Thermometry: There Are Triple Points For Many Other Substances Besides Water

3
Thermometry
What is temperature?
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles making up

the substance being examined.
Temperature must not be confused with heat.
Heat is the amount of vibrational energy contained in a particular mass.
Fixed Points
For any temperature scale, it is necessary to have two fixed points. These are
temperatures at which particular physical properties manifest themselves eg melting,
boiling.
Common fixed points:
ice point - temperature when pure water ice is in equilibrium with liquid
water at standard atmospheric pressure (76mm Hg).
steam point - temperature when pure liquid water exists in equilibrium

with water vapour at standard atmospheric pressure.
triple point* - temperature when pure water ice, pure liquid water and
pure water vapour exist in equilibrium.
* there are triple points for many other substances besides water
Temperature scales are divided into a specific number of degrees between the two fixed
points.
The gap between the upper and lower fixed points is called the fundamental interval.
As a matter of historical interest, the Fahrenheit scale was founded on the following fixed
points:
lower fixed point 0 deg.(0oF) - the coldest salt mixture temperature

attained
higher fixed point 100 deg.(100oF) - horse blood temperature

4
The Kelvin (Absolute) temperature scale
This scale uses the the triple point of water as the upper fixed point and absolute zero
(zero molecular motion) as the lower fixed point.
The triple point of water is assigned the temperature 273.16K while the the ice point is
273.15K and the steam point 373.15K.
By definition one degree Kelvin is: 1 / 273.16 (approximately 0.00366) of the difference
between absolute zero and the triple point of water.
The Celsius temperature scale
The Celsius scale was introduced to replace the Centigrade scale. The Centigrade scale
had the melting point of ice as its lower fixed point and the boiling point of water as the
upper fixed point, both measured at standard atmospheric pressure.
However, unlike the triple point of water, the melting point of ice cannot be measured with
enough precision to make it an absolute marker.
The Celsius scale is closely related to the Kelvin scale.
By definition one degree Celsius is: 1 / 273.16 (approximately 0.00366) of the difference
between absolute zero and the triple point of water.
This is the same definition as for a degree Kelvin. So a temperature change of 1K equates
to a change of 1oC.
The two scales are also defined by the equation:

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Thermometers
Liquid in glass
The thermometer works by an expanding liquid in a vacuum, moving against a scale.
There are a number of disadvantages to this instrument:
1.) The glass itself expands and contracts and leading to under and over
reading of temperatures.
2.) Parallax errors mean readings are only 0.1oC accurate.
3.) The diameter of the bore is not consistent.
4.) Their large thermal capacity means that they do not react quickly and
they may affect the temperature they are trying to measure.
This is how the two liquids used in thermometers, alcohol and mercury compare:
alcohol
transparent, must be used with a dye

heat conduction poor
sticks to glass - concave meniscus
temperature range ~ 150oC ... -114.9 oC
mercury
opague
is a metal and therfore a good heat conductor
does not stick to glass - convex meniscus
temperature range~ 356oC ... -39oC
The temperature on a liquid in glass thermometers can be calculated by making certain

measurements.
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Thermocouple
Thermocouples work on a principle called the thermoelectricor Seebeck Effect.
When two different metal wires are twisted together at a junction, an EMF(electromotive
force) is generated across the loose ends. The magnitude of this EMF relates to the
temperature at the junction.
On the graph, the value of T where the EMF is maximum is called the 'neutral
temperature'. The gradient (d(EMF)/dT) anywhere on the curve is called
the thermoelectric power .
Measured with a high resistance millivoltmeter, EMF values are in the range 1mV -
4mV/100oC.
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A more convenient and efficient setup is to have two junctions instead of one, but still
have just two metals. The reference cold temperature is usually melting ice.
Typical pairs of metals and temperature ranges:
metals temperature rangeoC

chromel/alumel ~1100 max.
Pt/Pt-Rh 1100 - 1700
Fe/Constantan 95 - 760
Cu/Constantan 200 - 350
Resistance thermometer
The property of metals that their resistance is temperature-dependent makes them ideal
as thermometers. The metal of choice is platinum as a result of its high melting
point(1773oC) and large resistance temperature coefficient*.
* (alpha) a big increase in resistance for a small rise in temp.
In practice resistance thermometers are either thin films of platinum on a substrate or

platinum wire wound around a former.
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Thermistor
Semiconductors like metals have resistance that is temperature-dependent. So they too

make ideal thermometers.
The difference is, as temperature rises, the resistance of metals increases, but the
resistance of semiconductorsdecreases.
Semiconductors have large resistance temperature coefficients, but they are negative. This
means that there is a big decrease in resistance for a small rise in temperature.
Typical temperature range of thermistors is -70oC ... 300oC .
The thermal capacities of thermistors are small. So they absorb little heat energy and do
not appreciable affect the temperature they are measuring.
Thermistor resistance is ~1k .
Constant-volume gas thermometer

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In its original state the glass bulb is full of air and the mercury levels are the same. A
mark(X) is made against the glass to record this.
When the bulb is placed in a hot liquid for a temperature reading, the air in the bulb
expands, pushing the mercury down on the left and up on the right.
To get the air in the flask back to its original volume, the movable tube is lowered until the
mercury is at the level previously marked.
There is now a level difference(head) h between the two tubes. This is a measure of the
pressure of the gas without taking account of atmospheric pressure pA. So accounting for
atmospheric pressure , the pressure p of the gas at temperature is:
note, all pressures expressed in mm of mercury
It follows that the temperature of the gas, is given by:
where p0 and p100 are pressures at 0oC & 100oCrespectively.
Temperatures using the constant-volume gas thermometer can be measured to two

decimal places. However there are several sources of error that prevent further accuracy:
1. the capillary tube air is not heated
2. the volume of the bulb increases with temp.
3. air is not an 'ideal gas'

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3

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles making up

Temperature must not be confused with heat.

Heat is the amount of vibrational energy contained in a particular mass.

Common fixed points:

steam point - temperature when pure liquid water exists in equilibrium

lower fixed point 0 deg.(0oF) - the coldest salt mixture temperature

higher fixed point 100 deg.(100oF) - horse blood temperature

The Kelvin (Absolute) temperature scale

The Celsius temperature scale

The two scales are also defined by the equation:

The thermometer works by an expanding liquid in a vacuum, moving against a scale.

There are a number of disadvantages to this instrument:

transparent, must be used with a dye

The temperature on a liquid in glass thermometers can be calculated by making certain

Thermocouples work on a principle called the thermoelectricor Seebeck Effect.

Typical pairs of metals and temperature ranges:

metals temperature rangeoC

* (alpha) a big increase in resistance for a small rise in temp.

In practice resistance thermometers are either thin films of platinum on a substrate or

Semiconductors like metals have resistance that is temperature-dependent. So they too

Typical temperature range of thermistors is -70oC ... 300oC .

Thermistor resistance is ~1k .

Constant-volume gas thermometer

note, all pressures expressed in mm of mercury

It follows that the temperature of the gas, is given by:

where p0 and p100 are pressures at 0oC & 100oCrespectively.

Temperatures using the constant-volume gas thermometer can be measured to two

1. the capillary tube air is not heated

2. the volume of the bulb increases with temp.

3. air is not an 'ideal gas'

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