BRITISH CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

CHAPTER 1

THE BRITISH CONTEXT

1. Historical milestones

4000 to 1500 BC – Stone Age, the first farmers, Stonehenge and the Celts.
1500 BC to the Roman Invasion in 43 AD

For some unexplained reason, Iron Age man started to change his living habits. They
stopped building burial mounds and stone circles, stopped using the ancient sites like
Stonehenge. Instead the Iron Age peoples took to farming in permanent fields and to
living in protected hill forts.

The explanation might be that with the acquisition of the knowledge to make iron tools,
then farming and tilling land became a viable proposition. Or perhaps iron weapons
made man more aggressive and groups needed protection from maurauding bands of
armed thugs.

Maiden Castle in Dorset as it is seen today,

was typical of a large protected hill fort,
with its various ramparts

By around 150 BC there was a substantial trade between Britain and the continent.
Involved were raw materials such as tin, silver or gold: finished goods like wine pottery
and coins: and even slaves.

Julius Caesar made a landing in Britain in 55 BC, but only suceeded in establishing a
tempory bridgehead. After another abortive attempt the next year, he sailed away and
the Romans left Britain alone for another century, until they landed in force in 43 AD

By the eve of the Roman invasion, Britain was a series of small kingdoms, perhaps 20 of
these large enough to have a regional influence, but with no one kingdom holding any
real control over any large area of the country

1500 BC to 43 AD – The Roman Conquest

A well planned invasion by 40,000 to 50,000 Roman soldiers took place in the summer of R
43AD. A massive force for those days, and the British tribes were no match for them B
th

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 th
Within a year or so the
th
Romans had pushed west to
co
a line from Exeter to Lincoln
(shown on the left), and by
60AD controlled most of
Britain south of the Humber
(shown on the right)

They pushed north, and built

A revolt with the Iceni tribe
the network of straight roads
under Queen Boudica nearly
across the country, most of
managed to dislodge the
which can still be followed
Romans. But their superior
today. As they pushed north
military knowledge prevailed,
into Scotland, they decided to
and after that they had no
build a gigantic wall,
major uprisings in England.
Hadrian's Wall, to control the
Most of the country was
frontier. It was started in
under civil, rather than
122AD, and runs roughly
military rule
from Newcastle to Carlisle

You can still see large

sections of Hadrians Wall
today as it snakes across the
Northumberland moorland.

Also can be seen in

museums the mosaics that
the Romans used to
decorate their villas. Indeed
some villas, like Fishboune,
have been excavated

The Romans did expand further into Scotland, building the Antonine Wall across the
Lowlands (Glasgow to Edinburgh). However this was a turf, not stone wall, and little
remains. It was started in 142 AD, but abandoned by 163 AD

The country appears to have enjoyed a period of unprecedented peace - "the golden age
of the Villa". Around 300 AD the Roman Empire came under sustained attack by the
barbarian hordes in central Europe and some troops were withdrawn to help in that
area. Northern Britain started to suffer attacks from the Scots and Picts.

But it was until 410 AD that the Roman Emperor Constantine finally removed the whole
garrison of Britain to defend the Rhine frontier from attack. The cities of Britain were

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instructed to look to their own defence. The Romans never returned to Britain

Britain was to slip into a 600 year period of wars and fragmentation.Of Angles and
Saxons invading, the Celts being pushed West, and the country under almost continuous
Viking attack

43 AD to 410 AD – The Vikings

The breakdown of Roman law and civilisation was fairly swift after the Roman army
departed in 410 AD. To counter the raids from continental pirates, Vikings, Picts and
Scots towns would bring in mercenaries from Europe to defend them from attack. These
mercenary soldiers were Angles and Saxons from northern Germany.

The deal was that the mercenaries brought their families with them, and got paid with
land which they could farm. Eventually the Anglo Saxon mercenaries realised that they
were stronger than their employers and appear to have taken over the running of areas
themselves.

There is of course the whole legend of King Arthur that is ascribed to this period. Arthur
appears to have been a fictional, rather than historical figure, but that link gives you a
complete guide to King Arthur, who he could have been and where he could have lived.

The new Anglo Saxon invaders were not

organised centrally, as the Romans had
been, or as the Normans would be. They
slowly colonised northwards and
westwards, pushing the native Celts to the
fringes of Britain. Roman Britain was
replaced by Anglo Saxon Britain, with the
Celtic peoples remaining in Cornwall, Wales
and Scotland. The Anglo Saxon areas
eventually combined into kingdoms, and by
850 AD the country had three competing
kingdoms as shown on the map on the left
The three kingdoms of Mercia, Northumbria
and Wessex, not only were competing
between themselves, but they were also
under sustained attack from Viking raids.
The Viking incursions culminated with a
"Great Army" landing in East Anglia in 865
AD. It made wide territorial gains, and by
875 the kingdoms of Mercia and
Northumbria had succumbed. Only Wessex
remained as Anglo Saxon.

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The Vikings attack Wessex in 878, and the
Saxon king, Alfred (of burning the cakes
fame) had to flee to the Somerset marshes..
However he was able to regroup and
counter attack. His efforts and those later of
his son and grandsons, gradually pushed the
Vikings (remember Eric Bloodaxe)
northwards and eventually into the sea.

