International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

c
ISSN: 1492-3831
Vol. 1, No. 1 (June 2000)

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in

the 21st Century: A Shift from Structural to Trans-
actional Issues

Randy Garrison

Abstract

The premise of this article is that theoretical frameworks and models are
essential to the long-term credibility and viability of a field of practice.
In order to assess the theoretical challenges facing the field of distance
education, the significant theoretical contributions to distance education
in the last century are briefly reviewed. This review of distance educa-
tion as a field of study reveals an early preoccupation with organizational
and structural constraints. However, the review also reveals that the
theoretical development of the field is progressing from organizational to
transactional issues and assumptions. The question is whether distance
education has the theoretical foundation to take it into the 21st century
and whether distance education theory development will keep pace with
innovations in technology and practice.

Distance education methodologies have come into prominence during the last
decades of the 20th century. The confluence of the need for continuous learning
and unprecedented technological innovation in communications have pushed
distance education approaches to the forefront of educational practice. How-
ever, whether the leaders of these initiatives are the technically literate or the
politically powerful, they generally lack a coherent understanding of distance
education practice and the full range of possibilities available to achieve desired
outcomes. Senior administrators in higher education have become focused, not
on educational issues, but the fiscal implications (i.e., cost savings) of distance
education, and technology companies see profits (Feenberg, 1999).

Conceptual confusion is created with the advent of new terminology (virtual,

open, distributed and distance education), new technologies, new program de-
mands, new audiences, and new commercially competitive providers. These
developments present enormous challenges for educators to make sense of the
distance educational options available. In the context of current change, com-
petition and confusion, distance educators have an unprecedented opportunity
to provide leadership and direction. The challenge is to provide theory that will
explain and anticipate distance education practices for a broad range of emerg-
ing educational purposes and experiences. The question is whether distance
Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 2

education possesses the theoretical foundation and commitment to take it into

the 21st century.

How well distance educators understand and communicate the principles of, and
approaches to, distance education will determine their leadership role in the
broader educational field. Leadership requires that the field’s theories reflect
the diversity and choice open to educators when adopting new technologies
and approaches to teaching and learning at a distance. In much of traditional
education there is a great deal of rhetoric about the need to adopt distance
education methods. However, progress has been limited because few have the
conceptual understanding to create a viable strategic plan for adopting distance
education methods congruent with their institutional values and goals. Theory
is an essential tool for educators to rethink how they will meet the needs of their
institution and students when adopting distance education approaches.

Recent and rapid technological developments raise questions whether distance

education theory has kept pace with new, affordable applications of commu-
nications technology and the changing educational needs of a learning society.
We might ask whether distance education theory has captured the full range of
possibilities made available by the rich and diverse developments in the field of
communications and information technology? Does distance education as a field
of study possess a synthesis of the principles and concepts capable of explaining
and predicting developments in distance education in the 21st century?

In addressing these questions, this article will review the significant theoretical
developments and contributions to the study of distance education. It will be
shown that the study of distance education in the 20th century was primar-
ily focused on distance constraints and approaches that bridged geographical
constraints by way of organizational strategies such as the mass production
and delivery of learning packages. This has generally been identified as the in-
dustrial era of distance education. More recently, we shall see that the focus
in the study of distance education has shifted to educational issues associated
with the teaching-learning transaction, specifically, the concerns regarding real,
sustained communication, as well as emerging communications technology to
support sustained communication anytime, anywhere.

As a consequence of documenting these theoretical developments, it will be

argued that the 21st century represents the postindustrial era where transac-
tional issues (i.e., teaching and learning) will predominate over structural con-
straints (i.e., geographical distance). From this, the challenges facing theory
development in distance education will be identified as will a strategy for the
development of theory that reflects current practice. However, before review-
ing distance education theory, it would be advantageous to understand what is
meant by theory and its value to a field of practice.

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 3

Expectations of Theory

Theoretical inquiry is central to the vitality and development of a field of practice

– not to mention its recognition and credibility from those not yet initiated into
the field. The theoretical foundations of a field describe and inform the practice
and provide the primary means to guide future developments. The power of
ideas, as represented in our theories, influences practice directly by focusing
perspective, revealing knowledge and suggesting alternatives. Since ideas and
ideals shape distance education practice, attention and effort must be devoted to
the development of coherent, rigorous and valid theory. Theory is not limited to
describing what is, but good theory should also help predict what will or could
be.

