AREVA - Fault Analysis

Fault Analysis
Alan Wixon
Senior Applications Engineer
> Fault Analysis January 2004 3 3
Power System Fault Analysis (1)
TO :-
Calculate Power System Currents and Voltages during Fault
Conditions
Check that Breaking Capacity of Switchgear is Not
Exceeded
Determine the Quantities which can be used by Relays to
Distinguish Between Healthy (i.e. Loaded) and Fault
Conditions
Appreciate the Effect of the Method of Earthing on the
Detection of Earth Faults
Select the Best Relay Characteristics for Fault Detection
Ensure that Load and Short Circuit Ratings of Plant are Not
Exceeded
Select Relay Settings for Fault Detection and Discrimination
Understand Principles of Relay Operation
Conduct Post Fault Analysis
All Protection Engineers should have an understanding
Power System Fault Analysis (2)
Consider Stability Conditions
Required fault clearance times
Need for 1 phase or 3 phase auto-reclose
Power System Fault Analysis also used to :-
Computer Fault Calculation Programmes
Widely available, particularly in large power utilities
Powerful for large power systems
Sometimes overcomplex for simple circuits
Not always user friendly
Sometimes operated by other departments and not
directly available to protection engineers
Programme calculation methods:- understanding is
important
Need for by hand spot checks of calculations
Pocket Calculator Methods
Adequate for the majority of simple applications

Useful when no access is available to computers and
programmes e.g. on site

Useful for spot checks on computer results
Vectors
Vector notation can be used to represent phase
relationship between electrical quantities.
V
Z
I
u
V = Vsinwt = V Z0
I = I Z-u = Isin(wt-u)
j Operator
Rotates vectors by 90 anticlockwise :
Used to express vectors in terms of real and
imaginary parts.
1
90 90
90 90
j = 1 Z90
j
2
= 1 Z180
= -1
j
3
= 1 Z270
= -j
a = 1 Z120
Rotates vectors by 120 anticlockwise
Used extensively in Symmetrical Component Analysis
120
120 1
120
2
3
j
2
1
- 120 1 a + = Z =
2
3
j
2
1
240 1 a
2
= Z =
a = 1 Z120
Balanced 3 voltages :-
V
A

V
C
= aV
A

a
2
+ a + 1 = 0
V
B
= a
2
V
A

Balanced Faults
Balanced (3) Faults (1)
RARE :- Majority of Faults are Unbalanced
CAUSES :-
1. System Energisation with Maintenance Earthing
Clamps still connected.
2. 1 Faults developing into 3 Faults
3 FAULTS MAY BE REPRESENTED BY 1 CIRCUIT
Valid because system is maintained in a BALANCED state
during the fault
Voltages equal and 120 apart
Currents equal and 120 apart
Power System Plant Symmetrical
Phase Impedances Equal
Mutual Impedances Equal
Shunt Admittances Equal
LINE X
LOADS
LINE Y
3 FAULT
Z
LOAD

Z
LY

I
bF

I
cF

I
aF
Z
LX
Z
T
Z
G

E
c

E
a

E
b

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER
Positive Sequence (Single Phase) Circuit :-
E
a

E
c

E
a

F
1

N
1

E
b

I
bF

I
a1
= I
aF

I
cF

I
aF

Z
T1
Z
LX1
Z
LX2
Z
G1

Z
LOAD

Representation of Plant
Generator Short Circuit Current
The AC Symmetrical component of the short circuit current varies with time
due to effect of armature reaction.

Magnitude (RMS) of current at any time t after instant of short circuit :

where :
I" = Initial Symmetrical S/C Current or Subtransient Current
= E/Xd" ~ 50ms
I' = Symmetrical Current a Few Cycles Later ~ 0.5s or
Transient Current = E/Xd'
I = Symmetrical Steady State Current = E/Xd
)e - ' ( )e ' - " (
t/Td' - t/Td" -
ac
+ + =
i
TIME
Simple Generator Models
Generator model X will vary with time. Xd" - Xd' - Xd
X
E
Parallel Generators
11kV
20MVA
X
G
=0.2pu
11kV 11kV
j0.05 j0.1
X
G
=0.2pu
20MVA
If both generator EMFs are equal they can be thought of as
resulting from the same ideal source - thus the circuit can be
simplified.
P.U. Diagram
I
F