By 955, Alfred the Great's grandson Eadred,

ruled over a united England. Government
became centralised, and the king had the
infrastructure to rule the whole country
Next came another wave of Viking attacks.
The net effect was that the English kin,
Ethelred the Unready, found his kingdom
under attack on all coasts by Norsemen. On
Ethelred's death in 1016, the Viking leader
Cnut was effectively ruling England. But on
Cnut's death, the country collapsed into a
number of competing Earldoms (shown on
the left) under a weak king, Edward the
Confessor.
The strongest of these earls was Harold,
Earl of East Anglia. Through a series of
battles and intermarriages, Harold
controlled Wessex and was in a powerful
position. So when Edward the Confessor
died in 1066 without a male heir, Harold
claimed the throne.

His claim was disputed by William, Duke of

Normandy, whose claim to the English
throne was even more tenuous than
Harold's
There were two major influences on English life during this whole
period of English history, at opposite ends of the aggression
spectrum.

One was the coming of Christianity to Britain, brought by Irish

monks to places like Lindesfarne in 635, or Iona in Scotland in 563.
The church had organised the whole country into diocese, each
under a bishop, by about 850

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 The other was the Viking raider. And it was the Viking raider that
paradoxically allowed William to conquer Britain

When Edward the Confessor died, the Vikings saw a chance to regain a foothold in
Britain, and landed an army in Yorkshire in 1066. Harold marched north to take on the
Vikings under Harald of Norway and Tostig (King Harold's brother).He defeated the
Norsemen near York, but while celebrating his victory, learnt that William of Normandy
had landed in southern England.

Within 13 days he had marched his army some 240 miles from Yorkshire to Sussex,
where the Normans were camped near Hastings. The ensuing Battle of Hastings was won
by the Normans who were fresh, and had better archers and cavalry. Harold died with an
arrow through his eye. William was crowned William I in London on Christmas Day 1066
1066 – The Norman Conquest

The Bayeaux tapestry shows how the military might of the Normans defeated Harolds
exhausted army. Once established as king, William I continued in the vein of might being
right The Tower of London was built with the express aim of showing the inhabitants of
London who was in charge now. William continued with a demonic round of castle
building across the whole country. The uniqueness of the Norman conquest in British
history is that not only did the ruler change, but also the whole of the ruling class
changes, and there was even a new language. The English nobility lost their lands, and
the new landowners built castles like Warwick and Windsor that survive to this day. By
the time William died in 1087 around 100 major castles had been built

The other major legacy of William's reign is

the Domesday Book. William wished to
know the existing and potential value of his
new kingdom. Surveyors were sent out
across the whole country and their report
was the massive Domesday Book which
noted land down to individual landholdings

The other Norman Kings, William II, Stephen, Henry I and Henry II were no pussycats,
but they had little efffect on posterity until Henry II ascended to the throne in 1154

Henry II is known for his ordering the

murder of the Archbishop Of Cantabury,
Thomas Becket, in Cantabury Cathedral -
stabbed at the high alter in 1170. (shown in
the medieval manuscript on the right. It did
not do to cross the king

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

The Tudors - Henry VII, Henry VIII, Mary &

Elizabeth
Henry VIII, who came to the throne in 1509,
was a man who left his stamp on history. His
six marriages in search of a male heir led to
two daughters (Mary and Elizabeth) and a son
Edward (who died young). Henry's need for a
divorce led to a row with the pope who
refused to grant Henry one. Henry countered
by dissolving the Roman Catholic Church in
Britain, and setting up the Church of England

A Church of England with Henry at the head could then allow Henry to divorce his wife. Of
the Six the pneumonic goes - divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived. He
divorced the two European wives, Anne of Cleeves and Catherine of Aragon. The English
ladies were more easily dispensable

Henry was a tyrant and a despot. Completely ruthless, and he let nothing and nobody get in
his way.Cardinal Wolsey was banished, Thomas Cromwell and Thomas More were executed
One other bonus for Henry from his split with
Rome was that he gained control of the
monasteries - the monastic buildings and land
were sold off after the dissolution of the
monasteries in 1538. Many of the buildings
fell into decay, and they lost their farmlands
for ever.

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Henry's elder daughter Mary was a Catholic - and a militant Catholic at that. her efforts as
queen to restore Catholicism to England made her the most unpopular queen in British
history> and the means that she used to pursue her aims earned her the nickname "bloody
Mary". There were 283 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake in her reign. Among the martyrs
were Cranmer (Archbishop of Canterbury), Ridley (Bishop of London) and Latimer ( a
leading preacher)

A loveless marriage to the King of Spain produced no children. So when Mary died she was
succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth.
Elizabeth's reign brought in But as with her sister, plots
one of the most glorious eras against the queen were
of British history. Exploration, mounted - Mary Queen of
colonisation, victory in war, Scots, was finally executed in
and growing world 1587- the Earl of Essex, a
importance. The Arts former favourite, was executed
flourished, this was the age of for leading a revolt in 1601.
Shakespeare and Bacon. It And the wars against Spain
was the age of the sea dog, and in Ireland were expensive
Drake and Raleigh, Hawkins - she was £400,000 in debt
and Frobisher when she died
Drake's voyage round the
world in the Golden Hind
started in 1577 and took 3
years. Though he did not find
Australia or the north west
passage, he brought back
great wealth from raids on
the Spanish possessions in
the Pacific and from cargoes
of spices. Drake was the first
Briton to sail round the world