Theory is also invaluable in guiding the complex practice of a rational process

such as teaching and learning at a distance. Education is a purposeful activity
and theory provides us with the understanding necessary to take effective action.
Action, otherwise, is fortuitous or capricious. While those who are experts in the
practice of a variety of forms of distance education may have the tacit knowledge
to intuitively guide their educational decisions and effectively facilitate learning,
this is not sufficient for the vast majority in the field. Nor is it helpful in
directing new research and generating new ideas and concepts. It is theory that
provides a coherent ordering of relevant variables and relationships to guide
both practitioners and researchers.

But what do we mean by theory? What constitutes theory? Before we can

assess distance education theory, it may be helpful to briefly outline what might
constitute a theory.

Definitions of theory are numerous and somewhat problematic. For the sake of
our discussion here let us begin with the basic definition that theory is “an ex-
planation, a systematic account of relationships among phenomena” (McMillan
& Schumacher, 1984, p. 11). To expand upon this definition, theory is a co-
herent and systematic ordering of ideas, concepts, and models with the purpose
of constructing meaning to explain, interpret and shape practice. Theory can
provide a perspective that reduces complexity while suggesting generalizability.
The organized body of knowledge we call theory is an abstract and parsimonious
constellation of articulated constructs for the express purpose of understanding
and guiding practice.

Theory may have a number of forms. In this article, frameworks, models and
concepts are considered important elements of theory and, in some cases, are
synonymous with theory. A theoretical framework represents a broad paradig-
matic set of assumptions that provides the elements of the theory but without
the detail and completeness (nuances) of a comprehensive theory. A model is
a less abstract form of a theory and represents structural relationships among
the key concepts. It is a replica and often provides visual simplicity that can be

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 4

grasped at a glance. However, by itself, it may lack the richness of explanation

inherent in a theory. Finally, concepts are the building blocks of a theory and
evolve from ideas generated from direct experience. In this way they are less
abstract and do not have the coherence of a framework, model or theory.

As noted previously, the purpose of theory is to create conceptual order and

provide simplicity in describing complex phenomena. This order will reflect the
values and assumptions that ultimately shape practice. It provides the founda-
tional framework for the development of a field of study through the coherent
description of current practice as well as the analysis and prediction of current
and emerging trends. Such developments are revealed and sustained through
rigorous and coherent theory building that is open to critique, discussion and
confirmation. Theory is essential to understanding and communicating the pur-
pose, methods and goals of a field of practice.

Good theory will reveal areas of inquiry and suggest potential hypotheses for
the continued study and development of a field’s theoretical foundation. This
need for continuous theoretical development is a particular challenge for distance
education as the technology and delivery methods have evolved rapidly. New
descriptions and interpretations of practice are necessitated by the evolving
practice of the field. In this way theory and practice are inextricably linked and
rational action becomes theory-based.

Distance education theory must reflect both the purposeful and spontaneous
nature of an educational experience. For this reason, we need theoretical con-
structs that are coherent and articulated but also flexible enough so as not to
constrain critical and creative thought. The practical and evolving approaches
to distance education must be reflected in its theory. The emerging practice
of distance education is incorporating new and sophisticated communications
technology. These technologies allow for the creation of synchronous and asyn-
chronous collaborative communities of inquiry. The pressing challenge facing
distance education theorists, therefore, is to adapt current theories to these new
realities and, where appropriate, create new theory.

To understand the theoretical challenges facing distance education, it is essential

to begin with a selected review of some of the influential theoretical contributions
and then provide an analysis and interpretation of the current state of the field
in terms of its study. In this regard, the review and analysis will reveal a distinct
shift from organizational and distance concerns to transactional and educational
issues. The results of this examination also suggest that theory may be lacking
in the description of current developments in distance education practice, not
to mention revealing future possibilities.

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 5

Major Theoretical Contributions

While it is not the purpose here to review definitions of distance education,

a brief comment may be in order to clarify the place of definitions in theory
development. In the past, definitions of distance education have served a useful
purpose by explicitly revealing differing perspectives and assumptions. While
definitions have provided a valuable first step, definitions in and of themselves
do not constitute a theory. A definition may delimit the practice or identify
specific principles but it is neither explanatory nor suggestive of future practice.
Generally, the field has moved beyond definitional issues and has focused on the
systematic development of theoretical frameworks and models.