j0.05
j0.1
j0.2
1.0
1.0
j0.2
I
F

j0.05 j0.1
j0.2 j0.2
1.0

Positive Sequence Impedances of Transformers
2 Winding Transformers
Z
P
= Primary Leakage Reactance
Z
S
= Secondary Leakage
Reactance
Z
M
= Magnetising impedance
= Large compared with Z
P

and Z
S

Z
M
Infinity Represented by
an Open Circuit
Z
T1
= Z
P
+ Z
S
= Positive
Sequence Impedance
Z
P
and Z
S

both expressed
on same voltage
base.
S
1

P
1

P S
P
1

S
1

Z
P
Z
S

Z
M

N
1

N
1

Z
T1
= Z
P
+ Z
S

Motors
X
d
"
M 1.0
Fault current contribution decays with time
Decay rate of the current depends on the system.
From tests, typical decay rate is 100 - 150mS.
Typically modelled as a voltage behind an
impedance

Induction Motors IEEE Recommendations
Small Motors
Motor load <35kW neglect
Motor load >35kW SC
M
= 4 x sum of FLC
M

Large Motors
SC
M
~ motor full load amps
Xd"

Approximation : SC
M
= locked rotor amps
SC
M
= 5 x FLC
M
~ assumes motor
impedance 20%
Synchronous Motors IEEE Recommendations
Large Synchronous Motors
SC
M
~ 6.7 x FLC
M
for Assumes X"d = 15%
1200 rpm

~ 5 x FLC
M
514 - 900 rpm

~ 3.6 x FLC
M
450 rpm or less

Analysis of Balanced Faults
Different Voltages How Do We Analyse?
11kV
20MVA
Z
G
=0.3pu
11/132kV
50MVA
Z
T
=10%
Z
L
=40O
O/H Line
132/33kV
50MVA
Z
T
=10%
Z
L
=8O
Feeder
Referring Impedances
Consider the equivalent CCT referred to :-
Primary Secondary
R
1

X
1

N : 1

Ideal
Transformer
R
2

X
2

R
1
+ N
2
R
2

X
1
+ N
2
X
2

R
1
/N
2
+ R
2

X
1
/N
2
+ X
2

Per Unit System
Used to simplify calculations on systems with more
than 2 voltages.

Definition

: P.U. Value = Actual Value
of a Quantity Base Value in the Same Units
Base Quantities and Per Unit Values
Particularly useful when analysing large systems with
several voltage levels
All system parameters referred to common base quantities
Base quantities fixed in one part of system
Base quantities at other parts at different voltage levels
depend on ratio of intervening transformers
11 kV
20 MVA
O/H LINE
11/132 kV
50 MVA
Z
T
= 10%
Z
T
= 10%
132/33 kV
50 MVA
FEEDER
Z
L
= 8O
Z
L
= 40O
Z
G
= 0.3 p.u.
Base Quantities and Per Unit Values (1)
Base quantites normally used :-
BASE MVA = MVA
b
= 3C MVA
Constant at all voltage levels
Value ~ MVA rating of largest item
of plant or 100MVA
BASE VOLTAGE = KV
b
= C/C voltage in kV
Fixed in one part of system
This value is referred through
transformers to obtain base
voltages on other parts of system.
Base voltages on each side of
transformer are in same ratio as
voltage ratio.

Other base quantites :-
kA in
kV . 3
MVA
Current Base
Ohms in
MVA
) (kV
Z Impedance Base
b
b
b
b
2
b
b
= =
= =

Per Unit Values = Actual Value
Base Value
Current Unit Per
) (kV
MVA
. Z
Z
Z
Z Impedance Unit Per
KV
KV
kV Voltage Unit Per

MVA
MVA
MVA MVA Unit Per
b
a
p.u.
2
b
b
a
b
a
p.u.
b
a
p.u.
b
a
p.u.
= =
= = =
= =
= =
Transformer Percentage Impedance
If Z
T
= 5%
with Secondary S/C
5% V
(RATED)
produces I
(RATED)
in Secondary.
V
(RATED)
produces 100 x I
(RATED)
5
= 20 x I
(RATED)
If Source Impedance Z
S
= 0
Fault current = 20 x I
(RATED)

Fault Power = 20 x kVA
(RATED)

Z
T
is based on I
(RATED)
& V
(RATED)

i.e. Based on MVA
(RATED)
& kV
(RATED)

is same value viewed from either side of transformer.