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Eventually there was all out This forced the Spanish to cut
war with Spain. Philip of anchor and scatter. The power
Spain assembled the largest of the Armada had been in its
fleet the world had seen, and tight disciplined formation
in 1588 it set sail to invade that the English could not
England. The smaller, more break. Now it was just a
maneuverable English ships collection of individual ships.
harried the Spanish armada The Spanish ships made their
all the way up the English way back home to Spain via
Channel. But the Armada the north of Scotland and
reached Calais and anchored. down the Irish coast. 50 ships
The English sent in fireships and 20,000 men perished.
(crammed with burning tar Spain was humiliated on the
and gunpowder). world stage
This was also the England of
Shakespeare, Marlow and
Bacon. Shakespeare left
Stratford upon Avon in 1587,
and by 1599 he was the part
owner of the Globe playhouse
in London. He wrote his plays
while in London, and retired
to Stratford in 1611, where he
died in 1616

The Spanish wars had crippled the English exchequer, inflation soared, and in 1601 Elizabeth
had to go to Parliament to get more money. Sensing hostility, as Parliament was angry about
the privileges she had granted her favourites, she gave way graciously, and gave a "Golden
Speech" which became in later years a model for the relationship between monarch and the
nation - with obligations on both sides.

A few months later came news of the defeat of the long running battle against the rebels in
Ireland. But by now Elizabeth's health had declined, and she was dying. The choice of
successor was not straightforward, as she was the last of Henry VIII's children and none of
them had any children themselves. Elizabeth delayed making her choice of successor until
she was on her death bed. Her successor would be James Stuart, King of Scotland, and son of
Mary Queen of Scots, whom Elizabeth had executed as a traitor.

James I, Charles I and the descent into Civil War, the King executed,
Cromwell rules

James Stuart was a Scottish Catholic who believed in the "Divine Right" to rule as he pleased.
This brought him into conflict with the English Parliament. The failed Catholic Gunpowder
Plot to blow up Parliament in 1605 led to anti catholic riots. The failure of both James and his

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son Charles I to understand the English tradition of parliamentary liberty led eventually to

civil war
James died unlamented in 1625. Charles I
immediately came in to conflict with
Parliament. He tried to rule without
summoning parliament for 11 years, but
eventually ran out of money,and summoned
Parliament in 1640

Parliament was naturally peeved about his

neglect of their rights. They refused him
money, and the country split between
supporters of the king (blue on map left) and
supporters of parliament (red on the map)

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The first major Engagement of the Civil War was at Edgehill in the Cotswolds on 1642.
Indecision among the Royalists and the moulding of the New Model army by the
parliamentarians led to Parliament gaining the upper hand, and by 1645 Cromwell won the
decisive Battle of Naseby. Charles was captured and put on trial for treason in 1649. He
refused to recognise the court, but was regardless found guilty. 59 republicans signed the
death warrant (above), and after the restoration Charles II prosecuted those that he could.
Oliver Cromwell and the army emerged as the power in the land. Cromwell dissolved
parliament with the words "Depart I say, and let us have done with you. In the name of God ,
go!" It was the start of England's only period of dictatorship Cromwell was unable to find
anything to replace the monarchy. When he died in 1658 his son Richard suceeded him, but
"Tumbledown Dick" was not a man to rule Britain, and in 1660 Charles II was restored to the
throne his father had died for.

Power, Peace and Prosperity - 1815 to 1914

Nelson's victory at sea in 1805 and Wellington's (left) on land at Waterloo in

1815, marked the end of major wars for a century. Britain was the dominant power, and
the defeat of Napoleon (right) removed French aspirations to rule the world

The death of George IV (right)was not regretted by the

nation - the Times wrote "there was never an individual less regretted by his fellow

creatures than this deceased king" It was an age of poets - Keats, Shelly
and Byron. Of Science - Faraday and Davy in electricity, Stephenson with his steam train ,
artists like Constable and Turner. It was against this background that Victoria came to the

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throne in 1837, to commence a reign that spanned 64 years Victoria (left)
was 18 when she became queen. She became a symbol of her age. It was an age of steam
and iron, men like Brunel came to prominence, He surveyed the Great Western railway to
Bristol, he built bridges and tunnels that still exist today, he built the Great Eastern, the

largest ship afloat. The Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park was a showcase for
British achievements. Authors like Dickens (below) and the Bronte sisters wrote novels.
A new parliament building was constructed at Westminster after the old building burnt

down 1854 brought British involvement in the Crimean War in

Russia, and one of those heroic defeats when the Light brigade charged massed Russian
guns. One outcome of this defeat was that in future the British army would be better

officered, with wealth no longer being the sole key to promotion. Charles Darwin
(left) completed his voyage in the Beagle in 1837 and produced his theories of evolution.

Africa was explored by men like David Livingstone Slavery

was abolished throughout the Empire, and Britain used her naval power to blockade the

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 West African coast and arrest slavers The British Empire, like all empires,
was acquired by force of arms. By 1900 Britain had the largest navy in the world, and
used it to control an Empire "on which the sun never set". The map (below left) shows
the British Empire in 1900, with Canada, Australia, India, large chunks Africa, the

Caribbean and the Far East

However by Victoria's death in 1901, Britain was being challenged militarily by Germany.
European countries rushed to arm themselves and protect themselves with a series of
alliances. The result of these warlike happenings was that , when an Austrian Archduke
was assassinated in Bosnia in 1914, the alliances led to virtually every nation in Europe
becoming involved, with the Central Powers (coloured green above left) fighting the
Allies (coloured red) - 10 million men were to die before peace was declared in 1918.
THE COUNTRY
1. Geographical identities
2. Physical features and climate

Generalities

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the
United Kingdom, the UK or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast
of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern
part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the
UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart
from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English
Channel and the Irish Sea.