We start our review of the theoretical contributions to distance education with

the influential work of Charles Wedemeyer. In the 1960s Wedemeyer broke from
the concept of correspondence study and focused instead on independent study
or learning. In doing so he noted that a “particular philosophy of teaching
and learning usually lies behind” (Wedemeyer, 1971, p. 548) the concepts of
independent study and learning. It was clear that this was not merely a change
in terminology. The focus on the pedagogical assumptions of independent study
was a shift from the world of correspondence study dominated by organizational
and administrative concerns, to a focus on educational issues concerning learning
at a distance.

Notwithstanding Wedemeyer’s (1971) clear focus on teaching and learning, in-

dependent study was focused on the individual as opposed to the group. Wede-
meyer (1971) was careful to identify the characteristics and advantages of in-
dependent learning – not the least of which was “a democratic social ideal” (p.
549) of not denying anybody the opportunity to learn. Consistent with the prin-
ciples of equity and access, independent study was also related to self-directed
learning and self-regulation. Again we see a concern for learning but under the
geographical and temporal control of the learner.

In addition to the obvious separation of teaching and learning tasks and respon-
sibilities, Wedemeyer (1971) also identified defining characteristics such as com-
munication, pacing, convenience and self-determination of goals and activities.
He was a great advocate of freedom and choice for the learner. However, most
significantly, Wedemeyer (1971) also noted that independent study “courses of-
fer less freedom in goal determination and activity selection” (p. 551). He
foreshadowed (or perhaps precipitated) a persistent debate in the literature by
critiquing the practice of not individualizing (i.e., personalizing) independent
study courses and the general practice and complacency to let the course deter-
mine (i.e., prescribe) the goals and activities. In this regard, Wedemeyer (1971)
questioned “the seeming rigidity of the format and materials [that] apparently
deters teachers and students from more completely exercising their respective
options” (p. 551). He insisted that the “independent study method is not, in
its basic concepts, different from other teaching-learning methods” (p. 553).

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 6

Wedemeyer’s work is surprisingly relevant to a new era of theory development.

A hallmark of Wedemeyer’s work was his “contribution to the establishment

of the British Open University [BOU]” (Sherow & Wedemeyer, 1990, p.18).
Through the Articulated Instructional Media (AIM) project initiated by Wede-
meyer in 1964, it “was proposed that a unique system be developed for a new
type of institution ... made possible through course design utilizing media and
technology and ... supported by counseling and resource and learning centres”
(Sherow & Wedemeyer, 1990, p. 18). The principles behind AIM were the
subject of lectures throughout the United Kingdom in 1965. While the exact
influence of his writings and lectures on the establishment of the BOU may
be open to debate, clearly Charles Wedemeyer was a pioneer in the study of
distance education.

Another person who was clearly linked to the historic development of the BOU
was Otto Peters. From the current author’s perspective, the most coherent,
rigorous and pervasive example of distance education theory to date is the in-
dustrial production model of Otto Peters. In this model, conceived in the mid
1960s, Peters analyzed the structure of distance education and noted the possi-
bility of adopting industrial production techniques such as a division of labor,
mass production, and organization to realize economies of scale and reduce unit
costs (Peters, 1994a). Considering the structural constraints and the reliance
on self-instructional print packages, for Peters, this was the ideal context to
adopt industrial approaches to education. While the industrial model had an
enormous influence on distance education, it was not a theory of teaching nor
of learning, but rather a contribution to clear thought about the organization
of distance education. However, it had considerable influence on the creation of
the British Open University in the early 1970s, and, in many ways, to this day,
it dominates the field of distance education.

Peters’ industrial model is an organizational model. It is about organizing the

educational process to realize economies of scale. For this reason, teaching
and learning issues are not of particular relevance. Peters (1994a) describes
the industrial approach as “objectification of the teaching process” (p. 111).
According to Peters (1994b), it “reduces the forms of shared learning, and keeps
learners away from personal interactions and critical discourse” (p. 16). For this
reason, Peters did not advocate this approach for all of distance education.

The dominance of structural and organizational concerns of the industrial model,

over teaching and learning issues, is central to understanding theoretical devel-
opments and the challenges we face in developing distance education theory in
this century. The industrial model placed in clear contrast the zero sum situa-
tion in having to choose between independence and interaction and established
a constructive debate over the years regarding the inherent trade-off of these
issues (Daniel & Marquis, 1979). In recent years, the advent of computer me-
diated communication (CMC) rendered this debate moot as it made possible
both an independent and collaborative learning experience.