Example (1)
Per unit impedance of transformer is same on each side of
the transformer.

Consider transformer of ratio kV1 / kV2

Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 1 = Z
a1

Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 2 = Z
a2

MVA
1
2
kV
b
/ kV
1
kV
b
/ kV
2

Example (2)
Base voltage on each side of a transformer must be in the
same ratio as voltage ratio of transformer.

Incorrect selection
of kVb 11.8kV 132kV 11kV

Correct selection 132x11.8 132kV 11kV
of kVb 141
= 11.05kV

Alternative correct 11.8kV 141kV 141x11 = 11.75kV
selection of kVb 132
11.8kV
11.8/141kV 132/11kV
OHL
Distribution
System
Example
kV
b
MVA
b
132
50
349
O
219 A
33
50
21.8 O
874 A
Z
V
11
50
2625 A
2.42O
11 kV
20 MVA
132/33 kV
50 MVA
10%
40O
11/132 kV
50 MVA
10%
8O
3C
FAULT
0.3
p.u.

Z
b
=
2
MVA
b
kV
b
I
b
= MVA
b
\3kV
b
p.u.
0.3 x 50
20
= 0.75
p.u.

0.1
p.u.

40
349
= 0.115
p.u.

0.1
p.u.

8
21.8
= 0.367
p.u.

1
p.u.

1.432
p.u.

I
F
= 1 = 0.698p.u.
1.432
I
11
kV = 0.698 x I
b
=
0.698 x 2625 = 1833A
I
132
kV = 0.698 x 219 = 153A
I
33
kV = 0.698 x 874 = 610A
Fault Types
Line - Ground (65 - 70%)

Line - Line - Ground (10 - 20%)

Line - Line (10 - 15%)

Line - Line - Line (5%)

Statistics published in 1967 CEGB Report, but are
similar today all over the world.
Unbalanced Faults
Unbalanced Faults (1)
In three phase fault calculations, a single
phase representation is adopted.
3 phase faults are rare.
Majority of faults are unbalanced faults.
UNBALANCED FAULTS may be classified into
SHUNT FAULTS and SERIES FAULTS.
SHUNT FAULTS:
Line to Ground
Line to Line
Line to Line to Ground
SERIES FAULTS:
Single Phase Open Circuit
Double Phase Open Circuit
LINE TO GROUND

LINE TO LINE

LINE TO LINE TO GROUND

Causes :

1) Insulation Breakdown
2) Lightning Discharges and other Overvoltages
3) Mechanical Damage
OPEN CIRCUIT OR SERIES FAULTS

Causes :

1) Broken Conductor
2) Operation of Fuses
3) Maloperation of Single Phase Circuit Breakers

DURING UNBALANCED FAULTS, SYMMETRY OF SYSTEM
IS LOST

SINGLE PHASE REPRESENTATION IS NO LONGER VALID
Analysed using :-

Symmetrical Components
Equivalent Sequence Networks of Power
System
Connection of Sequence Networks
appropriate to Type of Fault
Fortescue discovered a property of unbalanced phasors
n phasors may be resolved into :-
(n-1) sets of balanced n-phase systems of phasors, each
set having a different phase sequence
plus
1 set of zero phase sequence or unidirectional phasors

V
A
= V
A1
+ V
A2
+ V
A3
+ V
A4
- - - - - V
A(n-1)
+ V
An

V
B
= V
B1
+ V
B2
+ V
B3
+ V
B4
- - - - - V
B(n-1)
+ V
Bn

V
C
= V
C1
+ V
C2
+ V
C3
+ V
C4
- - - - - V
C(n-1)
+ V
Cn

V
D
= V
D1
+ V
D2
+ V
D3
+ V
D4
- - - - - V
D(n-1)
+ V
Dn

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
V
n
= V
n1
+ V
n2
+ V
n3
+ V
n4
- - - - - V
n(n-1)
+ V
nn

(n-1) x Balanced 1 x Zero
Sequence
Unbalanced 3-Phase System
V
A
= V
A1
+ V
A2
+ V
A0

V
B
= V
B1
+ V
B2
+ V
B0

V
C
= V
C1
+ V
C2
+ V
C0

Positive Sequence Negative Sequence
V
A1

V
C1

120
V
B1

V
A2

V
B2

V
C2

240
Unbalanced 3-Phase System
Zero Sequence
V
A0

V
B0

V
C0

V
A
V
A1 +
V
A2
+ V
A0
V
B
V
B1 +
V
B2
+ V
B0
V
C
V
C1 +
V
C2
+ V
C0

V
A

V
B

V
C

+
+
V
B1

V
C1

V
A1

V
B2

V
C2

V
C0

V
B0
V
A0

V
A2

V
B1
=

a
2
V
A1
V
B2
=

a V
A2
V
B0
=

V
A0
V
C1
=

a V
A1
V
C2
=

a
2
V
A2
V
C0
=

V
A0
=
=
=
Phase Positive + Negative + Zero
Converting from Sequence Components to
Phase Values
V
A0

V
C1

V
C

V
A2

V
A1

V
A

V
C0

V
C2

V
B2

V
B0

V
B1

V
B

V
A
= V
A1
+ V
A2
+ V
A0
V
B
= V
B1
+ V
B2
+ V
B0
= a
2
V
A1
+ a V
A2
+ V
A0
V
C
= V
C1
+ V
C2
+ V
C0
= a V
A1
+ a
2
V
A2
+ V
A0
V
A1
= 1/3 {V
A
+ a V
B
+ a
2
V
C
}
V
A2
= 1/3 {V
A
+ a
2
V
B
+ a V
C
}
V
A0
= 1/3 {V
A
+ V
B
+ V
C
}
Converting from Phase Values to
Sequence Components
V
C

3V
A0

V
B

V
A0

V
A

Summary
V
A
= V
A1
+ V
A2
+ V
A0
V
B
=
2
V
A1
+ V
A2
+ V
A0
V
C
= V
A1
+
2
V
A2
+ V
A0

I
A
= I
A1
+ I
A2
+ I
A0
I
B
=
2
I
A1
+
A2
+ I
A0
I
C
= I
A1
+
2
I
A2
+ I
A0

V
A1
= 1/3 {V
A
+ V
B
+
2
V
C
}
V
A2
= 1/3 {V
A
+
2
V
B
+ V
C
}
V
A0
= 1/3 {V
A
+ V
B
+ V
C
}

I
A1
= 1/3 {I
A
+ I
B
+
2
I
C
}
I
A2
= 1/3 {I
A
+
2
I
B
+

I
C
}
I
A0
+ 1/3 {I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
}

Residual Current
I
A

I
RESIDUAL
= I
A
+

I
B
+

I
C
= 3I
0

I
B

I
C

E/F
Used to detect earth faults

I
RESIDUAL
is Balanced Load I
RESIDUAL
is C/E Faults
zero for :- 3C Faults present for :- C//E Faults
/C Faults Open circuits (with
current in remaining phases)

Residual Voltage
Residual voltage is measured
from Open Delta or Broken
Delta VT secondary windings.
V
RESIDUAL
is zero for:-
Healthy unfaulted systems
3C Faults
C/C Faults
V
RESIDUAL
is present for:-
C/E Faults
C/C/E Faults
Open Circuits (on supply
side of VT)
V
RESIDUAL
=
V
A
+

V
B
+ V
C
= 3V
0

Used to detect earth faults

Example
Evaluate the positive, negative and zero sequence
components for the unbalanced phase vectors :

V
A
= 1 Z0
V
B
= 1.5 Z-90
V
C
= 0.5 Z120

V
C

V
A

V
B

Solution
V
A1
= 1/3 (V
A
+ aV
B
+ a
2
V
C
)
= 1/3 | 1 + (1 Z120) (1.5 Z-90)
+ (1 Z240) (0.5 Z120) |
= 0.965 Z15