The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a
parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country
in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and
Wales. There are three devolved national administrations, each with varying powers, situated
in Belfast, Cardiff and Edinburgh; the capitals of Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland
respectively. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown
Dependencies and fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire

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which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and
was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language,
culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.

The UK is a developed country and has the world's sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP
and seventh-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It was the world's first
industrialised country and the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th
centuries. The UK remains a great power with leading economic, cultural, military, scientific
and political influence. It is a recognised nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure
ranks third or fourth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United
Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946; it is also a member of the
Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, the European Union, the G7, the G8, the
G20, NATO, the OECD and the World Trade Organization.

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

1. General Presentation
The British Isles are composed geographically of Great Britain (England, Wales, and
Scotland) and Northern Ireland. Its full name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland and it is a member of the European Community.

The largest of the British Isles is called Great Britain. The second one comprises Northern
Ireland and the Irish Republic. Western Scotland is separated from the main land by the
Hebrides archipelago and Orkney and Shetland are placed on the North East.

The Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and the Channel Isles are self-governing and they do not
belong to the United Kingdom. The Isle of Wight (off the Southern coast of England), Scilly
Islands (South cost of England, Lundy Island (off the South-West coast of England) and the
Channel Islands (two islands off the Southern coat of England close to the French Normandy)
and the many other off shore island belong to the same geographical term of British Isles.

Britain has an area of 242,500 sq. km and its climate is a mild temperate one. The daily
weather is mainly influenced by depressions moving fast across the Atlantic being subject to
frequent changes but to few temperature extremes. The average annual rainfall is fairly well
distributed between 1,600 mm in the mountainous areas and less than 800 mm over central
and eastern regions. The driest months are from March to June and the wettest ones from
September to January. The population of United Kingdom was, at mid 1990 – of around
57,411 million people with a density of 245 persons per sq km.

The full name of the country is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
Up until the XVII centuries there had been four countries in the British Isles: England,
Scotland, Wales and Ireland. Each one had its own sense of identity, its own history, even its
own language. There was no such word as British. The peoples were English, Scottish, Welsh
or Irish. By the end of the XVII century the word British was used for the first time in Rule
Britania song was composed and Union Flag created.

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The Union flag or the Union Jack symbolizes the administrative union of the countries of the
United Kingdom. It is made of the individual flags of the kingdom's countries all united under
the Sovereign - the countries of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

St. George is the patron saint of England. His emblem, a red cross on a white background is
the flag England and a part of the British flag. St. George's emblem was adopted by Richard
the Lion Heart in the 12th century. Saint George was a brave soldier who protested against the
torture of the Christians and died for his belief. In times of great peril he is called upon to
help save the country from its enemies.

Union Jack is an alternative name for the Union Flag acknowledged by the Admiralty and
Parliament in the early 20th century. The term "jack" refers to the flag that is flown from the
bowspit of a ship denoting nationality. The exact origin of the name is still unclear. It may get
the name from the "jack" of naval vessels from which the original Flag is flown.

The motto of England is "Dieu et mon droit" (God and my right) that was first used by
Richard I in 1198 and adopted as a royal motto of England by Henry VI.

The Coat of Arms of UK is a shield supported by the English Lion on the left, and on the right
by a unicorn of Scotland. (the unicorn is chained because in medieval times a free unicorn
was considered a very dangerous beast (only a virgin could tame it). The coat features both
the motto of the British Monarchs (Dieu et mon Droit) and the motto of the Order of the
Garter "Honi soit qui mal y pense" on a representation of the Garter behind the shield.

The Royal Coat of Arms is used only by the Queen in her capacity as a sovereign. In its
version used by the government, the crown is shown resting directly on the shield, with the
helm, crest and mantling not displayed.

The Shield has four quadrants. The first and the fourth represent England and contain three
gold lion passant, with their right forepaws raised and their chard facing the viewer on a red
field, the second quadrant represents Scotland and contains a red lion rampant on gold field.
The third quadrant represents Ireland and contains the gold harp of Ireland on a blue field.
Wales was recognized as a principality by the creation of the Prince of Wales long before the
incorporation of the quartering for Scotland and Ireland in the Royal Arms.

The British National Anthem is God Save the Queen which originates in a patriotic song first
performed in 1745. It became the National Anthem from the beginning of the 19 th century:

God Save the Queen!

Long live our noble Queen!
God Save the Queen
Send her victorious
Happy and glorious
Long to reign over us

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God save the Queen!