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 7

To understand Peters’ core philosophical position, we take a brief look at his

most recent work. Due to unprecedented changes in society, Peters (2000) of-
fers a new structure for university education to include three basic forms of
academic learning – “self-learning, tele-learning and social intercourse” (p. 15).
Here he extends independent forms of learning at a distance (i.e., self-learning
and tele-learning) with the inclusion of social intercourse. His argument is
that communications technology and lifelong learning demands will precipitate
a “transformation of the traditional university [and, presumably, all higher ed-
ucation] into an institution of self-study and distance teaching” (Peters, 2000,
p. 20). From Peters’ perspective, self-learning and tele-learning are very much
autonomous approaches to learning.

It is safe to say that Peters remains an advocate for independent, self-study,

although enhanced with social intercourse defined in a non-formal and individ-
ually controlled manner. While we see a new recognition for interaction, there
is still a strong identification with the ideal of independence consistent with
his industrial model. His social intercourse seems to support a general social
presence among learners rather than academic critical discourse.

The point for Peters (2000) is that face-to-face discussion “can only be repro-
duced in part, and indeed in a reduced form, by mediated means” (p. 17). This
is an important point. Here Peters identifies an important area of needed the-
ory development when he rightly notes the difficulty of replicating face-to-face
interaction by mediated means. In fact, Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000)
are studying the issue of learning in a text-based environment in the context
of CMC. The theoretical analysis suggests that face-to-face interaction cannot
be reproduced in whole within a text-based environment. The communication
characteristics are very different and, therefore, the nature of the educational
experience will be altered but not necessarily in a negative manner. However,
Garrison et al. (2000) argue that a text-based environment may have an inher-
ent communications advantage in supporting critical discourse in a community
of inquiry. Regardless, these questions point to the importance of studying
emerging issues such as the characteristics of spoken and written communica-
tion for the development of theory that helps distance education practitioners
understand the use of mediated communication for educational purposes.

Next, we move to another pioneering theorist in distance education, Borje Holm-

berg, who has made substantial contributions to the theory of distance education
over several decades. At the core of his (1989) theory of distance education prac-
tice is the concept of “guided didactic conversation” (p. 43). This refers to both
real and simulated conversations, although the reliance is upon simulated con-
versation. As such, the emphasis is very much on the content and conversational
character of the written pre-produced course package. Holmberg (1989) does
acknowledge that regardless of how conversational the pre-produced course is,
“communication between the student and the distance tutor has essential tasks”
(p. 64). However, real conversation with the tutor is, by economic necessity,

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 8

supplementary to the pre-produced course.

Guided didactic conversation, Holmberg (1989) argues, is a “pervasive charac-

teristic of distance education” (p. 43). In essence, his theory posits distance ed-
ucation as “friendly conversation [fostered by] well-developed self-instructional
materials [resulting in] feelings of personal relation ... intellectual pleasure [and]
study motivation” (p. 43). It is the responsibility of course developers to create
this simulated conversation through well-written materials. Although conversa-
tion was the defining characteristic in Holmberg’s theory of distance education,
this theory was directed to the pre-produced course package and clearly within
the industrial paradigm.

While Holmberg makes a great effort to place teaching at the core of his theory,
his own structural assumptions and the central role of the self-study learning
package limit teaching to one-way communication. The question arises as to
whether an inert learning package, regardless of how well it is written, is a
sufficient substitute for real sustained communication with the teacher as both
content and learning expert (a tutor does not always fully meet this standard).
The role of the teacher was largely simulated by way of written instructions and
commentary. It is also interesting to note that there is no recognition that writ-
ten communication may be qualitatively different from verbal discourse when
guiding students. In sum, the organizational assumptions and principles of the
industrial model and the dependence upon written communication seriously con-
strain and limit the role of conversation and the full emergence of a transactional
perspective.

Another seminal work, first introduced in the early 1970s, is that of Michael
Moore. Moore recognized the limitation of the structure of the independent
learning package by including dialogue as a second variable. Moore’s theory
of transactional distance is intuitively appealing and moves the field toward
the realization of a pedagogical theory. According to Moore (1991), transac-
tional distance is pedagogical, not geographic, and necessitates “special orga-
nizations and teaching procedures” (p. 3) composed of two variables (clusters,
dimensions?) – structure and dialogue (Moore, 1990; Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
Structure reflects the course’s design and is largely a function of the teaching
organization and communications media employed. On the other hand, dialogue
is also associated with the medium of communication and may include either
real two-way communication or Holmberg’s internal didactic conversation. In
Moore’s theory, the most distant program has low dialogue and low structure
while the least distant has high dialogue and high structure.

