Distance Principles - Basic Principle

Distance Protection
GRID
Technical Institute
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Distance Protection
Popular, widely used on Sub-Transmission and Transmission Systems
Virtually independent of Fault Current Level (ZS/ZL ratios)
Fast Discriminative Protection:- Zone 1 or ‘Aided’ Distance Scheme
Time Delayed Remote Back-Up
Distance Protection - P 2
Advantages of Distance Protection
Measures Z, X or R correctly irrespective of System Conditions
Compare this with Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection:-
ZS = 10 
ZL = 4 
ZS = 10 
IF1 F1
115kV 50
IF1 = 115kV/3(5+4) = 7380A
 Is > 7380A
Consider with one source out of service:-
ZS = 10 
F2
IF2
50
IF2 = 115kV/3 x 10 = 6640A
 Is <6640A
>7380A - IMPRACTICAL
Simplified Line Diagram
L R L L L R
R R
C C C
X L = jωL XC = -j
ωC
at FN (50Hz) XC = large :-
L R
Basic Principle of Distance Protection
ZS ZL
Generation IR
Distance
21 VR
Relay
Impedance Seen By Measuring Element
jX
ZL
Relay
ZS PT.
IR ZL
Normal
VS VR ZLOAD
Load
VR
Impedance measured ZR   Z L  Z LOAD
R
ZL
ZS IR ZF
Ppp
− Ppp Fault
VS VR ZLOAD
• Ppp
Impedance Measured ZR = VR/IR = ZF

Relay Operates if ZF < Z where Z = setting
Increasing VR has a Restraining Effect VR called
Restraining Voltage
Increasing IR has an Operating Effect
Plain Impedance Characteristic
jX ZL Impedance Seen At Measuring

Location For Line Faults
TRIP STABLE
Impedance Characteristic Generation
zF jIX
IF
IZ V1
V2
VF V3
IR
Trip TRIP STABLE
Spring
Restrain Voltage to Relay = V

Operate
Current to Relay = I
Replica Impedance = Z
Ampere Turns : VF IZ
Trip Condition : S2 < S1
Trip Conditions : VF < IFZ
where : S1 = IZ  Z
S2 = V  ZF
I1/I2 ZP
IR
V1
21 VR VFP
V2
Relays are calibrated in secondary ohms :-
VFP x V2 /V 1 VFP 1/  2

Z R  VR/ R   x
FP x  2 / 1 FP V1/V 2
C.T. RATIO
ZR  Z P x
V.T. RATIO
Example
ZP = 4; V1/V2 = 115kV/115V; I1/I2 = 600/5A
C.T. RATIO
ZR = ZP x
V.T. RATIO
ZR(5) = 4 x (600/5) / (115x103/115) = 0.48 - 5A Relay
ZR(1) = 2.4  - 1A Relay
Input Quantities for - Faults
FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-B VA - VB IA - IB
B-C VB - VC IB - IC
C-A VC - VA IC - IA
VRESTRAINT & IOPERATE are selected inside the relay

No setting adjustments are required apart from
Z1 = Phase Replica Impedance
Input Quantities for - Faults (1)
E ZS1 ZL1
IR 1 I1 F1
v R1 N1
ZS2 IR 2 ZL2 I2 F2
v R2 N2
VR1 = E - I1ZS1 = 2I1{ZS1 + ZL1} - I1ZS1

= I1ZS1 + 2I1ZL1
VR2 = - I2ZS2 = I1ZS1
VRB = a2VR1 + aVR2 = a2{2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1} + aI1Zs1

VRC = aVR1 + a2VR2 = a{2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1} + a2I1ZS1
IRB = a2I1 – aI1 = (a2 – a)I1

IRC = aI1 – a2I1 = (a – a2)I1
Consider a B-C Fault
ZS1
ZS1 ZL1
ZL1
IR1 I1 VR1 = E - I1ZS1 = 2I1 {ZS1 + ZL1} - I1ZS1
F1
= I1ZS1 + 2I1ZL1
VR2 = -I2ZS2 = I1ZS1

E VR1
VRB = a2VR1 + aVR2 = a2{2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1}
+ aI1ZS1
N1
VRC = aVR1 + a2VR2 = a{2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1}
ZS2 IR2 ZL2 I2 + a2I1ZS1
F2 IRB = a2I1 - aI1 = (a2-a)I1