The national flower of UK is the rose since the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) between the
Royal House of Lancaster and the Royal House of York.
The British society is considered to be divided into three main groups of social classes: the
Upper class which consists of people with inherited wealth and includes some of the oldest
families, most of them entitled aristocrats. They are defined by their education, and their
pastimes including traditional sporting life including hunting, shooting and fishing. The
Middle class includes industrialists, professionals, business people, tradesmen, etc., while the
working class people include mostly agricultural, mine and factory workers. The class status
is defined by the way people speak, their clothes, interests, education, and even the food they
eat.
The British Constitution
The British Constitution, unlike the constitutions of most other countries, is not a single
document, being the result of the historical development of political events. It is made up of
Statute law, common law and conventions. The last ones represent rules and practices which
are not legally enforceable but they are considered indispensable to the working of
government. The constitution is adaptable to the changing political environment, as it can be
altered by Act of Parliament or by general agreement.

The Parliament is the legislative and the supreme authority, while the executive consists of:
· The Government – the Cabinet and other ministers responsible for national policies;
· Government departments, responsible for national administration;
· Local authorities, responsible for many local services;
· Public corporations, responsible for operating particular nationalized industries or other
bodies, subject to ministerial control.

The judiciary determines common law and interprets statutes and is independent of both
legislature and executive.

The Monarchy
United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. Its system of government (often known as the
Westminster system) has been adopted by other countries, such as Canada, India, Australia,
New Zealand, Singapore, Malaysia and Jamaica. The constitution is unmodified, being made
up of constitutional conventions, statutes and other elements. The monarchy is the oldest
institution to govern the country, going back to at least the ninth century – four centuries
before the parliament.

The present queen, Elisabeth II is herself descendant directly from King Egbert, who united
England under his rule in 1829. In the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man a Lieutenant -
Governor, represents the Queen. Today, the British Monarch is not only head of the state, but
also an important symbol of national unity. The full royal title in Britain is “Elisabeth the
Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and
ob Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith”.
The title to the throne is derived partly from statute and partly from common law rules of

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descent. The hereditary principle upon which it was founded has always been preserved.
Sons of the Sovereign have precedence over daughters in succeeding to the throne. When a
daughter succeeds, she becomes Queen Regnant and has the same powers as a king. The
consort of a king takes her husband’s rank and style, becoming Queen. The constitution does
not give any special rank or privileges to the husband of a Queen Regnant, although in
practice he fills an important role in the life of the nation, as does the Duke of Edinburgh.
Under the Act of Settlement of 1700, which formed part of the Revolution Settlement,
following the events of 1688, only Protestant descendants of a grand daughter of James I of
England and XI of Scotland (Princess Sophia, the Electress of Hanover) are eligible to succeed.
The order of succession can be altered only by common consent of the countries of the
Commonwealth.

The Sovereign succeeds to the throne as soon as his or her predecessor dies: there is no
interregnum. He or she is proclaimed at Accession Council, to which all members of the
Priory Council are summoned. The Lords Spiritual and Temporal, the Lord Major and
Alderman and other leading citizens of the City of London are also invited. The Coronation
ceremony takes place after a convenient interval at West minister Abbey in London.
Representatives of the House of Parliament and of all the great public organizations in Britain
are invited. The Prime Minister, representatives of the Commonwealth nations and other
countries are also invited.

The Sovereign is, according to the law, the head of the executive, an integral part of
legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander - in–chief of all the armed forces of the
Crown and the “supreme governor” of the established Church of England. The Sovereign acts
on the advice of her ministers. The Majesty’s Government in the name of the Queen governs
Britain.

In spite of the trend of giving powers directly to ministers, the present Queen still takes part
in the government acts. These include summoning, proroguing (discontinuing until the next
session without dissolution) and dissolving Parliament, giving the Royal Assent to Bills passed
by Parliament (promulgate). The Sovereign also formally appoints many important office
holders, including government ministers, judges, and officials in armed forces, governors,
diplomats, bishops and some other senior clergy, of the Church of England. She is also
involved in pardoning people convicted of crimes and in conferring peerages, knighthoods
and other honours, such as:
· The Order of Garter
· The Order of Thistle
· The Order of Merit
· The Royal Victorian Order.
As a head of the State, the Sovereign has also power to declare war and make peace, to
recognize foreign states and governments to conclude treaties and to annex or cede
territories.
She still plays an important role in the working of government as she holds meetings of the
Priory Council, gives audiences to her ministers and officials – in Britain and overseas,

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receives account of Cabinet decisions, reads dispatches and signs state papers. She is also
consulted on every aspect of national life and she must show complete impartiality.
The royal functions can be performed by a regent if the Queen is totally or partially
incapacitated. The regent would be the Queen’s eldest son, the Prince of Wales, and then
those, in order of succession to the throne, who are of age. The Queen may also delegate
certain royal functions to the Counselor of State but he may not, for instance, dissolve
Parliament (except on the Queen’s instructions), nor create peers.
Until 1760 the Sovereign had to provide for payment of all government expenses, including
the salaries of officials and the expenses of the royal palaces and households. These were met
from hereditary revenues, mainly income from Crown lands and some other sources granted
to the monarch by Parliament. When the income from these sources eventually proved
inadequate, King George III turned over to the Government most of the hereditary revenue in
1760. In return he received an annual grant from which he continued to pay the royal
expenditure of a personal character and also the salaries of government officials and certain
pensions.
Today the Sovereign has an essentially ceremonial role restricted in exercise of power by
convention and public opinion.