Moore then adds another dimension – learner autonomy. Autonomy appears to

be associated with a personality characteristic – that being personal responsi-
bility associated with self-directedness (Moore, 1993; Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
The greater the transactional distance the greater responsibility is placed on
the learner. However, previously Moore (1990) defines autonomy as “the extent
to which in a programme the learner determines objectives, implementation

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 9

procedures, and resources and evaluation” (p. 13). He suggests that the other
end of this continuum is teacher control. The difficulty is that this polarization
appears to conceptualize autonomy as less a function of personal responsibility
and more a function of structure and the learning materials themselves.

In assessing Moore’s contribution, he attempts to incorporate the structure

of the industrial approach with the interaction of the transactional approach.
In this way he extends the pedagogical perspective but appears to retain the
dominant structural features of the industrial model. For example, he states,
“what we are normally referring to as distance education is a subset of all
educational programmes, the subset characterised by greater structure, [and]
lower dialogue” (Moore, 1990, p. 12). More significantly, however, the exact
nature of the interrelationships among structure, dialog and autonomy is not
clear. There is confusion around whether structure and dialogue are variables,
clusters or dimensions. Unfortunately, Moore has used different terms (i.e.,
variables, clusters, dimensions) at various times. Understanding transactional
distance very much depends upon whether we are discussing a two-by-two ma-
trix, a single continuum, or distinct clusters. This confusion is compounded
when we add the concept of autonomy with its definitional problems (psycho-
logical or educational autonomy) and its relationship to transactional distance.
Clearly, Moore’s work remains one of the most appealing and well known the-
ories of distance education. Yet, more macrolevel theoretical work is required
that goes beyond simply refining this promising and appealing theory (Moore
& Kearsley, 1996). Future work might focus on the interrelationship amongst
the variables/concepts of dialogue, structure and autonomy. Are these orthogo-
nally related or do they overlap? In addition to the “infilling of the theoretical
spaces” (Moore, 1990, p. 14), the creation of a visual model would go a long
way to clarifying the structural relationships among these concepts.

The next contribution to be discussed here explicitly places sustained real two-
way communication at the core of the educational experience, regardless of the
separation of teacher and student. This is a framework provided by Garrison
(1989). While mediated communication is a defining characteristic of distance
education and an important design concern, this framework did not redefine the
essential nature of the teaching-learning transaction. Garrison and Shale (1990)
made a point of emphasizing educational issues and titled their book accordingly
– Education at a Distance. As Garrison and Shale (1990) state, they wished
to “avoid the restrictive trap of describing distance education based upon its
existing forms and structures” (p. 25). These were clear attempts to focus
on the functional basis of education first by placing the teaching and learning
transaction at the core of distance education practice. This was a clear attempt
to break loose of the organizational assumptions of the industrial model.

The theoretical model proposed by Garrison and Baynton (1987) and updated
by Garrison (1989) reflects the assumptions of this paradigmatic shift. This
model of the educational transaction at a distance placed the concept of control

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 10

at the center of the transaction. Control was defined as the opportunity and
ability to influence the educational transaction. This was intended to replace the
concept of independence (self-study), often a core element of distance education
with a more comprehensive perspective of the educational transaction. Shared
control was seen to be reflective of the transactional nature of an educational
experience. Two-way communication is central to control and at variance with
independence that has the effect of reducing the legitimate and worthwhile role
of the teacher and, thereby, risking isolation.

The control model places within the macrostructural level of teacher, student
and content the microlevel transactional elements of proficiency (ability and mo-
tivation), support (human and non-human resources), and independence (oppor-
tunity to choose). Consideration of these transactional elements will determine
the appropriate balance of control which can only be assessed and constantly
adjusted through sustained two-way communication. Independence necessitated
by structural constraints reflects only one set of variables to be considered in a
complex educational transaction.

A more promising and somewhat more current contribution generated from a

collaborative educational perspective is a framework and analytical model pro-
vided by Henri (1992). This framework was aimed at helping distance educators
understand the learning process and the facilitation of interaction for collabo-
rative learning. The analytical model consists of five dimensions of the learning
process – participation, interaction, social, cognitive, and metacognitive. While
these dimensions are in need of verification, the framework has informed and
framed several studies of collaborative learning by way of computer mediated
communication (Angeli, Bonk & Hara, 1998; Fabro, 1996; Hara, Bonk & Angeli,
2000; McDonald, 1998).