VR2
IRC = aI1 - a2I1 = (a-a2)I1
N2
Using VRB & IRB to Obtain ZRB
ZRB  

VRB a2 2I1 ZL1   a2  a I1 ZS1  
2a2
. ZL1 
a
2
a 
. ZS1
IRB 
a2  a I1  a 2
a  a
2
a 
2 . 1 240 ° 1180 ° 2 1
 . ZL1  . ZS1    30 ° . ZL1    90 ° . ZS1
3   90 ° 3   90 ° 3 3
ZS1 Is a Variable Factor
Relay Will Not Measure The Same Impedance Under All

Conditions If V/N And I Are Used
Correct Measurement for B-C Fault
by Using VB–VC & IB-IC
VB-VC = (a2-a) . (2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1) + (a-a2)I1ZS1
IB - IC = 2(a2 - a)I1
ZRB = (VB-VC)/ (IB - IC) = ZL1 + ZS1/2 - ZS1/2
= ZL1
 The relay can be calibrated in terms of the positive sequence

impedance of the protected line.
Distance relays are designed to use VBC & IBC and will automatically
take them from the connected 3 voltages and currents.
Input Quantities for Phase to Earth Faults
FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-E VA ? IA ?
B-E
C-E
Neutral Impedance Replica Vectorial Compensation
Replica impedance circuit :-
IRA Z1
IZN Z1 = Phase replica impedance
Z1 ZN = Neutral replica impedance
IRA passes through Z1
Z1
IRN passes through ZN
IRN ZN
N
ZT = Z1 + ZN
Neutral Impedance Compensation
For a single phase to ground fault the total earth loop impedance is given
by :- (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = ZT
ZT = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = Z1 + ZN
ZN = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= (2Z1 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= - Z1 + Z0
3 3
= KN Z 1
where KN = (Z0 - Z1)

3Z1
Neutral Impedance Vectorial Replica Compensation
Line CT’s
A
ZPH IAZPH
B
ZPH IBZPH
C
ZPH ICZPH
ZN IN Z N
Set Z PH = ZF1
Set Z N = (ZF0- Z F1 )
3
Usually  Z N =  Z PH for OHL’s
Neutral Impedance Replica Compensation
For cables Z0  Z1

 VECTORIAL COMPENSATION MUST BE USED
KN = Z0 - Z1 = KN N
3Z1
Neutral Impedance Replica Vectorial Compensation
Vectorial compensation allows for ZN  ZPH which is especially

important for cable distance protection where ZN < ZPH and
ZN is sometimes negative.
jX
ZPH
ZN
ZE ZE = Earth-loop impedance
for  - earth fault on a
R
cable
Characteristics
GRID
Technical Institute
Distance Characteristics
jX jX
jX jX
Zn
Zn Zn Zn
R R R R
MHO OFFSET
Zs Zn ′
IMPEDANCE MHO
CROSS-
POLARISED
MHO
jX
Zn Zn
Zn
R R R
LENTICULAR QUADRILATERAL POLYGON
Self Polarised Mho Relays
jX
Very popular characteristic
Simple RESTRAIN
Less sensitive to power swings Z
Inherently directional
OPERATE
Operates for F1, but not for F2
F1
Mho = 1/OHM 
R
Settings :-
Z = reach setting F2
 = characteristic angle
Offset Mho Characteristic
jX
Normally used as backup

protection
Operates for zero faults (close up

R faults)
-Z’
Generally time delayed (as not
discriminative)
Mho Relays
Directional circular characteristic obtained by introducing VPOLARISING
− VF  self polarised
− VSOUND PHASE  fully cross-polarised
− VF + xVS.F.  partially cross-polarised
− VPRE-FAULT  ‘memory’ polarised
Purpose for this is to ensure operation for close up faults where measured fault
voltage collapses
Quadrilateral Characteristic
jX
ZL
Z1 Load
RF
R
RS
Lenticular Load Avoidance Characteristic
jIX
Lenticular characteristic
created from two offset
Mho comparators
Aspect ratio = a/b

b
a
IR
Lenticular Characteristic
Aspect ratios a/b

X Z3
0.41
0.67
1.00
a
b
Load impedance
area
R
Z3 reverse
Forward Offset Characteristic
Z3
X
Rf
Z2
Forward blinder
Z1
Load area
Enhanced resistive coverage for remote faults