Royal Pomp
Changing of the Guard
London is a royal city and tourists from all over the world come here to attend the royal
ceremonies Every day a New Guard of 30 guardsmen marches down The Mall to Whitehall
where it replaces the Old Guard with due ceremony in the Front Yard.
The responsibility of guarding the Sovereign by the Household Troops (as they were known
at that time) dates back to the time of Henry VII (1485-1509). The Buckingham Palace
became the official Royal residence when Queen Victoria acceded to the throne in 1837. The
soldiers of the Buckingham Palace Guard are some of the best soldiers in the British Army,
and they have fought in virtually every major area of conflict with great distinction since the
17th century. They also take an active role in protecting their Sovereign and at night, the
patrol the guards of both Buckingham Palace and St. James's Palace.

The State Opening of the Parliament

Each year, usually in October or November, The Queen accompanied by the Duke of
Edinburgh and travelling in the State Coach formally opens the new session of the
Parliament.
Before the Royal procession leaves, the yeoman of the Guard (the oldest of the royal
bodyguards) would search the cellars of the Houses of Parliament. The State Opening of
Parliament is the main event of the parliamentary year and occurs when Parliament
reassembles after a general election. It marks the start of the parliamentary session and large
crowds are expected to watch and hear the Queen's Speech given in the presence of the
members of Houses, the House of Commons and the Hose of Lords.

Other Royal Occasions

The present-day Maundy Ceremony bears little relationship to the original rites from which it
originates. The original Maundy service was the washing of the feet of the poor, and its

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origins are to be found in Jesus' washing of the feet of his Disciples at the Last Supper. This
ceremony is known as the Eucharist dating back to the 5 th century and referred to as
"pedilavium" (the feet washing". It followed the Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday. The
night of Maundy Thursday is the Night on which Judas in the Garden of Gethsemane betrayed
Jesus.
The word Maundy is derived from the Latin word: "mandatum" meaning the "command"
which Christ gave to his disciples to love one another. The opening words of the Maundy
ceremony are part of the anthem "mandatum novum do vobis" sung in the Roman Catholic
Churches. The Queen gives the Maundy money in Canterbury Cathedral every year, on the
Maundy Thursday.
For 700 years, the Chief Yeoman Warder has secured the Tower of London each night.
Accompanied by the Escort he performs the traditional ceremony of her Majesty's Keys. The
ceremony consists of locking the gates of the Tower of London when the clock strikes 10.
Then the Chief Yeoman Warder hands the keys to the care of the Resident Governor at The
Queen's House.

The Beefeaters are the soldiers whose real name is Yeoman Warders of the Tower.
Their clothes are those of the royal guards of the year 1500. Their duty is to guard the Tower
of London and the Crown Jewels, and to help the visitors, as well.
The Order of the Garter Ceremony has a long history. King Edward III started the Order in the
14th century. At that time the order included 24 knights, but nowadays the knights of the
Order are no longer soldiers. The Queen is the Sovereign of the Order of the Garter, but she is
not the only one royal person. There are also other members of the family.
The new appointments to the Order of the Garter are usually announced on St. George's Day,
April 23rd, but the ceremony takes place in June, on the Monday of Royal Ascot week. The
knights of the Garter gather in the Throne Room at Windsor Castle, where the new knights,
after taking the oath, are invested with the Order insignia. They wear the blue velvet robes of
the Order (with the badge of the Order)- St. George Cross) and black velvet hats with white
feathers that are an important part of Britain's oldest traditions.
The Constable and the Governor of Windsor Castle (considered the home place of the Order)
and the military Knights of Windsor lead the procession.
The Lord Major's Show is an old ceremony also. As every year the Londoners choose a Lord
Major, they come to see him in his coach, which takes him to the Mansion House during
costumes and acting stories from London's history.

The British Parliament

In medieval times the King was expected to cover the royal private or public expenses from
his own revenue. But in case of war, the king needed extra resources that could be covered
from an aid. The members of the Great Council, meeting several times a year, had to find extra
sources to grant the necessary aid. But these extra sources being not sufficient, several kings
summoned to their Great Council, not only the great feudal magnates, but also
representatives of counties, cities and towns in order to get their assent to extraordinary
taxation. The Great Council came to include those who were summoned by name (those who,
broadly speaking, were to form the House of Lords, and those who were representatives of

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communities - the commons. Together with the Sovereign, the gathering became shown as
“Parliament”- the term originally meant a meeting for parley or discussion).

By the middle of the fourteenth century, as they realised the strength of their position, the
House of Commons pledged that all money granted were approved by the House of
Commons.
Later, in the fifteenth century, they gained the right to participate in giving their request -
their Bills – the form of law. The subsequent development led to Parliament securing its
position as the supreme legislative authority. The three powers that represent the British
Parliament are the Queen, the House of Lords, and the elected House of Commons. All of them
are normally required for legislation but they usually meet together only for symbolic
occasions.

The Parliament can legislate for Britain as a whole or for only one part of the country, or even
for territories that are Crown dependency only such as the Channel Islands or the Isle of Man.
It can pass or change any law or overturn established conventions or turn them into law. In
carrying out these functions the Parliament brings relevant facts and issues before the
electorate. Although the international treaties and agreements are a royal prerogative,
exercised on the advice of the Government, and they are not a subject to parliamentary
approval, by custom, Parliament is informed about them.
The activity of the Parliament is divided into sessions that last for one year. There are
“adjournments” at night, at weekends, at Christmas, Easter and the late Spring Bank Holiday
and a summer break starting in late July or Early August. At the start of each session the
Queen delivers her speech and outlines the Government’s policy and proposes programme.
The Parliamentary sessions end by prorogation that brings to an end nearly all parliamentary
business: public Bills that have not been passed by the end of the session are lost.

The Parliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

The participants in the House of Lords are: the Lords Spiritual (the Archbishops of Canterbury
and York, the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester and the 21 next most senior
diocesan bishops of the Church of England) and the Lords Temporal (all hereditary peers and
peeresses of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, life peers created to
assist the House in its judicial duties - Lords of Appeal or law lords and other life peers).
Hereditary peerages carry a right to sit in the House, provided that holders establish their
claim and are aged 21 years or over. However, anyone succeeding to a peerage may, within 12
month of succession, disclaim that peerage for his or her lifetime. Disclaimants lose their
right to sit in the House, but gain the right to vote and stand as candidates at parliamentary
elections.

The Sovereign creates peerages on the advice of the Prime Minister. They are usually granted
in recognition of service in politics or other walks of life because one of the political parties
wishes to have the recipient in the House of Lords. The House also provides a place in
Parliament for people who offer useful advice, but do not wish to be involved in party politics.

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Peers attending the House have no salary for their parliamentary work, but can claim for
travelling expenses for attending the House.

Lord Chancellor is the one who chairs the House his place being on a woolsack (a large
cushion stuffed with wool from several Commonwealth countries, as a tradition originating
in the medieval times, when the wealth source of the country was mainly the wool). The
Chairman and the Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees are Lords, but receive salaries
as officers of the House.

The Clerk of the Parliaments is a permanent officer responsible for the records of proceedings
and for making known to the public the Acts of Parliament. The Gentleman Usher of the Black
Rod, who is also Serjeant – at – Arms in attendance upon the Lord Chancellor, is responsible
for security, accommodation and services in the House of Lords’, part of the Palace of
Westminster. The Yeoman Usher is Deputy Serjeant – at – Arms and assists Black Rod in his
duties.

The House of Commons is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 members
of Parliament. The chief officer of the House of Commons is the Speaker, elected by MP’s to
preside over the House. Other officers include the Chairman of Ways and Means and two
deputy chairmen, who act as Deputy Speakers. They are elected by the House on the
nomination of the Government but are drawn from the opposition as well as from the
government party.

People that are over 18, citizens of Commonwealth countries, and Irish Republic resident in
Britain are entitled to vote. They can be subject of disqualification when they are mentally
disordered or sentenced to prison convicted within the previous five years of corrupt or
illegal election practices.

The main responsibilities of the Parliament and the Government are the changes needed of
the normal legislative process. Draft laws take the form of Parliamentary Bills. The public
ones were related to the public policy and people or organizations outside Parliament usually
promote the Private ones and they are undergone certain procedures. Before any government
Bill is drafted, there is considerable consultation with professional bodies, voluntary
organizations and other agencies interested in the subject. Both Houses, through a
similar process, normally pass bills. Thus, it is given a first reading and a second reading
committee is settled. The Bill is then referred to a standing committee for detailed
examination.

A bill starting in the Lords is then sent to the Commons for all its stages there, then it follows
the “guillotine”, that is the Government is the one to pass it as a timetable motion. The Bill is
then sent to the Queen for loyal Assent, after which it is part of the law of the land and known
as an Act of Parliament.

Her Majesty’s Government is the body of Ministers responsible for the administration of
national affairs. The Queen appoints the Prime Minister, and the Queen on the

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recommendation of the Prime Minister appoints all other ministers. They represent both
Houses, but the Lord Chancellor is always a member of the House of Lord. He holds a special
position, as both a minister with departmental function and the head of judiciary.

The composition of governments can vary both in member and in titles of some affairs. New
ministerial offices may be created, others can be abolished, and functions can be transferred
from one minister to another.
The position of the Prime Minister became known during the eighteenth century and it
derives from the power of the House of Commons to appoint and dismiss ministers. He
presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and
informs the Queen at regular meetings of the general business of the Government. The official
residence of the Prime Minister is on 10, Downing Street, central London.

The members of the Cabinet exercise its functions as a group of party representatives,
depending upon majority support in the House of Commons. Its members meet in private
and its proceedings are confidential. They are bound by their oath as Privy Counselors not to
disease information about its proceedings, although after 30 years Cabinet papers may be
made available for inspection in the Public Record Office, at Kew, Surrey. A great deal of work
is carried on through the committee system.

The local authority system can be traced back to Saxon times, but the first comprehensive
system of local councils was established in the late nineteenth century. Local authorities’
powers and duties are conferred on them by Parliament, or by measures taken under its
authority. England and Wales (outside Greater London) are divided into 53 counties, sub-
divided into 36 districts. County councils provide large-scale services, while district councils
are responsible for the more local ones.

Greater London is divided into 32 boroughs, each of which has a council responsible for local
government in its area; in addition, there is the Corporation of the City of London. Some
services require a statutory authority over areas wider than the individual boroughs and
districts: waste regulation and disposal, police and fire services, including civil defense and
public transport. Joint authorities composed of elected councillors nominated by the borough
or district councils run all of them.

In addition to the two – tier local authority system in England, there are over 8,000 parish
councils or meetings. The may provide and manage local facilities such as allotments and
village halls and may act as agents for other district council functions. The also provide a
forum for discussion of local issues.