Perhaps Henri’s real contribution is that it is a collaborative view of teaching and

learning and provides a potential structure for coding CMC messages to study
the nature and quality of the discourse. Henri’s framework is a psychosocial,
transactional perspective focusing specifically on teaching and learning facili-
tated through mediated communication. Interestingly, this framework is silent
with regard to structural or distance constraints. Henri’s framework focuses on
educational and transactional issues and, therefore, is a significant shift away
from the industrial model.

The previous descriptions certainly do not exhaust the many theoretical contri-
butions to the field of distance education. Other contributions were not noted
due either to their overlap with those described previously (e.g., Saba, 1989);
their focus on definitional and historical descriptions (e.g., Keegan, 1990); or, as
is the case of more recent contributions, their importance and impact being less
well recognized and understood (Anderson & Garrison, 1997). It must also be
emphasized that only the basic assumptions and concepts were extracted from
the theories reviewed, while nuances and other refinements were omitted. How-
ever, it can be stated with some confidence that the selected models accurately

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 11

reflect the progression of a theoretical development of the field of distance educa-

tion along an organizational (structural) – transactional (teaching and learning)
continuum. The question now is whether distance education has the theoretical
foundation to take it into the 21st century, and what theoretical challenges face
distance education in keeping pace with emerging communications technology
and new practices?

Progress and Challenges

In surveying the core theoretical contributions of the last three decades, we see
evidence of a sound theoretical foundation. However, it is less obvious as to
whether our current state of knowledge development is adequate to explain and
shape new practices. It may well be worthwhile to step back and see if we are
not dealing with a significant shift in perspective and practice and then assess
the coherence and comprehensiveness of distance education theory. As noted
previously, the evidence here suggests that we are experiencing the emergence of
a new era of distance education characterized by a focus on transactional issues.
Advances in communications technology have rendered the structural constraint
of distance a relatively minor design challenge. It is the nature of a sustained
educational transaction at a distance that must be described, understood and
abstracted in a manner accessible to the broader field of educational practice.

Interestingly, it is Peters (1993), the theorist who provided the industrial model,
who asks whether there are “early signs of a ‘new era’ which might be called
‘postindustrial’ ?” (p. 40). The results of the previous review and similar argu-
ments elsewhere (Garrison, 1997) suggest that we are entering a postindustrial
era of distance education characterized by the ability to personalize and share
control of the educational transaction through frequent two-way communication
in the context of a community of learners. Moreover, this can be accomplished
in an affordable manner along with access to educational resources and infor-
mation via networks that may well provide educational experiences superior to
traditional face-to-face educational experiences. An educator, as a member of a
community of learners and not solely as a member of an organizational team of
curriculum developers creating prepackaged self-study learning materials, may
facilitate education at a distance in a timely and adaptable manner.

After having argued that a transactional approach (postindustrial) to distance

education is emerging, it is important to qualify this statement by emphasizing
that postindustrial technologies will not replace industrial approaches to dis-
tance education in the near future (Annand, 1999). Distance education theory
should not be viewed as advocating “one-for-all practical recipes” (Sfard, 1998,
p. 10), regardless of whether they are on the structural or transactional end of
the distance education theoretical continuum. Having both valid structural and
transactional theories are “our protection against theoretical excesses” (Sfard,

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 12

1998, p. 10). Orthodoxy of practice and certainty of perspective is detrimental

in both short-term successes and long-term development of any field of study
and practice. The ultimate theoretical challenge of any field of practice is to
achieve a synthesis of perspectives and theories (i.e., global theory) that reflects
the complete continuum and is inclusive of a full range of practices. At the
same time, it must be noted that this is not a realistic expectation for distance
education theory in the near term.

This century will see the emergence of a postmodern era of distance education
characterized by increased diversity and choice. Such development is made pos-
sible by new communication technologies, as exemplified by the evolution of the
open universities in their adoption of new models to complement the traditional
self-paced, independent learning model of the industrial era (Davis, 1999). With
continuous refinements, the ideal of the industrial era will become increasingly
difficult to find in practice, but it still provides an important conceptual marker
in the evolution of distance education as a field of study and practice. However,
amongst the approaches to postindustrial distance education are principles and
characteristics based upon the assumptions of a transactional model. If the field
is to be relevant and credible in the 21st century, it is these assumptions, prin-
ciples and characteristics that will inform new theoretical frameworks, models
and concepts needed in distance education.

