
1. Longitudinal strain (縱應變): Defined as a change
in length divided by original length. Longitudinal
strain is expressed by the elongation (伸長比), e,
which is defined as:

e = (l − lo ) lo = δ l
lo
e1 ≥ e2 ≥ e3
In practice, geologists commonly give the elongation in
percent, and the terms shortening and extension
instead of a negative or positive sign.
 Strain Quantities
2. Volumetric strain (體積應變 ): A relationship similar
to that for length changes hold for three-
dimensional (volume) change.

Δ = (V − Vo ) Vo = δ V
Vo

Where V is the final volume, Vo is the original volume

and δV is the volume change.
 Strain Quantities
3. Angular strain (角應變): Measure the change in angle
between two lines that where initially perpendicular.
The change in angle is called the angular shear (剪
動角度),ψ , but more commonly we use the tangent
of this angle, called shear strain (剪應變), γ.
 Other Strain Quantities
4. Quadratic elongation λ (二次方拉長比) and stretch s
(拉長比):
λ = (l / lo ) = (1 + e)
2 2

1
s=λ 2
= l / lo = 1 + e
The quadratic elongation, λ, and especially the stretch,
s , are convenient measures because they describe the
lengths of the principal axes (X, Y, Z) of the strain
ellipsoid.
X = s1 , Y = s2 , Z = s3
X ≥Y ≥ Z
 Relationship between the quadratic
elongation, stretch and the strain ellipse

X = λ1 , Y = λ2 , Z = λ3
2 2 2
 Relationship between the quadratic
elongation, stretch and the strain ellipse

tan ϕ ′ = Y X i tan ϕ = ( λ2 λ1 ) i tan ϕ

12

tan ϕ = X Y i tan ϕ ′ = ( λ1 λ2 ) i tan ϕ ′

12
 Natural Strain
The measure of strain that is most suitable for
incremental strain histories is the natural strain.
Natural strain does not compare the initial and final
strain states, but is the summation of individual strain
increments.

ei = δ l lo For a vanishingly small increment

(Infinitesmal strain):

ε = ln (1 + e )
l =l
ε = ∑ δ l lo = ∫ δ l lo
l

lo
l =lo

ε = ln l lo = ln s ε = 1 2 ln λ
Mohr Circle for Strain
 Strain States

(a) general strain (triaxial

strain)
(b) axially symmetric
extension
(c) axially symmetric
shortening
(d) plane strain
(e) simple shortening

Detail information: See Table

4.2
 Representation of strain: Orientation of
sectional strain ellipses

Shapes of XY
sectional ellipse of
the finite strain
ellipsoid

Helvetic Alps in Switzerland: The degree of strain generally increases with depth in the
stack of Helvetic thrust sheets. The orientation of the strain ellipsoid varies through the
stack, but the long axis, X, generally points in the direction of NW thrust transport and
parallels the boundary of high strain regions (shear zone).
Paleogeographic Units in the Alps
 Schematic geophysical-geological cross
sections through the western and central Alps
Representation of strain: Orientation of
sectional strain ellipses
Shape and Intensity: Flinn Diagram
The inherently 3-D strain data
can be conveniently represented
in a 2-D plot called Flinn diagram
by using ratios of the principal
strain axes. Strain analysis often
produces strain ratios rather than
absolute magnitudes of strain
axes. The shape of the strain
ellipsoid is represented by the
parameter K.

k = ( a − 1) ( b − 1)
a = X Y = (1 + e1 ) (1 + e2 )
b = Y Z = (1 + e2 ) (1 + e3 )
Modification of the Flinn diagram:
Ramsay diagram
ln a = ln ( X Y )
= ln ⎡⎣ (1 + e1 ) (1 + e2 ) ⎤⎦
ln b = ln (Y Z )
= ln ⎡⎣ (1 + e2 ) (1 + e3 ) ⎤⎦
ln x y = ln x − ln y
ε = ln (1 + e )
ln a = ε1 − ε 2
ln b = ε 2 − ε 3

K = ln a ln b = ( ε1 − ε 2 ) (ε 2 − ε 3 )
 Advantages of Ramsay Diagram
• The Ramsay diagram is similar to Flinn diagram in
that the line K=1 separate the fields of constriction
(∞ > K > 1) and flattening (1 > K > 0) and the unit
sphere lies at the origin (ln a = ln b = 0).
• Small strains that plot near the origin and large strains
that plot away from the origin are more evenly
distributed.
• Ramsay diagram allows a graphical evaluation of the
increments of progressive strain (the strain path) plot
along straight lines, whereas unequal increments
follow curved trajectories. In the Flinn diagram both
equal and unequal strain increments plot along curved
trajectories.
Apparent flattening and apparent constriction
Δ = (V − Vo ) Vo
V = X ⋅ Y ⋅ Z and Vo = 1
Δ + 1 = X ⋅ Y ⋅ Z = (1 + e1 ) ⋅ (1 + e2 ) ⋅ (1 + e3 )
ln ( Δ + 1) = ε1 + ε 2 + ε 3
(ε1 − ε 2 ) = (ε 2 − ε 3 ) − 3ε 2 + ln ( Δ + 1)
Plane strain conditions (ε2=0): Prolate and oblate
ellipsoids are separated by plane strain conditions

(ε1 − ε 2 ) = (ε 2 − ε 3 ) + ln ( Δ + 1)
 Degree or intensity of strain

{
i = ⎡⎣ ( X Y ) − 1⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ (Y Z ) − 1⎤⎦
2
}
2 12

in the case of natural strains

I = (ε1 − ε 2 ) + (ε 2 − ε 3 )
2 2

The ability of the Flinn diagram to represent strain states and

volume change and the added convenience of the Ramsay
diagram to evaluate incremental strain histories present sufficient
flexibility to graphically present most stain data. Listing the
corresponding shape (k and K) and intensity (i and I ) parameters
allows us for numerical comparisons between strain analysis in
the same structure and/or those made over large region.
Magnitude-orientation diagram
The three principal axes of
the strain ellipsoid are
Prolate plotted in lower
hemisphere projection,
whereas their relative
magnitudes are
represented by intensity
contours.

Plots for a constant

orientation of the principal
strain axes, but with
Oblate ellipsoids of different shape
(defined by k) and degree
(defined by X/Z).
What are we really measuring in strain analysis?
1. How complete is our measurement?
2. How representative is our analysis?
 Passive and active strain markers
• Passive strain markers: are elements in the body
that have no mechanical contrast; they deform in
a manner indistinguishable to that of the whole
body. Quartz grains in a quartzite or oolites in a
carbonate.
• Active strain markers: have mechanical contrast
with their matrix and may behave quite
differently. Conglomerate clasts in a shale matrix
or garnets in a mica schists are natural examples
of active strain markers, which represent a
heterogeneous system for strain.
Initially Spherical Objects
The classic examples
involves ooids in (oolitic)
limestone. Ooids are
particles that have
grown radially by
accertion around a
nucleus; commonly
they are calcareous.

(a) Ooids
(b) 25% (X/Z=1.8)
shortening
(c) 50% (X/Z=4.0)
shortening
Strain form initially spherical
objects

X / Y / Z = 2.4 /1.2 /1 and Δ + 1 = X ⋅ Y ⋅ Z = 1

then X = 2Y and Z = Y /1.2
thus 2Y ⋅ Y ⋅ (Y /1.2) = 1.7Y 3 = 1
so Y = 0.8 and X / Y / Z = 1.7 / 0.8 / 0.7
Initially Nonspherical Objects
Deformed clasts in a late Paleozoic
conglomerate
Center-To-Center Method
Rf/Φ Method
Objects with Known Angular Relationships or
Lengths: Deformed Bilaterally Symmetric
Brachiopods
 Length Change: Stretched
Belemnite (箭石)

Stretched belemnite from the Swiss Alps. In longitudinal

view, calcite filling is seen between the fossil segments,
whereas in cross-sectional view, the markers remains
circular. MN is the location of the sectional view.
Stretched belemnite. Stretching in the upper right, lower left direction has
broken and extended the fossil. The gaps between the pieces are filled
with a precipitate. Photo from the root zone of the Morcles nappe, Rhone
valley, Switzerland by Martin Casey

Teaching Sources in Structural Geology, University of Leeds

http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/learnstructure/index.htm
Change in Length from Broken and
Displaced of two Continuous Fossils
Rock Textures and Other Strain Gauges
X-Ray Goniometry and Magnetic Anisotropy
What Do We Learn Form Strain Analysis?
A large data set gives a good idea of the magnitudes of
strain that are typical in natural rocks.

1. Axial ratio range from 1 to 20.

2. Stretch in the range 1 < X < 3,
and 0.13 < Z < 1.
3. Most of the analysis lie in the
field of apparent flattening.
4. A true flattening strain or the
involvement of volume loss.
Assume plane strain conditions
(k = 1), then a volume loss on
the order of 50% (Δ = -0.5) is
required.
5. Strains measured in shear
zone are excluded. Reported
values for γ of as much as 40 in
shear zones, meaning that ϕ is
approaching 90o!
What Do We Learn Form Strain Analysis?

1. A sharp increase in strain magnitude in an area may

define a region of high strain, like a ductile shear zone
(Chapter 12).
2. Strain analysis provides a general constrains on the
strain required to form specific geologic structures, such
as folds (Chapter 11), which can then be incorporated
into the larger regional history.
3. Strain determinations in samples with slaty cleavage
(Chapter 11) indicate that shortening strain is greater
than 50%.
 Fracture array and geometrical
relationships
R1, R2: Reidel fractures
R1-, R2, P- and Y-fractures are the most abundant
elements
Evolution of shear zone fabrics
 Homework
1. Prove Equations 4.9 and 4.10
2. 4.8 The Mohr circle for strain