Zones of Protection
GRID
Technical Institute
Zones of Protection
Time
Z3A Z3C
T3
Z2A Z2C
T2
Z1A Z1C
A Z1B B C D
T2
Z2B
Z1A = 80% of ZAB (inst.)
Z2A = 120% of ZAB (~300ms)
Z3A(FORWARD) = 120% of {ZAB + ZCD} (~600ms)
Z3A(REVERSE) = 10-25% of ZAB
Zones of Protection
jX
D Z3A
C Z2A
B
Z1A
A
R
Zone 1
FAST OPERATION
Trips circuit breaker without delay as soon as
fault within Zone 1 reach is detected.
REACH SETTING
Cannot be set to 100% of protected line or may
overreach into next section.
Overreach caused by possible errors in :-
CTs
VTs
ZLINE information
Relay Measurement
Zone 1
Possible
Overreach
ZONE 1 = ZL
ZL
F
Possible incorrect tripping for fault at ‘F’
 Zone 1 set to  0.8ZL
ZONE 1 = 0.8ZL
ZL
Zone 1 Settings for Teed Feeders
Z1C = 0.8ZAC
A
Z1A = 0.8ZAB
Z1B = 0.8ZBA
Z1C
Z1A
Z1B
Zone 1 Settings for Direct Intertrip Schemes
Z1A
A ZL
Z1B B
Z1A
Send Receive
Trip ‘B’
Z1B
Receive Send
Zone 1 Settings for Direct Intertrip Schemes
Effective Zone 1 reaches at A and B must overlap.

Otherwise :- No trip for fault at ‘F’
Z1A
A
Z1B B
F
 Effective Z1A and Z1B must be > 0.5ZL
Settings for Zone 1 > 0.8ZL are o.k.
Minimum Zone 1 Reach Setting
Dictated by :-
Minimum relay voltage for fault at Zone 1

reach point to ensure accurate measurement.
Minimum voltage depends on relay design typically 1  3 volts.
System Impedance Ratio :- SIR
SIR = ZS/Zn
where :- ZS = Source impedance behind relay

Zn = Reach setting
VRPA = Minimum voltage for reach point accuracy
Can be expressed in terms of an equivalent value

of SIRMAX
SIRMAX = ZS MAX
Zn MIN
 Zn MIN  ZS MAX
SIRMAX
Zone 2
Covers last 20% of line not covered by Zone 1.

Provides back-up protection for remote busbars.
Z2G
TIME
Z1G Z1H
G H
F
To allow for errors :-
Z2G > 1.2 ZGH
Zone 2 is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 1 on next section for

faults in first 20% of next section.
Zone 2
Zone 2 on adjacent line sections are not normally time graded

with each other
Z2G Z2H
Z1G Z1H
‘G’ ‘H’
F
Overlap only occurs for faults in first 20% of following line.

Faults at ‘F’ should result in operation of Z1H and tripping of circuit breaker ‘H’.
If ‘H’ fails to trip possible causes are :-
Z1H operates but trip relays fail.
Z2H may operate but will not trip if followed by the same trip relays.
Z1H and trip relays operate but circuit breaker fails to trip.
Fault must be cleared at ‘G’ by Z2G.

Zone 2
No advantage in time grading Z2G with Z2H


Unless Z2H + trip relays energise a 2nd circuit breaker trip coil.
Zone 2
 Z1H fails to operate.


Results in race between breakers ‘G’ and ‘H’ if Z2H and Z2G
have the same time setting.

Can only be overcome by time grading Z2G with Z2H.
Z2G
Z2H
Z1G Z1H
‘G’ ‘H’
Problem with this :-
Zone 2 time delays near source on systems with several line
sections will be large.
End zone faults on lines nearest the infeed source point will be
cleared very slowly.
Maximum Allowable Zone 2 Reach to Allow for
Equal Zone 2 Time Settings
Z2A (EFF) MAX
Z1B (EFF) MIN
ZL 1 ZL2
A B
Z2A must not reach beyond Z1B
i.e. Z2A(EFF) MAX must not reach further than Z1B(EFF) MIN
Z1BSETTING = 0.8ZL2
Z1B(EFF) MIN = 0.8 x 0.8ZL2 = 0.64ZL2
 Z2A(EFF) MAX < ZL1 + 0.64ZL2
 1.2 Z2ASETTING < ZL1 + 0.64ZL2
Z2ASETTING < 0.83ZL1 + 0.53ZL2

Zone 2 Time Settings on Long Line Followed by Several
Short Lines
Z2G
Z3H
Z3J
Z2H
Z2J
Z1G Z1H Z1J
‘G’ ‘H’ ‘J’

F
Z2G reaches into 3rd line section.
To limit remote back-up clearance for a fault at ‘F’, the time setting of
Z2G must discriminate with Z3H.
Zone 3
Provides back-up for next adjacent line.

Provides back-up protection for busbars (reverse offset).
Actual Zone 3 settings will be scheme specified, i.e. permissive or blocking
schemes.
Many modern relays have more than 3 Zones to allow the use of three forward
and an independent reverse zone.
Z3G
REV Z3G FWD
Z2G
Time Z1G Z1H
G H K
Typical settings : Z3FWD > 1.2 x (ZGH + ZHK)
Z3REV 0.1 to 0.25 of Z1G
Zone Time Coordination - Ideal Situation
Zone 1 :- tZ1 = instantaneous (typically 15 - 35mS)
Zone 2 :- tZ2 = tZ1(down) + CB(down) + Z2(reset) + Margin

e.g. tZ2 = 35 + 100 + 40 + 100 = 275mS
Zone 3 :- tZ3 = tZ2(down) + CB(down) + Z3(reset) + Margin

e.g. tZ3 = 275 + 100 + 40 + 100 = 515mS
Note: Where upper and lower zones overlap, e.g. Zone 2 up sees
beyond Zone 1 down, the upper and lower zone time delays
will need to be coordinated, e.g. tZ2(up) to exceed tZ2(down).
Under / Overreach
GRID
Technical Institute
Under-Reach
Impedance presented > apparent impedance
%age Underreach = ZR - ZF x 100%

ZR
where ZR = Reach setting

ZF = Effective reach
Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between Relay
and Fault
ZA ZB
IA IA+IB
IB
Relay Location
VR = IAZA + (IA + IB) ZB
IR = IA
ZR = ZA + ZB + IB . ZB
IA
Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between Relay
and Fault
 Relay with setting ZA + ZB will underreach with

infeed.
Relay with setting ZA + ZB + IB . ZB will measure

IA
correctly with infeed present but if infeed is removed the relay
will overreach.
Maximum allowable setting dictated by load impedance
Under-Reach
IP
IG+IP ZK
F
ZG IG
RELAY
What relay reach setting is required to ensure fault at F is at

boundary of operation ?
Impedance seen for fault at F
= ZG + IG + IP . ZK
IG
Limit of operation is when Impedance Seen = Reach Setting
 Reach setting required
= ZG + IG + IP . ZK
IG
Over-Reach
Impedance seen < apparent impedance
%age Overreach = ZF - ZR x 100%

ZR
where ZR = Reach setting

ZF = Effective reach
Mutual Coupling
GRID
Technical Institute
Mutual Coupling
Mutual coupling causes distance relays to either underreach or

overreach.
Positive and negative sequence has no impact.
Zero sequence mutual coupling can have a significant influence on
the relay.
Only affects ground fault distance.
Mutual Coupling Example Under Reach
Z2 ‘Boost’ G/F
Z2 PH
Zmo
Mutual Coupling Example Over Reach
Z2 ‘reduced’ G/F
Z2 PH
Mutual Coupling Example Over Reach
Z1 G/F (optional)
Z1 G/F (normal)
Zmo
Ancilliary Functions
GRID
Technical Institute
Switch on to Fault (SOTF)
X
X
X
Fast tripping for faults on line energisation, even where line

VTs provide no prefault voltage memory
Voltage Transformer Supervision
A VT fault and subsequent operation of VT fuses or MCB’s results in

misrepresentation of primary voltages
Relay will remain stable as the current phase selector will not pick up
Subsequent system fault may cause unwanted / incorrect tripping
VTS operating from presence of V0 with no I0 or V2 with no I2 is used to block
relay if required
VT Supervision
Under load conditions

− Loss of 1 or 2 phase voltages
− Loss of all 3 phase voltages
Upon line energisation

− Loss of 1 or 2 phase voltages
− Loss of all 3 phase voltages
Digital input to monitor MCB
Set to block voltage dependent functions
Zone 1 Mho Relay
K Will not operate for load or stable

ZSH power swing
H Ø1, Ø2, Ø3, = Angles between
system voltages at ‘K’ and ‘L’
Z1 Ø increases as power swing
Ø3 J Ø2 L approaches relay at G
O
G Ø1 ‘J’ is point where power swing
A enters relay characteristic
ZSG D
At ‘J’ the angle between voltages
at ‘G’ & ‘H’ is 90°
Power Swing Locus
L Normal limit of angle between
voltages at ‘G’ & ‘H’ for load
is of the order of 30°
Comparison between Stability of Mho and Quadrilateral
Impedance Elements during a Power Swing
jX
Power
Swing
Locus
Illustration of Basic Power Swing Blocking
System
jX
Power Swing
Locus
ZP
Z3
Power Swing Blocking
A power swing will result in continuous change of current
Continuous output from the relay superimposed current element can be used to
block for a power swing
Using this method the relay is able to operate for faults occurring during a
power swing
Directional Earth Fault Protection (DEF)
High resistance ground faults
Instantaneous or time delayed
IEC and IEEE curves
Single or shared signalling channel
Transformer Feeders
GRID
Technical Institute
Transformer Feeders
ZT
ZL
21
Zone 1 = ZL + 0.5ZT
T1 = Instantaneous
Zone 2 = 1.2 (ZL +ZT)
T2 = Co-ordinate with downstream protection
Zone 3
- Back-up use as appropriate
T3
Low Voltage VT, High Voltage CT
ZT
ZL
21
* 1 VT may be required to account for phase shift.

Example 1
ZT = 10 , ZL = 1
Set relay Z1 = 0.8 x (ZT + ZL) = 8.8
 Z1 does not reach through transformer.

Example 2
ZT = 10 , ZL = 1
Z1 = ZT + 0.8ZL = 10.8
with 20% error = 12.96 - overreach problem
GRID
Technical Institute

Distance Principles - Basic Principle

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Distance Protection

Popular, widely used on Sub-Transmission and Transmission Systems

Virtually independent of Fault Current Level (ZS/ZL ratios)

Fast Discriminative Protection:- Zone 1 or ‘Aided’ Distance Scheme

Time Delayed Remote Back-Up

Measures Z, X or R correctly irrespective of System Conditions

Compare this with Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection:-

IF1 = 115kV/3(5+4) = 7380A

Consider with one source out of service:-

IF2 = 115kV/3 x 10 = 6640A

Impedance Measured ZR = VR/IR = ZF

jX ZL Impedance Seen At Measuring

Restrain Voltage to Relay = V

Relays are calibrated in secondary ohms :-

VFP x V2 /V 1 VFP 1/  2

ZP = 4; V1/V2 = 115kV/115V; I1/I2 = 600/5A

ZR(5) = 4 x (600/5) / (115x103/115) = 0.48 - 5A Relay

ZR(1) = 2.4  - 1A Relay

FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

VRESTRAINT & IOPERATE are selected inside the relay

VR1 = E - I1ZS1 = 2I1{ZS1 + ZL1} - I1ZS1

VRB = a2VR1 + aVR2 = a2{2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1} + aI1Zs1

IRB = a2I1 – aI1 = (a2 – a)I1

VR2 = -I2ZS2 = I1ZS1

F2 IRB = a2I1 - aI1 = (a2-a)I1

ZS1 Is a Variable Factor

Relay Will Not Measure The Same Impedance Under All

VB-VC = (a2-a) . (2I1ZL1 + I1ZS1) + (a-a2)I1ZS1

ZRB = (VB-VC)/ (IB - IC) = ZL1 + ZS1/2 - ZS1/2

 The relay can be calibrated in terms of the positive sequence

FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

Replica impedance circuit :-

where KN = (Z0 - Z1)

For cables Z0  Z1

Vectorial compensation allows for ZN  ZPH which is especially

Less sensitive to power swings Z

Normally used as backup

Operates for zero faults (close up

Directional circular characteristic obtained by introducing VPOLARISING

Aspect ratio = a/b

Aspect ratios a/b

Enhanced resistive coverage for remote faults

 Zone 1 set to  0.8ZL

Effective Zone 1 reaches at A and B must overlap.

 Effective Z1A and Z1B must be > 0.5ZL

Settings for Zone 1 > 0.8ZL are o.k.

Minimum relay voltage for fault at Zone 1

Minimum voltage depends on relay design typically 1  3 volts.

where :- ZS = Source impedance behind relay

VRPA = Minimum voltage for reach point accuracy

Can be expressed in terms of an equivalent value

Covers last 20% of line not covered by Zone 1.

Zone 2 is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 1 on next section for

Zone 2 on adjacent line sections are not normally time graded

Overlap only occurs for faults in first 20% of following line.

Fault must be cleared at ‘G’ by Z2G.

No advantage in time grading Z2G with Z2H

 Z1H fails to operate.