The challenge the field of distance education faces is the construction of theories
addressing specific components and concerns of postindustrial distance educa-
tion. For example, the creation of distance education theory that informs and
explains computer mediated communication is both an opportunity and chal-
lenge. Asynchronous collaborative learning may well be the defining technology
of the postindustrial era of distance education. It has been argued that this
technology, along with audio and video conferencing, represents a paradigmatic
shift in distance education, making it possible to adopt collaborative approaches
to learning at a distance (Garrison, 1997). However, this challenge and opportu-
nity for theoretical development are associated with the reality that this medium
is based upon written communication. Asynchronous written communication
represents very different characteristics than real-time verbal communication.
The former encourages reflection and precision while the latter is spontaneous
and fleeting. While distance education practice has relied heavily on print, only
recently have distance education theorists begun to recognize the unique char-
acteristics of text-based communication and realize that such communication
may impact the facilitation of learning outcomes in different ways (Garrison, et
al., 2000; Peters, 2000).

Theories must be developed that speak to the needs and concerns of new audi-
ences. One of the new audiences is traditional higher education institutions
which have a strong interest and stake in adopting distance education ap-
proaches but are in conflict internally (Garrison & Anderson, 1999). Higher
education institutions are concerned about compromising their values and the

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 13

educational quality associated with a highly interactive and adaptable educa-

tional transaction. For this audience, the perception of distance education is
that of the industrial model, which is anathema to their idealized (but seldom
approached) teaching-learning assumptions and values. Models and approaches
need to be developed that will address legitimate institutional questions and
provide a vision and approach consistent with the values and goals of these
institutions.

Conclusion

Theory provides a means (order and explanation) to make sense of complex prac-
tices and phenomena. The need to make sense of complexity is compounded in
the context of distance education. Ideally, theory can describe current activities
and provide direction for new approaches. Moreover, meaningful and relevant
theory is essential to the vitality and influence of any field of practice – distance
education is no exception. However, I would suggest that distance education is
theoretically challenged to provide insightful frameworks that will guide us in
what is, most assuredly, a new era of distance education.

The essential finding here of the brief review of prominent theoretical contribu-
tions is that, until recently, most distance education theory was dominated by
organizational and structural assumptions. Concerns with the standardization
of a product outweighed issues related to the adaptability of the educational
transaction. While attempts were made in early distance education theories to
address transactional issues, they were made to fit the Procrustean bed created
by the industrial and structural assumptions of the era. However, much has
changed during the last decade of the 20th century with the focus switching to
facilitating the teaching and learning transaction at a distance.

The challenge for distance education theorists in the new century is to provide
an understanding of the opportunities and limitations of facilitating teaching
and learning at a distance with a variety of methods and technologies. This
will demand theories that reflect a collaborative approach to distance education
(i.e., as opposed to independent learning) and have at their core an adaptive
teaching and learning transaction. Distance education will be characterized by
an adaptability of design before and during the teaching and learning process
made possible by affordable and highly interactive communications technology.
This adaptability in designing the educational transaction based upon sustained
communication and collaborative experiences reflects the essence of the postin-
dustrial era of distance education. At the same time, this fundamental shift in
focus reveals the challenge facing distance education theorists if they are to re-
main relevant and broaden their influence in the adoption of new and emerging
distance learning approaches and technologies. Theory in distance education
must evolve to reflect current and emerging innovative practices of designing

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 14

and delivering education at a distance.

The relevance as well as explanatory and predictive power of the theories de-
veloped will determine the recognition, credibility and influence of any field of
practice. For distance education this means that theoretical developments must
reflect changes taking place in the field of practice. When the theory of dis-
tance education catches up to recent developments in the practice of distance
education, then the focus can shift to predictive models with the potential to
shape future practice. In the medium term, however, we are likely to see a
range of theories directed toward specific technological and educational needs
and purposes. Grand theoretical syntheses may not be a realistic immediate
goal of an emerging field of study such as distance education. It remains to
be seen whether a masterful and comprehensive theory encompassing the struc-
tural characteristics of the industrial era along with the transactional properties
of the postindustrial era of distance education can be realized.

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 15

References

Anderson, T. D., & Garrison, D. R. (1997). New roles for learners at a distance.
In C. C. Gibson (Ed.), Distance learners in higher education: Institutional
responses for quality outcomes. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing.