Institutions and political life in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland

England is predominantly a lowland country but the Pennine Chain, the Cambrian Mountains
and the Yorkshire moor lands. Cornwall, Devon and Somerset in the South-west are
considered uplands. The central southern England is characterised by the downs-low chalk
hill ranges.

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The domestic affairs of England are not centrally administrated by any government minister
or department in contrast to Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. But a number of
government departments in England cover some aspects of affairs in Wales and Scotland.

England has 524 members of Parliament in the House of Commons belonging to

Conservative Labour and Liberal parties. The Conservatives supported by the suburban and
rural areas have a large majority of the parliamentary seats in the southern half of England
and in East Anglia. The industrialized areas usually support the Labour Party.

Local government is administered through a two-tier system of counties subdivided into

districts. There are 32 single-tier borough authorities in London and six metropolitan
counties in other regions of England. The legal system comprises a historic body of
conventions known as “common low” since the Norman Conquest that places a great reliance
on precedent, and the “equity lows” that derives from the practice of petitioning the King’s
Chancellor in cases not covered by common low.

Two-tier local government involves county and district councils working together to deliver
services. County councils tend to deliver all-encompassing services, such as education.
Districts tend to deliver the smaller, localised services, such as tourism
England is also governed by European Community legislation.
Education in Great Britain

In England education aims to develop and raise fully the abilities of individuals, both young
and old for their own benefit and that of the society. The Government aim to make further
and higher education more widely accessible and more responsive to the needs of the
economy and to achieve the best possible return from the resources invested in education
service, by raising the standards at all levels of ability. The increase of the parental choice of
schools and the improvement of partnership between parents and school is meant to meet
the needs of the society from education and training point of view.

Full-time education is compulsory for all children aged between 5 and 16. Students may then
continue their secondary studies for a further two years (sixth form), leading most typically
to A-level qualifications, although other qualifications and courses exist, including Business
and Technology Education Council (BTEC) qualifications, the International Baccalaureate (IB)
and the Cambridge Pre-U. The leaving age for compulsory education was raised to 18 by the
Education and Skills Act 2008. The change will take effect in 2013 for 16-year-olds and 2015
for 17-year-olds. State-provided schooling and sixth form education is free of charge to
students. England also has a tradition of independent schooling, but parents may choose to
educate their children by any suitable means.

Higher education typically begins with a 3-year Bachelor's Degree. Postgraduate degrees
include Master's Degrees, either taught or by research, and the Doctorate of Philosophy, a
research degree that usually takes at least three years. Universities require a Royal Charter in

22
order to issue degrees, and all but one are financed by the state via tuition fees, which are
increasing in size for both home and European Union students.

Primary and secondary education

The school year begins on 1 September (or 1 August if a term starts in August). Education is
compulsory for all children from their fifth birthday to the last Friday in June of the school
year in which they turn 16. This will be raised in 2013 to the year in which they turn 17 and
in 2015 to the year in which they turn 18.

The state-funded school system

State-run schools and colleges are financed through national taxation, and take pupils free of
charge between the ages of 3 and 18. The schools may levy charges for activities such as
swimming, theatre visits and field trips, provided the charges are voluntary, thus ensuring
that those who cannot afford to pay are allowed to participate in such events. Approximately
93% of English schoolchildren attend such schools.

A significant minority of state-funded schools are faith schools, which are attached to
religious groups, most often the Church of England or the Roman Catholic Church. There is
also a small number of state-funded boarding schools, which typically charge for board but
not tuition. However, the charges are often substantial. For example, Wymondham College
charged £8,100 per annum in 2010.

Nearly 90% of state-funded secondary schools are specialist schools, receiving extra funding
to develop one or more subjects in which the school specialises.

School years

The table below describes the most common patterns for schooling in the state sector in
England. In most cases progression from one year group to another is based purely on
chronological age, although it is possible in some circumstances for a student to repeat or
skip a year. Repetition may be due to a lack of attendance, for example from a long illness, and
especially in Years requiring standard tests. A child significantly more advanced than their
classmates may be forwarded one or more years.

Age on 31
Aug (before Year Curriculum stage Schools
school year)
3 Nursery Nursery school
Foundation Stage
4 Reception Primary First
5 Year 1 Infant school school school
Key Stage 1
6 Year 2
7 Year 3 Key Stage 2 Junior school

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 8 Year 4
9 Year 5
10 Year 6 Middle
11 Year 7 school
12 Year 8 Key Stage 3
Secondary
13 Year 9
school
14 Year 10
Key Stage 4 / GCSE, etc. Secondary
15 Year 11 school Upper
Year 12 with sixth school or
16 (Lower Sixth form / A level, form High
Sixth) International College/Sixth school
Year 13 Baccalaureate, Cambridge Form
17 (Upper Pre-U, etc.
Sixth)

In the vast majority of cases, pupils progress from primary to secondary levels at age 11; in
some areas either or both of the primary and secondary levels are further subdivided. A few
areas have three-tier education systems with an intermediate middle level from age 9 to 13.

State-funded nursery education is available from the age of 3, and may be full-time or part-
time. If registered with a state school, attendance is compulsory beginning with the term
following the child's fifth birthday. Children can be enrolled in the reception year in
September of that school year, thus beginning school at age 4 or 4.5. Unless the student
chooses to stay within the education system, compulsory school attendance ends on the last
Friday in June during the academic year in which a student attains the age of 16. [11]

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