V
A2
= 1/3 (V
A
+ a
2
V
B
+ aV
C
)
= 1/3 | 1 + (1 Z240) (1.5 Z-90)
+ (1 Z120) (0.5 Z120) |
= 0.211 Z150

V
A0
= 1/3 (V
A
+ V
B
+ V
C
)
= 1/3 (1 + 1.5 Z-90 + 0.5 Z120)
= 0.434 Z-55

Positive Sequence Voltages
V
A1
= 0.965Z15
V
C1
= aV
A1

V
B1
= a
2
V
A1

15
Zero Sequence
Voltages
Negative Sequence
Voltages
V
A2
= 0.211Z150
V
B2
= aV
A2

150
V
C2
= a
2
V
A2

-55
V
A0
= 0.434Z-55
V
B0
= -
V
C0
= -
V
C1

V
A1

V
B1

V
C2

V
A2

V
B2

V
C0

V
A0

V
B0

V
A2

V
C2

V
B2

V
C

V
A

V
0

V
B

Example
Evaluate the phase quantities I
a
, I
b
and I
c
from the sequence
components
I
A1
= 0.6 Z0
I
A2
= -0.4 Z0
I
A0
= -0.2 Z0

Solution
I
A
= I
A1
+ I
A2
+ I
A0
= 0
I
B
=
2
I
A1
+ I
A2
+ I
A0

= 0.6Z240 - 0.4Z120 - 0.2Z0 = 0.91Z-109
I
C
= I
A1
+
2
I
A2
+ I
A0

= 0.6Z120 - 0.4Z240 - 0.2Z0 = 0.91Z-109
Representation of Plant
Cont
Transformer Zero Sequence Impedance
P Q
P
Q
a
a
Z
T0

b b
N
0

General Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit for
Two Winding Transformer
On appropriate side of transformer :

Earthed Star Winding -
Close link a
Open link b

Delta Winding - Open link a
Close link b

Unearthed Star Winding -
Both links open
Secondary
Terminal 'a'
'a'
Primary
Terminal
'b' 'b'
N
0
Z
T0
Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuits (1)
S
0

Z
T0

N
0

P
0

P S
a
a
b b
S
0

Z
T0

N
0

P
0

P S
a
a
b b
S
0

Z
T0

N
0

P
0

P S
a
a
b b
S
0

Z
T0

N
0

P
0

P S
a
a
b b
3 Winding Transformers
Z
P
, Z
S
, Z
T
= Leakage reactances of Primary,
Secondary and Tertiary Windings
Z
M
= Magnetising Impedance = Large
Ignored

T
S P
S
N
1

Z
M

Z
T

Z
S
Z
P

P
T
S
N
1

Z
T

Z
S
Z
P

P
T
Z
P-S
= Z
P
+ Z
S
= Impedance between Primary (P)
and Secondary (S) where Z
P
& Z
S

are both expressed on same
voltage base
Similarly Z
P-T
= Z
P
+ Z
T
and Z
S-T
= Z
S
+ Z
T
Auto Transformers
Z
HL1
= Z
H1
+ Z
L1
(both referred to same voltage base)
Z
HT1
= Z
H1
+ Z
T1
Z
LT1
= Z
L1
+ Z
T1
H L
T
L
N
1

Z
M1

Z
T1

Z
L
1

Z
H1

H
T
L
N
1

Z
T1

Z
L1
Z
H1

H
T
Equivalent circuit is similar to that of a 3
winding transformer.
Z
M
= Magnetising Impedance =
Large Ignored
Sequence Networks
Sequence Networks (1)
It can be shown that providing the system
impedances are balanced from the points of
generation right up to the fault, each
sequence current causes voltage drop of its
own sequence only.

Regard each current flowing within own
network thro impedances of its own
sequence only, with no interconnection
between the sequence networks right up to
the point of fault.

+ve, -ve and zero sequence networks are drawn for a
reference phase. This is usually taken as the A
phase.

Faults are selected to be balanced relative to the
reference A phase.
e.g. For /E faults consider an A-E fault
For / faults consider a B-C fault

Sequence network interconnection is the simplest for
the reference phase.
Sequence Networks (2)
Positive Sequence Diagram
1. Start with neutral point N
1

- All generator and load neutrals are
connected to N
1
2. Include all source EMFs
- Phase-neutral voltage
3. Impedance network
- Positive sequence impedance per phase
4. Diagram finishes at fault point F
1
N
1

F
1

E
1

Z
1

Example
V
1
= Positive sequence PH-N voltage at fault point
I
1
= Positive sequence phase current flowing into F
1

V
1
= E
1
- I
1
(Z
G1
+ Z
T1
+ Z
L1
)
Generator
Transformer
Line
F
N
R
E
N
1

E
1

Z
G1
Z
T1
Z
L1

I
1
F
1

V
1

(N
1
)
Negative Sequence Diagram
1. Start with neutral point N
2

- All generator and load neutrals are connected
to N
2
2. No EMFs included
- No negative sequence voltage is generated!
3. Impedance network
- Negative sequence impedance per phase
4. Diagram finishes at fault point F
2
N
2

Z
2

F
2

Example
V
2
= Negative sequence PH-N voltage at fault point
I
2
= Negative sequence phase current flowing into F
2

V
2
= -I
2
(Z
G2
+ Z
T2
+ Z
L2
)
Generator
Transformer
System Single Line
Diagram
Negative Sequence Diagram
Line
F
N
R
E
N
2

Z
G2
Z
T2
Z
L2

I
2
F
2

V
2

(N
2
)
Zero Sequence Diagram (1)
For In Phase (Zero Phase Sequence) currents to flow in
each phase of the system, there must be a fourth
connection (this is typically the neutral or earth
connection).
I
A0
+

I
B0
+

I
C0
=

3I
A0

I
A0

N
I
B0

I
C0

Zero sequence voltage between N & E given by
V
0
= 3I
A0
.R
Zero sequence impedance of neutral to earth path
Z
0
= V
0
= 3R
I
A0
3I
A0

N
E
R
Resistance Earthed System :-
(N
0
)
E
0

Generator
Transformer
System Single Line Diagram
Zero Sequence Network
F
N
R
E
N
0

Z
G0
Z
T0
Z
L0

I
0
F
0

V
0

Line
R
T

3
R

3R
T

V
0
= Zero sequence PH-E voltage at fault point
I
0
= Zero sequence current flowing into F
0

V
0
= -I
0
(Z
T0
+ Z
L0
)
Network Connections
Interconnection of Sequence Networks (1)
Consider sequence networks as blocks with fault
terminals F & N for external connections.

F
1

POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
N
1

F
2

NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
N
2

F
0

ZERO
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
N
0

I
2

V
2

I
0

V
0

Interconnection of Sequence Networks (2)
For any given fault there are 6 quantities to be considered at the fault
point
i.e. V
A
V
B
V
C
I
A
I
B
I
C

Relationships between these for any type of fault can be converted
into an equivalent relationship between sequence components
V
1
, V
2
, V
0
and I
1
,

I
2
,

I
0

This is possible if :-
1) Any 3 phase quantities are known (provided they are not all
voltages or all currents)
or 2) 2 are known and 2 others are known to have a specific
relationship.

From the relationship between sequence Vs and Is, the manner in
which the isolation sequence networks are connected can be
determined.

The connection of the sequence networks provides a single phase
representation (in sequence terms) of the fault.
I
A

V
A

I
B
I
C

V
B

V
C

F
To derive the system constraints at the fault terminals :-
Terminals are connected to represent the fault.

Line to Ground Fault on Phase A
At fault point :-

V
A
= 0
V
B
= ?
V
C
= ?

I
A
= ?
I
B
= 0
I
C
= 0

I
A

V
A

I
B
I
C

V
B

V
C

Phase to Earth Fault on Phase A
At fault point
V
A
= 0

;

I
B
= 0 ; I
C
= 0
but V
A
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
0

V
1
+ V
2
+ V
0
= 0

------------------------- (1)
I
0
= 1/3 (I
A
+

I
B
+ I
C
) = 1/3 I
A
I
1
= 1/3 (I
A
+

aI
B
+

a
2
I
C
) = 1/3 I
A
I
2
= 1/3 (I
A
+

a
2
I
B
+

aI
C
) = 1/3 I
A
I
1
= I
2
=

I
0
= 1/3 I
A
------------------------- (2)
To comply with (1) & (2) the sequence networks must be connected in series :-
I
1

F
1

N
1

V
1

+ve
Seq
N/W
I
2

F
2

N
2

V
2

-ve
Seq
N/W
I
0

F
0

N
0

V
0

Zero
Seq
N/W
Example : Phase to Earth Fault
SOURCE
LINE F
132 kV
2000 MVA
Z
S1
= 8.7O
Z
S0
= 8.7O
A - G
FAULT
Z
L1
= 10O
Z
L0
= 35O I
F

8.7 10
I
1

F
1

N
1

8.7 10
I
2
F
2

N
2

8.7 35
I
0

F
0

N
0

Total impedance = 81.1O

I
1
= I
2
= I
0
= 132000 = 940 Amps
\3 x 81.1
I
F
= I
A
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
0
= 3I
0

= 2820 Amps

Earth Fault with Fault Resistance
F
1

POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
N
1

F
2

NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
N
2

F
0

ZERO
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
N
0

I
2

V
2

I
0

V
0

I
1

V
1

3Z
F

Phase to Phase Fault:- B-C Phase
I
1

F
1

N
1

V
1

+ve
Seq
N/W
I
2

F
2

N
2

V
2

-ve
Seq
N/W
I
0

F
0

N
0

V
0

Zero
Seq
N/W
Example : Phase to Phase Fault
Total impedance = 37.4O I
B
= a
2
I
1
+ aI
2
I
1
= 132000 = 2037 Amps = a
2
I
1
- aI
1

\3 x 37.4 = (a
2

- a) I
1
I
2
= -2037 Amps = (-j) . \3 x 2037
= 3529 Amps.

SOURCE
LINE F
132 kV
2000 MVA
Z
S1
= Z
S2
= 8.7O
B - C
FAULT
Z
L1
= Z
L2
= 10O
8.7 10
8.7
10
I
1

I
2

F
1

N
1

F
2

N
2

132000
\3
Phase to Phase Fault with Resistance
I
1

F
1

N
1

V
1

+ve
Seq
N/W
I
2

F
2

N
2

V
2

-ve
Seq
N/W
I
0

F
0

N
0

V
0

Zero
Seq
N/W
Z
F

Phase to Phase to Earth Fault:- B-C-E
I
1

F
1

N
1

V
1

+ve
Seq
N/W
I
2

F
2

N
2

V
2

-ve
Seq
N/W
I
0

F
0

N
0

V
0

Zero
Seq
N/W
Phase to Phase to Earth Fault:-
B-C-E with Resistance
I
1

F
1

N
1

V
1

+ve
Seq
N/W
I
2

F
2

N
2

V
2

-ve
Seq
N/W
I
0

F
0

N
0

V
0

Zero
Seq
N/W
3Z
F

Maximum Fault Level
Can be higher than 3u fault level on solidly-
earthed systems

Check that switchgear breaking capacity > maximum
fault level for all fault types.
Single Phase Fault Level :
3 Versus 1 Fault Level (1)
X
g

X
T

E
X
g

X
T

E
Z1
I
F

3
1 T g
F
Z
E

X X
E

+
=
Z0
I
F

1
X
g

X
T

E
Z
2
= Z
1

Z1
X
g2

X
T
2

X
g0

X
T
0

0 1
F
Z 2Z
3E

+
=
LEVEL FAULT LEVEL FAULT
1 0
0 1
LEVEL FAULT
1 1 1 1
LEVEL FAULT
3 1
Z Z IF
Z 2Z
3E
1
Z 2Z
3E

3Z
3E

Z
E
3
C > C
<
+
= C
+
= = = C
Open Circuit & Double Faults
Series Faults (or Open Circuit Faults)
P
2

P
Q
OPEN CIRCUIT FAULT ACROSS PQ
Q
2

N
2

P
0

Q
0

N
0

P
1

Q
1

N
1

NEGATIVE SEQUENCE NETWORK
POSITIVE SEQUENCE NETWORK
ZERO SEQUENCE NETWORK
Interconnection of Sequence Networks
P
1

POSITIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
Q
1

P
2

NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
Q
2

P
0

ZERO
SEQUENCE
NETWORK
Q
0

I
1

V
1

I
2

V
2

I
0

V
0

N
3

N
2

N
1

Consider sequence
networks as blocks with
fault terminals P & Q for
interconnections.

Unlike shunt faults,
terminal N is not used
for interconnections.

Derive System Constraints at the Fault Terminals
I
a

I
b

I
c

P Q
V
a

V
b

V
c

V
a
'
V
b
'
V
c
'
v
a

v
b

v
c

The terminal conditions imposed by different open circuit
faults will be applied across points P & Q on the 3 line
conductors.

Fault terminal currents I
a
, I
b
, I
c
flow from P to Q.
Fault terminal potentials V
a
, V
b
, V
c
will be across P and Q.
Open Circuit Fault On Phase A (1)
At fault point :-

v
a
= ?
v
b
= 0
v
c
= 0

I
a
= 0
I
b

= ?
I
c

= ?
I
a

I
b

I
c

P Q
V
a

V
b

V
c

V
a
'
V
b
'
V
c
'
v
a

v
b

v
c

At fault point
v
b
= 0 ; v
c
= 0 ; I
a
= 0

v
0
= 1/3 (v
a
+ v
b
+ v
c
) = 1/3 v
a

v
1
= 1/3 (v
a
+ v
b
+
2
v
c
) = 1/3 v
a

v
2
= 1/3 (v
a
+
2
v
b
+ v
c
) = 1/3 v
a

v
1
= v
2
= v
0
= 1/3 v
a
--------------------- (1)

I
a
= I
1
+

I
2
+ I
0
= 0

--------------------------- (2)

From equations (1) & (2) the sequence networks are connected
in parallel.

Open Circuit Fault On Phase A (2)
I
1

P
1

Q
1

V
1

+ve
Seq
N/W
I
2

P
2

Q
2

V
2

-ve
Seq
N/W
I
0

P
0

Q
0

V
0

Zero
Seq
N/W
Two Earth Faults on Phase A
at Different Locations
(1) At fault point F
V
a
= 0

; I
b
= 0 ; I
c
= 0
It can be shown that
I
a1
= I
a2
= I
a0
V
a1
+ V
a2
+ V
a0
= 0
(2) At fault point F'
V
a

= 0

; I
b
'

= 0 ; I
c
'

= 0
It can be shown that
I
a
'
1
= I
a
'
2
= I
a
'
0
V
a
'
1
+ V
a
'
2
+ V
a
'
0
= 0
F
F'
a-e
a'-e
N
F
1

Ia
1

Va
1

N
1

F'
1

Ia'
1

Va'
1

N'
1

F
2

Ia
2

Va
2

N
2

F
2

Ia
2

Va
2

N
2

F
0

Ia
0

Va
0

N
0

F
0

Ia
0

Va
0

N
0

F
1

Ia
1

Va
1

N
1

F'
1

Ia'
1

Va'
1

N'
1

F
2

Ia
2

Va
2

N
2

F
2

Ia
2

Va
2

N
2

F
0

Ia
0

Va
0

N
0

F
0

Ia
0

Va
0

N
0

INCORRECT
CONNECTIONS

As :- V
a0
V
a0
'
V
a2
V
a2
'
V
a1
V
a1
'
F
1

Ia
1

Va
1

N
1

F'
1

Ia'
1

Va'
1

N'
1

F
2

Ia
2

Va
2

N
2

F
2

Ia
2

Va
2

N
2

F
0

Ia
0

Va
0

N
0

F
0

Ia
0

Va
0

N
0

Ia
2

1/1
Va
2

1/1
Va
0

Open Circuit & Ground Fault
Open Circuit Fault At fault point :- Line to Ground Fault At fault point :-
v
a
= ? Va' = 0

v
b
= 0 Vb' = ?

v
C
= 0 Vc' = ?

I
a
= 0 I
a
+ I'
a
= ?
I
b

= ? I
b
+ I'
b
= 0
I
c

= ? I
c
+ I'
c
= 0
I
a

I
b

I
c

P Q
V
a

V
b

V
c

V
a
'
V
b
'
V
c
'
v
a

v
b

v
c

I
a
'
I
b
'
I
c
'
I
a
+I
a
' I
b
+I
b
' I
c
+I
c
'
P
1

Ia
1

va
1

Q
1

Ia'
1

Va
1

N
1

P
2

Ia
2

va
2

Q
2

Ia
2

Va
2

N
2

P
0

Ia
0

va
0

Q
0

Ia
0

Va
0

N
0

Va
2
Va
0
Va
1
1:1
Ia
1
+ Ia'
1

Va
1
Ia
1

Ia
1
+ Ia'
1

Ia
2

Ia
2
+ Ia
2

Va
2
Ia
2
+ Ia
2

Ia
0

Ia
0
+ Ia
0

Ia
0
+ Ia
0

Va
0

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Fault Analysis

> Fault Analysis January 2004 31 31

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