Angeli, C., Bonk, C., & Hara, N. (1998). Content analysis of online discussion
in an applied educational psychology course. CRLT Technical Report No.
2-98. Retrieved May 15, 2000: http://crlt.indiana.edu/publications/crlt98-
2.pdf

Annand, D. (1999). The problem of computer conferencing for distance-based

universities. Open Learning, 14(3), 47-51.

Daniel, J. S., & Marquis, C. (1979). Interaction and independence: Getting the
mixture right. Teaching at a Distance, 14, 29-44.

Davis, A. (1999). Good practice and distance education technologies at Canada’s

open university. Paper presented at TEL-isphere 99, Barbados.

Fabro, K. G. (1996). Computer conferencing in higher education: An explo-

ration of communication and cognitive development issues. Unpublished
master’s thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Feenberg, A. (1999). Reflections on the distance learning controversy. Canadian

Journal of Communication, 24, 337-348.

Garrison, D. R. (1989). Understanding distance education: A framework for

the future. London: Routledge.

Garrison, D. R. (1997). Computer conferencing: The post-industrial age of

distance education. Open Learning, 12(2), 3-11.

Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (1999). Avoiding the industrialization of re-

search universities: Big and little distance education. The American Journal
of Distance Education, 13(2), 48-63.

Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a

text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The
Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 1-19.

Garrison, D. R. & Baynton, M. (1987). Beyond independence in distance educa-

tion: The concept of control. The American Journal of Distance Education,
1(3), 3-15.

Garrison, D. R. & Shale, D. (Eds.). (1990). Education at a distance: From

issues to practice. Melbourne, FL: Krieger.

Hara, N., Bonk, C. J., & Angeli, C. (2000). Content analysis of online discussion

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 16

in an applied educational psychology course. Instructional Science, 28, 115-

152.

Henri, F. (1992). Computer conferencing and content analysis. In A. R. Kaye

(Ed.), Collaborative learning through computer conferencing: The Najaden
papers. (pp. 117-136). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Holmberg, B. (1989). Theory and practice of distance education. London:

Routledge.

Keegan, D. (1990). Foundations of distance education (2nd ed.). London: Rout-

ledge.

McDonald, J. (1998). Interpersonal group dynamics and development in com-

puter conferencing: The rest of the story. In Proceedings of the Annual
Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning (pp. 243-248). Madison,
Wisconson.

McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (1984). Research in education: A conceptual

introduction. Boston: Little, Brown.

Moore, M. (1990). Recent contributions to the theory of distance education.

Open Learning, 5(3), 10-15.

Moore, M. G. (1991). Editorial: Distance education theory. The American

Journal of Distance Education, 5(3), 1-6.

Moore, M. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), The-

oretical principles of distance education (pp. 22-38). London: Routledge.

Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view.

New York: Wadsworth.

Peters, O. (1993). Distance education in a postindustrial society. In D. Keegan

(Ed.), Theoretical principles of distance education (pp. 39-58). London:
Routledge.

Peters, O. (1994a). Distance education and industrial production: A compar-

ative interpretation in outline (1973). In Keegan, D. (Ed.), Otto Peters
on distance education: The industrialization of teaching and learning (pp.
107-127). London: Routledge.

Peters, O. (1994b). Introduction. In Keegan, D. (Ed.), Otto Peters on dis-

tance education: The industrialization of teaching and learning (pp. 1-23).
London: Routledge.

Peters, O. (2000). The transformation of the university into an institution of

independent learning. In T. Evans & D. Nation (Eds.), Changing univer-
sity teaching: Reflections on creating educational technologies (pp.10-23).

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning

Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift
from Structural to Transactional Issues 17

London: Kogan Page.

Saba, F. (1989). Integrated telecommunications systems and instructional trans-

action. In M. G. Moore & G. C. Clark (Eds.), Readings in principles of
distance education: Number 1 (pp. 29-36). University Park, PA: American
Centre for the Study of Distance Education.

Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing
just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4-13.

Sherow, S., & Wedemeyer, C. (1990). Origin of distance education in the United
States. In D. R. Garrison & D. Shale (Eds.), Education at a distance: From
issues to practice (pp. 7-22). Melbourne, FL: Krieger.

Wedemeyer, C. A. (1971). Independent study. In R. Deighton (Ed.), Encyclo-

pedia of Education IV (pp. 548-557). New York: McMillan.

Citation Format

Garrison, Randy. (2000) Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century:
A Shift from Structural to Transactional Issues. International Review of Research in Open and
Distance Learning: 1, 1. http://www.icaap.org/iuicode?149.1.1.2

International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning