Yhgv PDF

THIRD EDITION
MEASUREMENT
DEE1012
Engr. Mohd Khairul Muzhafar B. Md Nor

Engr. Muhammad Muizz Bin Mohd Nawawi
Mohd Mayuzie Bin Mohd Yusof
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU SABAH
FOR INTERNAL USED ONLY, NOT FOR SALE
i
Chief Editor: Engr. Mohd Khairul Muzhafar Bin Md Nor
Editor: Engr. Muhammad Muizz Bin Mohd Nawawi
Editor: Mohd Mayuzie Bin Mohd Yusof
Cover Designer: Engr. Mohd Khairul Muzhafar Bin Md Nor
The publication of this book could not been possible but for the
ungrudging efforts put in by measurements lecturers mentioned
above. It is our hope that this book would enhance the teaching and
learning process of measurements to all lecturers and students.
Third Edition, 2014
© Muzhafar, Muizz and Mayuzie
All rights reserved. This publications is protected by copyright and permission

should be obtained from Electrical Engineering Department, Polytechnic Kota
Kinabalu prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system or
transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or likewise.
ISBN: XXX-XXX-XXXX-XX-X
ii
Preface
MEASUREMENT emphasizes the concept the basic concept of electrical instrument and
measurement. The books covers the basic principles, safety precautions, meter calibration
and use of instruments for measurement such as analogue meters, DC meters, electronic
analogue meters, analogue and digital multimeters, oscilloscopes, signal generators and
power meters. The content covers the basic concept and simple application of DC Bridge.
iii
Brief Contents
PREFACE iii
1.0 MEASUREMENT AND ERROR 1
2.0 DC METERS 19
3.0 OSCILLOSCOPE AND SIGNAL GENERATOR 71
4.0 DC BRIDGES 133
5.0 POWER METERS 152
6.0 EXERCISE 170
REFERENCES
iv
DEE1012 MEASUREMENT
CHAPTER 1
ERROR AND MEASUREMENT
This chapter consists of measurement and errors; primary sensing element, variable
manipulation element, data presentation element. This chapter also discusses error
in measurement; gross error, systematic error, absolute error, relative error.
Standards used in measurement; international standard, primary standard,
secondary standard, working standard.
CHAPTER 1 MEASUREMENT & ERROR
1.0 MEASUREMENT & ERROR
1.1 UNDERSTAND MEASUREMENT
1.1.1 DEFINATION OF MEASUREMENT
 Measurement is the result of comparison between the quantity to be

measured and a definite standard.
 Measuring is a basically used to monitor a process or operation, or as
well as the controlling process (direct or indirect) with the accepted
standards of the system units being used.
 Direct is the unknown quantity is measured directly such as
measurement of current by an ammeter, voltage by voltmeter,
resistance by ohmmeter, power by wattmeter etc.
 Indirect – the unknown quantity is determined by measuring other
functionally related quantities and calculating desired quantity rather
than measuring it directly with an instrument such as resistance of a
conductor may be determined by measuring voltage across the
conductor, V and current flowing through the conductor, I and then
calculating it by Ohm’s Law : R = V /I.
 There is always a need for improvement and development of new
equipment to solve measurement problems. The major problem
encountered with any measuring instrument is the error. It is important
to select appropriate measuring instrument or measurement method
to minimize error.
 In early days, deflection type instrument with scale and movable
pointer were used to indicate the quantities of measurement. The
angle of deflection of the pointer is a function and therefore
analogous to the value of the electrical quantity being measured.
MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

Page | 1
 Analog instrument is identifying as deflection-type instruments that

display in decimal form the value of the quantity being measured.
Newer instrument are called the digital instrument displays
measurement quantities in digit form with LCD or 7 segment display.
1.1.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Electrical measureng instruments are mainly classified as:

a) Indicating instruments
b) Recording instruments
c) Integrating instruments
a. Indicating instruments
The instruments make use of a dial or pointer for showing and indicating
magnitudeof unknown quantity. The examples are ammeters, voltmeter
etc.
b. Recoding instruments
These instruments give a continuous record of the given electrical
quantity which is being measured over a specific period. The examples
are various types of recorders. In such recording instruments, the readings
are recorded by drawing the graph.
c. Integrating instruments
These instruments measure the total quantity of electricity delivered over
period of time.

Page | 2
1.1.2.2 ELEMENTS OF ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS
Transducer Signal Modifier Indicating

device
Figure 1.1: Element of electronic instruments
 Transducer – Converts non electrical signal into an electrical signal.

Therefore, a transducer is required only if the quantity to be measured
nonelectrical (e.g pressure)
 Signal modifier – To process the incoming electrical signal to make it
suitable for application to be indicating device. It could be amplifier,
attenuator, volatge divider, waveshaping circuit, modulator,
multiplexer, rectifier, choppers and etc.
 Indicating device – generally a deflection type meter for such general
purpose instruments as voltmeters, current meters or choppers.
1.1.3 ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
a. Primary sensing element

 The physical quantity under measurement, called the measurand,
makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a measuring
system.
 The measurand is always disturbed by the act of measurement, but
good instruments are designed to minimise this effect.
 Primary sensing elements may have non-electrical input and output
such as a spring, manometer or may have an electrical input and
output such as a rectifier.

Page | 3
 In case the primary sensing element has a non-electrical input and

output, then it is converted into an electrical signal by means of a
transducer.
 The transducer is defined as a device, which when actuated by one
form energy, is capable of converting it into another form of energy.
 Many a times certain operations are to be performed on the signal
before its further transmission so that interfering sources are removed so
that the signal may not get distorted.
 The process maybe linear such as ampification, attenuation,
integration, differentiation, adition and subtraction or non-linear such
as modulation, detection, sampling, filtering, chopping and clipping.
 The process is called the signal conditioning. So signal conditioner
follows the primary sensing element or transducer, as the case maybe.
b. Variable conversion element

 Now the output, which is in the form of electrical signal (voltage or
current, frequency or some other electrical parameter), may or may
not suit to the system.
 For the instrument to perform the desired function, it maybe necessary
to convert this output to some other suitable form while retaining the
information content of the original signal.
 For example, if output is in analog form and the next stage of the
system accepts the input only in digital form, then analog digital
converter will be required.
 Many instruments do not requireany variable conversion element, while
others require more than one element.

Page | 4
c. Variable manipulation element

 The function of variable manipulation element, as the name indicates,
is to manipulate the signal presented to it while preserving the original
nature of the signal.
 For example, an electronic amplifier converts a small low voltage input
signal into high voltage output signal.
 Thus voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element.
 It is not necessary that this element follows the variable conversion
elements as shown in figure 1.1. In many cases it may precede the
variable conversion element.
 When the elements of an instrument are to be physically separated
out, it becomes necessary to transmit data from one to another.
 The element performing this function is called the data transmission
element.
 For example space crafts are physically separated from the earth
where the control stations guiding their movement are located.
Input Primary Signal

sensing Transducer conditioner
Measurand
element
Data Data Variable Variable

presentation transmission manipulation conversion
element element element element
Figure 1.2 : Functional elements of an instrumentation system

Page | 5
d. Data presentation element

 The information regarding measurand (quantity to be measured) is to
be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system
for monitoring, controlling or analysis purpose.
 The information conveyed must be in a form intelligible to the
personnel. Such devices (read out or display) may be in analog or
digital format.
 The simplest form a display device is the common panel meter with
some kind of calibrated scale and pointer. In case, the data is to be
recorded. Recoders like magnetic tape maybe used. For control and
analysis purpose computers maybe used.
1.1.4 TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM
Monitoring of process and operations

One of the most important function of an instrumentation system is
monitoring of process or operation. It simply indicates the value or
condition of the parameter under study in the process. For example,
an ammeter or a frequency meter indicates the value of current or
frequency , under measurement or monitoring, at a particular instant.
Control of processes and operations

In order to control the process and operation variable like current,
voltage, power, temperature, pressure or humidity, these quantities are
required to be measured at appropriate points in the individual plant.

Page | 6
Engineering analysis
Many engineering applications are required to be analysed
therotically as well as experimentally. Experimentally engineering
analysis have many uses and some of them are listed below:
- Testing of validity of theoretical predictions
- Determination of system parameters, variables and performance
Indices.
- Doing reseach and development process
1.1.5 TERMINOLOGIES IN MEASUREMENT
a. Scale
Scale is the differences between the highest and lowest value in
measurement.
b. Range
Range shows the dose rate values to be measured in measurement.
1.2 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
1.2.1 DEFINATION ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
 A measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity

with an accepted standard quantity.
 The measurement is a quantitative measurement of true value or
expected value.
 There are external factors that may affect the true value.
 The degree to which a measurement confirms to the expected
value is expressed in terms of the error of the measurement.

Page | 7
 Error maybe expressed either as absolute or as a percent of error. It

is defined as the deviation of reading from the expected value of
the measured variable.
1.2.2 TYPES OF ERRORS
a. GROSS ERROR
Gross error is generally the fault of the person using the instruments
and is due to such things as incorrect reading of instruments,
incorrect recording of experimental data or incorrect use of
instruments.
b. SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Due to instrument, environment or observational error, these
quantities recur if several measurements are made of the same
quantity under the same conditions.
i) Instruments errors
These errors maybe due to friction in the bearings of the
meter movement, incorrect spring tension, improper
calibration, or faulty instruments. Instruments error can be
reduced by proper maintenance, use and handling of
instruments.
ii) Environment errors

Subjected to harsh environment such as high temperature,
pressure, or humidity or strong electrostatic or
electromagnetic fields, may have detrimental effects,
thereby causing error.

Page | 8
iii) Observational errors

Parallel error introduced in reading a meter scale and the
error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter
scale.
c. RANDOM ERROR
These errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been
substantially reduced or at least accounted for. Accumulation of
small effects and may be of real concern in high degree of
accuracy measurement.
d. ABSOLUTE ERROR
Absolute error is the difference between the expected value of the
variable and the measured variable, or
Absolute error = expected value – measured value
In terms of error percentage, it is:

Percent error = Absolute error x 100
Expected value
e. RELATIVE ERROR
If a resistor is known to have a resistance of 500 Ω with a possible
error of ±50 Ω, the ±50 Ω is an absolute error. This is because 50 Ω is
stated as an absolute quantity, not as a percentage of the 500 Ω
resistance. When the error is expressed as a percentage or as a
fraction of the total resistance, it becomes a relative error. Thus, the
±50 Ω is ±10%, relative.

Page | 9
Example:
Given R = 2200+ 10%, what is the limiting error of the resistor?
Solution:
+ 10% = 10 x 2200 Ω = 220 Ω
100
Maximum range = 2200 + 220 = 2420 Ω
Minimum range = 2200 – 220 = 1980 Ω
Limiting error for the resistor: R = 2420 – 1980 Ω
1.2.3 ABSOLUTE ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Example 1:
The measured value of a resistance is 10.25Ω, where as its value is 10.22 Ω.
Determine the absolute error of measurement.
Solution:
Measured value, = 10.25 Ω
True value = 10.22 Ω
Absolute error = Measured value – True value
= 10.25 Ω – 10.22 Ω = 0.03 Ω
Example 2:
The measured value of capacitor is 205.3 µF, where as its true value is
201.4 µF. Determine the relative error.

Page | 10
Solution:
Measured value, = 205.3 µF
True value = 201.4 µF
Absolute error = Measured value – True value
= 205.3 µF – 201.4 µF = 3.9 µF
Relative error = Absolute error

True value
= 0.0194 @ 1.94 %
FORMULA
ABSOLUTE ERROR = EXPECTED VALUE – MEASURED VALUE
% ERROR = ABSOLUTE ERROR X 100%

EXPECTED VALUE
RELATIVE ACCURACY, A = 1  ABSOLUTE ERROR

EXPECTED VALUE
% ACCURACY = 100%  % ERROR
MAGNITUDE OF LIMITING ERROR = ACCURACY x FULL SCALE

Page | 11
1.2.4 PROBLEM & SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 1.1
Based on figure below, a voltage source 20 V is parallel connected with
two resistors, R1 = 15k and R2 = 7k. A voltmeter is connected across
resistor R1 and its shown a value 19.5 V. Calculate percentage of error and
percentage of accuracy of the voltmeter.
20V V
R1 R2
[Answer: Percentage of error = 2.5%, Percentage of accuracy = 97.5%]
EXAMPLE 1.2
A voltmeter with range 0 - 150 V has a accuracy  3% at full scale 50 V
and 95 V during the measurement. Calculate the magnitude of error and
percentage of error for each value.
[Answer: Magnitude of error =  4.5 V, Percentage of error =  9%,  4.74%]
EXAMPLE 1.3
An ammeter with accuracy  2% has full scale current 100 µA. Calculate
the maximum and minimum value from the ammeter when it used to
measure current:
i) 70 µA ii) 45 µA
[Answer: i) 72 µA and 68 µA ii) 47 µA and 43 µA]

Page | 12
EXAMPLE 1.4
Calculate the maximum and minimum value for each component below:
i. 200F + 10% [Answer: 220 µF]
ii. 1000Hz  5% + 10% [Answer: 1100 Hz, 950 Hz]
iii. 560  + 10  [Answer: 570 Ω]
EXAMPLE 1.5
A wattmeter reads 25.34 watts. The absolute error in the measurements is
0.11 watt. Determine the expected value of power.
[Answer: 25.45 watts]
EXAMPLE 1.6
The inductance of an inductor is specified as 20H  5% by a manufacturer.
Determine the limits of inductance between which it is guaranteed.
[Answer: 20  1H]
EXAMPLE 1.7
A 0-25 A ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1% of full scale reading.
The current measured by this instrument is 10A. Determine the limiting error
in percentage.
[Answer: 2.5 %]
EXAMPLE 1.8
A 0-250 V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 2% of full scale
reading. The voltage measured by the voltmeter is 150 volts. Determine
the limiting error in percentage.
[Answer: 3.33 %]

Page | 13
1.2.5 CHARACTERISTCS OF MEASUREMENT
a. Accuracy
The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared
to the expected value.
b. Precision
A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e.
successive reading do not differ.
c. Resolution
The smallest change in a measured variable to which instrument will
respond
d. Significant figure
The number of significant figures used in a measured quantity
indicate the precision of measurement.
Example :
The significant figure of 0.0005 is 4 and the significant figure for 0.05
is 2. So 0.0005 is more precise than 0.05 since it has more significant
figures.
e. Sensitivity
The ratio of the change in output of the instrument to a change of
input or measured variable.
f. Instrument
A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of the
quantity under measurement.

Page | 14
f. Measurement
The process of determining the amount, degree or capacity by
comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the
system units being used.
g. Expected value
The design value, i.e. the most probable value that calculations
indicate one should expect to measure.
h. Error
The deviation of the true value from the desired value.
1.3 STANDARD CLASSIFICATION IN MEASUREMENT
a. International standards
- This standard is defined by international agreement.
- Maintain and periodically check at International Bureau of
Weight and Measures in Paris.
- Represent certain units of measurement to the closet accuracy
attainable by the science and technology of measurement.
- Used for the purpose of calibration and comparison.
Example : Electronic Unit
Component Name &
Quantity Unit
Symbol
Voltage, V - Volt, (V)
Current, I - Ampere (A)
Resistance, R Ohm (Ω)

Resistor, R

Page | 15
Capacitance, C Farad (F)

Capacitor, C
Inductance, L Henry (H)

Inductor, L
Charge, Q - Coulomb (C)
Frequency, f - Hertz (Hz)
Time, T - Seconds (s)
Power, P - Watt (W)
b. Primary standards
- Maintain at the national standard laboratories in differrent
Countries.
- The principal function is the calibration and verification of
secondary standards.
c. Secondary standards
- Basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration
laboratories in the industry to which they belong.
- Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standards to
the national standards laboratory for calibration.
- After calibration the secondary standards are returned to the
Industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy
in terms of a primary standard.
d. Working standards
- Are the pricipal tools of a measurements laboratory.
- Used to check and calibrate the instruments used in the lab. or
to make comparison measurements in industrial application.

Page | 16
ACTIVITIES
1. Four resistors are connected as serial and its value as below:
R1 = 36  5% R2 = 75  5%
R3 = 100  10% R4 = 85  20%
Calculate the maximum percentage of error for total resistors
above.
[Answer: 11 %]
2. A voltmeter with a measurement range of 0 – 150 V has a 1% full

skill deflection. This voltmeter is used to measure a voltage of 83
V. Calculate the percentage of error for this reading.
[Answer: 1.81 %]
3. Refer to figure below, calculate the percentage of error and

percentage of accuracy if ammeter shown 12 mA.
1 k
mA
15V
500
[Answer: Percentage of error = 20 %, Percentage of accuracy = 80 %]
4. Three different type of resistance have different values of R1 = 10

kΩ ± 5%, R2 = 22 kΩ ± 2% dan R3 = 6.8 kΩ ± 5% that are connected
in series. Calculate the percentage of maximum error when their
total resistance is measured.
[Answer: 3.299 %]

Page | 17
5. One ammeter is used to measure a circuit as shown below, the

meter shows a reading of 2.8 A. How much is percentage of
error and percentage of accuracy for this meter?
A
5V 3Ω
2Ω
[Answer: Percentage of error = 12 %, Percentage of accuracy = 88 %]
6. One equation is used to determine the value for R4 as R4 = (R1R2) /

R3 where the value of R1 = 500 Ω ± 1%, R2 = 615 Ω ± 1%, R3 = 100 Ω
± 0.5%. Obtain the error rate for R4.
[Answer: 3075 ± 76.875 Ω]
7. A voltmeter and an ammeter are to be used to determine the

power dissipated in a resistor. Both instrument are guaranteed to
be accurate within ± 1% at full-scale deflection. If the voltmeter
reads 80V on its 150V range and the ammeter reads 70mA on its
100 mA range, determine the limiting error for the power
calculation.
[Answer: 3.30 %]

Page | 18
DEE1012 MEASUREMENT
CHAPTER 2
DC METERS
This chapter consists types of instruments for measurement; analogue meter; basic
principle of meter for measurement, Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC),
torque deflection calculation, damping condition. Use PMMC as DC voltmeter,
DC ammeter and ohmmeter. This chapter also include multimeter, electronics
analogue meter, digital multimeter.
CHAPTER 2 BASIC METER IN DC MEASUREMENT
2.0 DC METERS
2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ANALOGUE METER
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION OF ANALOGUE METER
 A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an

electrical quantity in a form readable by a human being.
 In the analysis and testing of circuits, there are meters designed to
accurately measure the basic quantities of voltage, current, and
resistance.
 The action of all analogue meters (ammeters and voltmeters) depends
upon a deflecting torque produced by an electric current. In an
ammeter, the torque is produced by the current to be measured or by
a definite fraction of it.
 The permanent magnet moving coil (PMCC) instruments consists
basically of a light weight coil of copper wire suspended in the field of
a permanent magnet.
 Current in the wire causes the coil to produce a magnetic field that
interacts with the field from the magnet, resulting in partial rotation of
the coil. A pointer connected to the coil deflects over a calibrated
scale, indicating the level of current flowing in the wire.
 The PMCC instrument is essentially a low level DC ammeter. However,
with the use parallel connected resistors, it can be employed to
measure a wide range of direct current levels.
 The instruments may also be made to function as a DC voltmeter by
connecting appropriate value resistors in series with the coil.

Page | 19
 AC ammeters and voltmeters can be constructed by using rectifier

circuits with PMCC instruments.
 Ohmmeters can be made from precision resistors, PMCC instruments
and batteries.
 Multirange meters are available that combine ammeter, voltmeter
and ohmmeter functions in one instruments.
2.1.2 CONSTRUCTION OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL (PMCC)
Figure 2.1: A typical PMMC instrument is

constructed of a horseshoe, soft-iron
pole shoes, a soft iron core and a
suspended coil that moves in the air
gap between the core and the pole
shoes.
2.1.3 PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF PMCC
 Details of the construction of a PMCC instrument or D’Arsonval

instrument are illustrated in Figure 2.1
 The main feature is permanent magnet with two soft iron pole shoes.
 A cylindrical soft iron core is positioned between the shoes so that only
very narrow air gaps exist between the core and the faces of the pole
shoes.

Page | 20
 The light weight moving coil is pivoted to move within these narrow air
gaps.
 The air gaps are made as narrow as possible in order to have the
strongest possible level of magnetic flux crossing the gaps.
 The current in the coil of a PMCC instrument must flow in one particular
direction to cause the pointer to move (positively) from the zero
position over the scale.
 When the current is reversed, the interaction of the magnetic flux from
the coil with that of the permanent magnet causes the coil to rotate in
the opposite direction, and the pointer is deflected to the left of zero.
 The terminals of a PMCC instrument are identified as + and – to
indicate the correct polarity for connection, and the instruments is said
to be polarized.
 Because it polarized, the PMCC instrument cannot be used directly to
measure alternating current. Without rectifiers, it is purely a DC
instrument.
2.1.4 CONFIGURATION OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL AC METER
Moving-coil instruments cannot be used with a.c. for the following

reason: Figure 2.2 is a reproduction of the corresponding moving-coil
figure in the DC As explained there, a permanent magnet provides a
constant field in which a moving coil rotates. In the figure the N-pole is
assumed to be on the right, and the field in the gap is therefore from right
to left.

Page | 21
Figure 2.2: The Moving-Coil PMMC instrument measuring A.C
2.1.5 PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF MOVING COIL
The current to be measured flows through the moving coil and gives
rise to its own flux. This flux reacts with the permanent field and causes a
torque on the moving coil. The coil turns against a control spring so as to
try to align its own axis with that of the permanent magnet. This is shown in
Figure 2 .2(a), which is assumed to be the state during a positive half-cycle
of current .in the moving coil. The coil's 'S' side is attracted towards the
magnet's N-pole, and its 'N' side to the magnet's S-pole, so producing a
clockwise torque.
Half a cycle later the coil current is reversed, as shown in Figure

2.2(b), but the direction of the permanent magnet field is unchanged. The
coil's "N' side is now on top and is repelled by the magnet's N-pole, just as
its 'S' side is repelled by the magnet S pole. The two combine to produce
an anti-clockwise torque.

Page | 22
The direction of torque thus reverses with every half-cycle, and,

because of the inertia of the movement, no motion whatever takes place
(though there might be a buzz). For this reason moving-coil instruments
cannot be used directly on A.C., although they can be used with
transducers.
2.1.6 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING IRON AC

METER
Figure 2.3: The Moving-Iron PMMC instrument measuring A.C
A moving-iron instrument will also correctly indicate the rms value of

an applied A.C. quantity.

Page | 23
2.1.7 PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF MOVING IRON
Figure 2.3 shows a basic moving-iron instrument. The fixed coil

induces in the moving-iron poles of opposite polarity to the flux, which
induces them. Thus, in Figure: 2.3 (a), which is assumed to be the state
during a positive half-cycle of current in the coil, the coil's field is from right
to left. A N-pole will be induced on the right tip of the moving iron, and a
S-pole on its left. Each pole will be attracted towards the axis of the coil,
so giving a clockwise torque.
On the next half-cycle the coil field will be reversed, as shown in

Figure 2.3 (b). The field will now be from left to right, and a N-pole will be
induced on the left tip of the moving iron and a S-pole on the right. Each
will be attracted to the axis of the coil, and the torque is again clockwise.
There is thus no reversal of torque as between positive and negative half-
cycles, and the pull will be always in the same direction.
The magnitude of the magnetic pull between a coil and its induced
magnetic pole is proportional to the product of the coil's flux (and so the
current in it) and of the strength of the induced pole. But that strength is
itself proportional to the flux causing it, so the total pulls - and hence the
torque on the moving iron - is proportional to the square of the coil
current.
Therefore, the moving-iron instrument responds not simply to the

current but to the square of the current. Its scale will be uneven and
crowded towards the lower end, and it will indicate the rms value of the
current being measured. Moving-iron instruments are relatively cheap and

Page | 24
are widely used ashore and in platforms on A.C. switch- boards. They can
be instantly recognized by their scales.
2.1.8 DEFLECTION INSTRUMENT FUNDAMENTALS
A deflection instrument uses a pointer that moves over a calibrated

scale to indicate a measured quantity. For this to occur, three forces are
operating in the electromechanical mechanism (or movement) inside the
instrument: a deflecting force, a controlling force, and a damping force.
DEFLECTING TORQUE
Making use of one of the following effects of current and voltage

usually produces the deflecting torque:
(i) Magnetic
(ii) Heating
(iii) Chemical
(iv)Electrostatic
(v) Electromagnetic
When the instrument is connected to the electrical circuit to

measure the electrical quantity, deflecting torque moves the moving
system of the instrument from its zero position. The method of producing
this torque depends on the type of instrument.

Page | 25
a. The deflecting force in a PMCC b. The controlling force

instrument is provided by a current from the springs balances
carrying coil pivoted in a magnetic the deflecting force.
field.
Figure 2.4: The deflecting force in a PMMC instrument is produced by the

current ill the moving coil. The controlling force is provided by spiral
springs. The two forces are equal when the pointer is stationary.
TORQUE EQUATION
When a current I flows through a one-turn coil situated in a magnetic field,

a force F is exerted on each side of the coil.
Where B is the magnetic flux density in tesla, I is the current in amperes

and l is the length of the coil in meters.

Page | 26
Deflecting Torque (TD)
The deflecting torque is given as:
TD = BANI
Where B = Magnetic flux density in Wb/m2 or Tesla (T)
l = length of coil in meters
N = Numbers of coils
A = Cross sectional area [length (l) x diameter (d)] in m2
I = Current in Ampere (A)
Figure 2.5: The deflecting force in a PMMC instrument on each side of the
coil. There are area enclosed by the coil and linear scale on a PMMC
instrument.

Page | 27
Controlling Torque (TC )
The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is directly proportional

to the deformation or "windup" of the springs. Thus, the controlling torque
(TC ) is proportional to the actual angle of deflection of the pointer:
where K is a constant. For a given deflection, the controlling and

deflecting torques are equal:
Kθ = NBAI
EXAMPLE 2.1
A PMCC instrument with 200 turn coil has a magnetic flux density in its air
gap of 0.5 T. The coil diameter is 1 mm and its length is 2.5 cm. Calculate
the torque on the coil for a current of 2 mA.
[Answer: TD = 5 x 10-6 N.m]
EXAMPLE 2.2
A PMMC instrument with a 100 turns coil has a magnetic flux density in its
air gaps of B = 0.2 T. The coil dimensions are D = 1 cm and l = 1.5 cm.
Calculate the torque on the coil for a current of 1 mA.
[Answer: TD = 3 x 10-6 N.m]

Page | 28
DAMPING TORQUE
When the instrument is connected to electrical circuit to indicate

the value of measured quantity, there is a deflecting torque as well as
controlling torque. Controlling torque balances the deflecting torque and
the pointer comes to the steady state position after oscillations. To get the
final reading, time will be consumed due to oscillations. To damp out the
oscillations, damping is provided to the instrument.
a) Lack of damping causes the pointer to oscillate.
b) The damping force in a PMMC

instrument is provided by eddy
currents induced in the aluminium
coil former (frame) as it moves
through the magnetic field.

Page | 29
Figure 2.6: A deflection instrument requires a damping force to stop the

pointer oscillating about the indicated reading. The damping force is
usually produced by eddy currents in a nonmagnetic coil former. These
exist only when the coil is in motion.
Figure 2.7 shows the effect of different types of damping. The

methods of producing damping torque are: (i) Air friction damping, (ii)
Fluid friction damping and (iii) Eddy current damping.
Fixed value / deflection

(mA) Under damping (B)
Critical damping (C)
Over damping (A)
Time (s)
Figure 2.7: Different types of damping

Page | 30
2.1.9 DAMPING CURVE IN ANALOGUE INDICATING INSTRUMENT
a. Critical damping – The moving system rises quickly to its deflected

position without oscillations. Can get a fast and accurate value
from the meter.
b. Over damping – The moving system will become slow and

lethargic. Final values will less from true value. Meter show wrong
value.
c. Under damping – The moving system will oscillate about its final
position and take some time to come to rest in its steady position.
Difficult to get value from the meter.
2.1.10 TYPES OF DAMPING AND RELATIONSHIP TO THE MOVING COIL NEEDLE
(a) AIR FRICTION DAMPING
Figure 2.8 (a) shows air friction damping. There is a light aluminum
piston inside the air chamber and it is attached to the moving system at
one end. The clearance between the chamber walls and the piston is
uniform throughout. Due to the oscillations of the moving system, the
piston moves into and out of the chamber. When the piston moves into
the chamber, the air inside the chamber is compressed and opposes
the motion of the piston. When the piston comes out, the pressure in the
closed space falls.

Page | 31
In this case, the pressure on the open side of the piston is greater
than that of the outer side. Once again there is an opposition to motion.
This type of damping is very cheap. Attention must be paid that the
piston should not be twisted or bent; otherwise solid friction will come
into play if it touches the chamber walls.
(b) FLUID FRICTION DAMPING
There is similarity between fluid friction damping and air friction

damping except that oil is used in place of air in case of fluid friction
damping. Since viscosity of oil is greater, the damping force is also
correspondingly greater. Figure 2.8 (b) shows the fluid friction damping.
The fluid friction damping has the following advantages:

(i) Due to more viscosity of fluid, more damping is provided.
(ii) Oil that is used for damping may be used for insulation purposes.
(iii) Up-thrust comes into play due to oil. So load on bearing is
reduced. Therefore, there is reduction of frictional forces.
The disadvantages of this method are:

(i) This can be only used for the instruments which are in vertical
position.
(ii) Due to oil leakage, the instruments cannot be kept clean.
This type of damping is used only for vertical type instruments.

Page | 32
Figure 2.8 (a): Air friction damping Figure 2.8 (b): Fluid friction damping
(c) EDDY CURRENT DAMPING
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an e.m.f is induced in

it. If a closed path is provided, current flows through it. Now, this induced
current interacts with the magnetic field and produces a torque which is
called electromagnetic torque.
It depends upon the strength of the magnetic field and the current
through it. This torque opposes the motion. Eddy current damping is the
most efficient form of damping. It is usually used in instruments having
metallic former and permanent magnet is already present as a part of
the operating system.
Figure 2.8 (c): Eddy current damping

Page | 33
2.1.11 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PMCC
Advantages:
1. Uniform scale.
2. Since driving power is small, power consumption is low.
3. Due to aluminum or copper former, hysteresis loss is absent.
4. Very effective and reliable eddy current damping.
5. Torque-weight ratio is very high.
6. Due to application of intense polarized or unidirectional field, stray
magnetic field has no effect.
7. Using shunts or multipliers, ranges can be extended.
8. Suitable for Direct Current (DC) only.
9. No effect of magnetic field leakage.
Disadvantages:
1. AC quantity cannot be measured.
2. Compared to moving iron instruments, these instruments are costlier.
3. Friction, temperature, ageing of control springs and permanent
magnets might introduce errors.
4. Expensive.
5. Has an error when a spring and a magnetic is weak.

Page | 34
2.2 DIRECT CURRENT (DC) VOLTMETER
When the Weston-type instrument is used as a voltmeter, it is

performing essentially the same function as when it is used as an
ammeter. Instead of a shunt resistor, the voltmeter has a high value of
resistance placed in series with the moving coil. The size of the series
resistor used depends on the current range of the movement and the
voltage range desired. The resistance connected in series with the moving
coil is called multiplier.
2.2.1 BASIC DC VOLMETER CIRCUIT (single range DC voltmeter)
Basic dc meter
Figure 2.9: A DC voltmeter is made up of a PMCC instrument and a series

multiplier resistor. The meter current is directly proportional to the applied
voltage, so that the meter scale can be calibrated to indicate the
voltage.

Page | 35
2.2.1 DC CIRCUIT FOR MULTIPLIER RESISTOR VALUE IN SINGLE RANGE

VOLTMETER
 The deflection of a PMMC instrument is proportional to the current

flowing through the moving coil.
 The coil current is directly proportional to the voltage across coil.
 Therefore, the scale of the PMMC meter could be calibrated to
indicate voltage.
 Without any additional series resistance, the PMMC instrument
would only be able to measure very low voltage level.
 The voltmeter range is easily increased by connecting a resistance
in series with the instrument.
 Because it increases the range of the voltmeter, the series
resistance is termed a multiplier resistance, Rs.
 A multiplier resistance that is nine terms the coil resistance will
increase the voltmeter range by a factor of 10.
Figure 2.10: A dc voltmeter circuit with multiplier resistance, Rs and coil

resistance, Rm.
The function of the multiplier is to limit the current through the

movement so that the current does not exceed the full scale deflection
value.

Page | 36
Equation for multiplier resistor value in single range voltmeter:

Im = full scale deflection current of the movement (I fsd)
Rm = internal resistance of movement
Rs = multiplier resistance
V = full range voltage of the instrument
V = Im (Rs + Rm)
Rs + Rm = V / Im
Rs = (V / Im) – Rm
EXAMPLE 2.3:
A PMCC instrument with FSD of 100 µA and a coil resistance of 1 kΩ is to

be converted into a voltmeter. Determine the required multiplier
resistance if the voltmeter is to measure 50 V at full scale. Also calculate
the applied voltage when the instrument indicates 0.8, 0.5 and 0.2 of FSD.
[Answer: 499 kΩ, 40 V, 25 V, 10 V]
SOLUTION:
V = I m ( Rm + R s )
V
Rm + Rs =
Im
Rs = V
- Rm
Im
For V = 50 V FSD,
Im = 100 µA
Rm = 50 V
- 1 kΩ = 499 kΩ
100 µA
Page | 37
At 0.8 FSD,
Im = 0.8 x 100 µA = 80 µA
V = Im (Rm + Rs)
= 80 µA (1 kΩ + 499 kΩ )
= 40 V
At 0.5 FSD,
Im = 0.5 x 100 µA = 50 µA
V = Im (Rm + Rs)
= 50 µA (1 kΩ + 499 kΩ )
= 25 V
At 0.2 FSD,
Im = 0.2 x 100 µA = 20 µA
V = Im (Rm + Rs)
= 20 µA (1 kΩ + 499 kΩ )
= 10 V
Sensitivity of Voltmeter
The voltmeter designed in Example 2.5 has a total resistance of

RT = Rm + Rs = 500 kΩ
Since the instrument measures 50 V at full scale, its resistance per volt is
500 kΩ
= 100 kΩ / V
50 V
This quantity is also termed the sensitivity of the voltmeter. The sensitivity of
a voltmeter is always specified by the manufactured and it is frequently
printed on the scale of the instrument.

Page | 38
The sensitivity of the voltmeter is defined as,

S = 1
Full scale deflection current
= I
Ω / V or kΩ / V
Im
2.2.3 LOADING EFFECT IN DC VOLTMETER
Ideally, a voltmeter should have an extremely high resistance. A

voltmeter is always connected across, or in parallel with the points in a
circuit at which the voltage is to be measured. If its resistance is too low, it
can alter the circuit voltage. This is known as voltmeter loading effect.
When the meter is used to measure the voltage across a circuit

component, the voltmeter circuit itself is in parallel with the circuit
component. This condition happen when the parallel combination of two
resistors is less than either resistor alone or the resistance seen by the
source is less with the voltmeter connected than without.
Therefore, the voltage across the component is less whenever the

voltmeter is connected. The decrease in voltage may be negligible or it
may be appreciable, depending on the sensitivity of the voltmeter being
used. This effect is called voltmeter loading and resulting error and called
loading error.
Often, the loading effect of a voltmeter can be ignored, especially

if the meter has a high Ω/V, or sensitivity rating. However, if the meter has
a low sensitivity, or the circuit under test has a high resistance, the loading
effect of the meter must be taken into account.

Page | 39
Investigate Loading Effect In Voltage Measurement By Connecting Dc

Voltmeter To Difference Load
EXAMPLE 2.4:
The figure 2.11 show a simple series circuit of R1 and R2 connected to a

250V dc source. If the voltage across R2 is to be measured by the
voltmeters having
i. A sensitivity of 500 Ω/V
ii. A sensitivity of 10000 Ω/V
Find which voltmeter will read more accurately. Both the meters are used
on the 150V range.
Figure 2.11
SOLUTION:
By the voltage divider rule, the voltage across R2 is,

V= 25 kΩ
X 250 V
(20 kΩ + 25 kΩ)
= 138.88 V
This is the true voltage across R2.

Page | 40
Case i) Sensitivity, S = 500 Ω/V
The voltmeter resistance will be,

Rm = S x V
= 500Ω/V x 150 V
= 75 kΩ
Req = R2 || Rm
= 25 kΩ x 75 kΩ
25 kΩ + 75 kΩ
= 18.75 kΩ
Hence, the voltage across Req is,

V= Req
X 250 V
(Req + R1)
= 18.75 kΩ
X 250 V
(18.75 kΩ + 20 kΩ)
= 120.97 V
Thus first voltmeter will read 120.97 V.
Case ii) Sensitivity, S = 10000 Ω/V

Rm = S x V
= 10000 Ω/V x 150 V as a voltage range 150 V
= 1.5 MΩ

Page | 41
Req = R2 || Rm
= 25 kΩ x 1.5 MΩ
25 kΩ + 1.5 MΩ
= 24.59 kΩ

V= Req
X 250 V
(Req + R1)
= 24.59 kΩ
X 250 V
(24.59 kΩ + 20 kΩ)
= 137.87 V
Thus the second voltmeter read more accurately. Thus the high sensitivity
voltmeter gives more accurate reading, though the voltage range for
both the meters is same.
2.2.4 MULTIRANGE DC VOLTMETER
A multirange voltmeter consists of a deflection instrument, several

multiplier resistors, and a rotary switch. Two possible circuits are illustrated
in Figure 2.12. In Figure 2.12 (a) only one of the three multiplier resistors is
connected in series with the meter at any time. The range of this voltmeter
is V = IM (RM + R) where R can be R1, R2 or R3.
In Figure 2.12 (b) the multiplier resistors are connected in series, and
each junction is connected to one of the switch terminals. The range of
this voltmeter can also be calculated from the equation V = I M (RM + R),
where R can be R1, R1 + R2 or R1 + R2 + R3.

Page | 42
EXAMPLE 2.5:
A PMCC instrument with FSD = 50 µA and RM = 1700 Ω is to be employed

as a voltmeter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V and 100 V. Calculate the required
values of multiplier resistors of Figure 2.12 (a) and 2.12 (b).
(a) Multirange voltmeter using switched

multiplier resistors
[Ans: 198.3 kΩ, 998.3 kΩ and 1.9983 kΩ]
(b) Multirange voltmeter using series-

connected multiplier resistors
[Ans: 198.3 kΩ, 800 kΩ and 1 M Ω]
Figure 2.12: A multirange voltmeter consists of a PMMC instrument, several

multiplier resistors and a switch for range selection.

Page | 43
2.3 DIRECT CURRENT (DC) AMMETER
An ammeter is an instrument used for measuring electric currents.

The analog DC ammeter is almost always a Weston-type instrument.
However, the moving coil of a Weston instrument cannot carry currents
greater than 30 µA, so to read larger values of current, a resistor is placed
in parallel with the moving coil. The current going into the instrument will
divide, with part of the current going through the coil and the rest through
the resistor. This type of resistor is called a shunt resistor.
The shunt is a low-value resistor, usually made of manganin strips,

which are brazed to heavy copper blocks. This method ensures that the
shunt has a low temperature coefficient of resistance. Manganin is an
alloy consisting of copper, nickel and ferromanganese. Instead of having
a resistance rating, shunts are rated in terms of current and voltage. When
an instrument is made with a built-in shunt, as shown in Figure, its scale is
calibrated to read the total current directly.
An ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit in which

current is to be measured. To avoid affecting the current level in the
circuit, the ammeter must have a resistance. In the circuit diagram in
Figure 2.13 (b), RM is the meter resistance (or coil circuit resistance) and RS
is the resistance of the shunt. Suppose that the meter resistance is exactly
99 Ω and the shunt resistance is 1 Ω.
The shunt current, IS will be 99 times the meter current, I M. In this

situation, if the meter gives FSD for a coil current of 0.1 mA, the scale
should be calibrated to read 100 x 0.1 mA or 10 mA at full scale.

Page | 44
2.3.1 BASIC DC AMMETER CIRCUIT (single range DC ammeter)
(a) Construction of DC ammeter

(b) Ammeter circuit
Figure 2.13: A DC ammeter consists of a PMCC instrument and a low

resistance shunt. The meter current is directly proportional to the shunt
current, so that the meter scale can be calibrated to indicate the total
ammeter current.
Equation for shunt resistor in single range DC ammeter:

Rm = internal resistance of coil
Rsh = shunt resistance
Im = full scale deflection current
Ish = shunt current
Vm = Vsh
ImRm = IshRsh
Rsh = (ImRm) / Ish @ Rsh = (ImRm) / (IT – Im)

Page | 45
The internal resistance of an ammeter is very small. Ideally, the

internal resistance should be zero. If the meter resistance were
appreciable, its insertion would change the amount of current being read
by the meter. This is referred to as the loading effect of an ammeter.
Ammeter loading occurs mainly in low-voltage, low-resistance circuits.
DC Ammeter Scale
 The total ammeter current in Problem 2.6 is 10 mA when the moving-
coil instrument indicates FSD.
 Therefore, the meter scale can be calibrated for FSD to indicate 10
mA. When the pointer indicates 0.5 FSD and 0.25 FSD, the current
levels are 5 mA and 2.5 mA, respectively.
 Thus, the ammeter scale may be calibrated to linearly represent all
current levels from zero to 10 mA.
EXAMPLE 2.6:
A PMCC instrument has FSD of 100 µA and a coil resistance of 1 kΩ.

Calculate the required shunt resistance value to convert the instrument
into an ammeter with (a) FSD = 100 mA and (b) FSD = 1 A
[Answer: 1.001 Ω and 0.10001 Ω]
EXAMPLE 2.7:
What shunt resistance is required to extend the range of a 0 mA – 10 mA

movements having a meter resistance of 15 Ω, to read a total of 100mA?
[Answer: 1.67 Ω]

Page | 46
2.3.2 MULTIRANGE DC AMMETERS
A multirange ammeter can be constructed by using several values

of shunt resistors and a rotary switch to select the desired range. The
ammeter shown in Figure 2.14 has a switch, which selects a shunt resistor
to be used across the coil of the meter. This curved type of switching
mechanism is known as a make-before-break switch. The wide-ended
moving contact connects to the next terminal to which it is being moved
before it loses contact with the previous terminal. This is to ensure that, at
all times, there is a shunt across the coil of the meter. Otherwise, an open
circuit may occur and the full current would flow through the coil of the
meter.
The following important points must be noted:

 Ammeter should always be connected in series with the circuit.
 Proper polarity +/- should be observed while making connections.
 In multirange meter, reading should start from the highest and
progressively reduced to obtain full scale deflection.
(a) Multirange ammeter using switched shunts

(b) Make-before-break switch

Page | 47
Figure 2.14: A multirange ammeter consists of a PMCC instrument, several

shunts and a switch that makes contact with the next shunt before losing
contact with the previous one when range switching.
(a) (R1 + R2 + R3) in parallel with Rm
(b) (R1 + R2) in parallel with (Rm + R3)
Figure 2.15: An Ayrton shunt used with an ammeter consists of several

series connected resistors all connected in parallel with the PMCC
instruments. Range change is effected by switching between the resistors
junctions.
EXAMPLE 2.8:
A PMCC instruments has a three-resistor Ayrton shunt connected across it

to make an ammeter, as in Figure. The resistance values are R1=0.05 Ω,
R2=0.45 Ω, R3=4.5 Ω. The meter has RM=1 kΩ and FSD=50 µA. Calculate the
three ranges of the ammeter.
[Answer: 10.05 mA, 100.05 mA and 1000.05 mA]

Page | 48
2.4 DC OHMMETER
An ohmmeter is normally part of a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM), or

multifunction meter. Ohmmeters do not usually exist as individual
instruments. The simplest ohmmeter circuit consists of a voltage source
connected in series with a pair of terminals, a standard resistance, and a
low current PMMC instrument. Such a circuit is shown in Figure 2.16(a). The
resistance to be measured (RX) is connected across terminal A and B.
The meter current indicated by the instrument in Figure 2.16(a) is

(battery voltage) / (total series resistance):
Im = Eb / (RX + R1 + Rm)
When the external resistance is zero (terminals A and B short circuited), the
equation becomes:
Im = Eb / (R1 + Rm)
2.4.1 BASIC SERIES TYPE DC OHMMETER CIRCUIT
(a) Basic circuit of series ohmmeter

(b) Ohmmeter scale
Figure 2.16: Basic circuit ohmmeter

consisting of a PMCC instrument and a
series-connected standard resistor (R1).
When the ohmmeter terminals are shorted
(RX = 0) meter full-scale deflection occurs. At
half-scale deflection RX = R1, and at zero
deflection the terminals are open circuited.

Page | 49
EXAMPLE 2.9:
The series ohmmeter in Figure 2.16 (a) is made up of a 1.5 V battery, a 100
µA meter, and a resistance R1 which makes (R1 + RM) = 15 kΩ.
(a) Determine the instrument indication when RX = 0
(b) Determine how the resistance scale should be marked at 0.5 FSD, 0.25
FSD and 0.75 FSD.
[Answer: (a) 100 µA, (b) 15 kΩ, 45 kΩ and 5 kΩ]
2.4.2 DC OHMMETER WITH ZERO ADJUST
The simple ohmmeter described above will operate satisfactorily as

long as the battery voltage remains exactly at 1.5 V. when the battery
voltage falls (and the output voltage of all batteries fall with use), the
instrument scale is no longer correct. Even if R1 were adjusted to give FSD
when terminals A and B are short circuited, the scale would still be in error
because now midscale would represent a resistance equal to the new
value of R1 + Rm. Falling battery voltage can be taken care of by an
adjustable resistor connected in parallel with the meter (R2 in Figure 2.17).
In Figure 2.17 the battery current Ib splits up into meter current Im and
resistor current I2. With terminals A and B short circuited, R2 is adjusted to
give FSD on the meter. At this time the total circuit resistance is R 1 +
R2||Rm. Since R1 is always very much larger than R2||Rm, the total circuit
resistance can be assumed to equal R1. When a resistance RX equal to R1

Page | 50
is connected across terminals A and B, the circuit resistance is doubled

and the circuit current is halved. This causes both I 2 and Im to be reduced
to half of their previous levels (when A and B were short circuited). Thus,
the midscale measured resistance is again equal to the ohmmeter
internal resistance R1.
The equation for the battery current in Figure 2.12 is:
Also the meter voltage is
Which gives meter current as
Each time the ohmmeter is used, terminals A and B are first short
circuited, and R2 is adjusted for zero-ohm indication on the scale (for FSD).
If this procedure is followed, then even when the battery voltage falls
below its initial level, the scale remains correct.

Page | 51
Figure 2.17: An adjustable resistor (R2) connected in parallel with the meter
provides an ohmmeter zero control. The ohmmeter terminals are initially
short circuited and the zero control is adjusted to give a zero-ohm
reading. This eliminates errors due to variations in the battery voltage.
EXAMPLE 2.10:
The ohmmeter circuit in figure 2.17 has Eb = 1.5 V, R1 = 15 kΩ, RM = 50 Ω, R2

= 50 Ω and meter FSD = 50 µA. Determine the ohmmeter scale reading at
0.5 FSD, and determine the new resistance value that R2 must be adjusted
to when Eb falls to 1.3 V. Also, recalculate the value of RX at 0.5 FSD when
Eb = 1.3 V.
[Answer: At 0.5 FSD with Eb = 1.5 V, Rx =15 kΩ, With Rx = 0 Ω
and Eb = 1.3, R2 = 68.18 Ω, At 0.5 FSD with Eb = 1.3 V, Rx =15 kΩ]

Page | 52
2.4.3 BASIC SHUNT TYPE OHMMETER CIRCUIT
As the accuracy of an ohmmeter is greatest around the center of

the scale, ohmmeter is designed with several different ranges. These
devices are referred to as multirange ohmmeters. The circuit for a
multirange is shown in Figure 2.18 (a). The range switch of this ohmmeter
has resistance ranges of R x 1, R x 10, R x 100, R x 1000 and R x 10000. When
the range switch is on R x 100, the direct reading on the meter scale is
multiplied by 100 for the true reading.
Figure 2.18 (a) shows that the circuit of a typical multirange shunt
ohmmeter as found in good quality multifunction deflection instruments.
The deflection meter used gives FSD when passing 37.5 µA and its
resistance (RM) is 3.82 kΩ. The zero control is a 5 kΩ variable resistance,
which is set to 2.875 kΩ when the battery voltages are at the normal levels.
Two batteries are included in the circuit; a 1.5 V battery used on all ranges
except the R x 10 kΩ range, and a 15 V battery solely for use on the R x 10
kΩ. Rx, the resistance to be measured, is connected at the terminals of
the circuit. The terminals are identified as + and – because the ohmmeter
circuit is part of an instrument that also functions as an ammeter and as a
voltmeter. It is important to note that the negative terminal of each
battery is connected to the + terminal of the multifunction instrument.
In Figure 2.18 (b), the typical scale and controls for this type of
ohmmeter are illustrated. When the range switch is set to R x 1, the scale is
read directly in ohms. On any other range the scale reading is multiplied
by the range factor. On R x 100, for example, the pointer position
illustrated would be read as 30 Ω x 100 = 3 kΩ. The instrument must be zero
before use to take care of battery voltage variation. This can be

Page | 53
performed on any range, simply by short circuiting the + and – terminals

and adjusting the zero control until the pointer indicates exactly 0 Ω.
When changing to or from the R x 10 kΩ range, the ohmmeter zero must
always be checked because the circuit supply is being switched between
the 15 V and 1.5 V batteries.
(a) Multirange ohmmeter circuit

(b) Range switch and scale
Figure 2.18: Circuit, scale and range switch for a typical multirange shunt
ohmmeter, as used on a multifunction analog instrument. The 15 V battery
is used only on the R x 10 kΩ range, and the 1.5 V battery is the supply for
all other ranges.
The ohmmeter equivalent circuit for the R x 1 range is shown in

Figure 2.18. Current and resistance calculations are made in Example 2.11.

Page | 54
EXAMPLE 2.11:
Calculate the meter current and indicated resistance for the ohmmeter
circuit of Figure (a) on its R x 1 range when (a) Rx = 0 and (b) Rx = 24 Ω.
Figure 2.19: Equivalent circuit of

the multirange shunt ohmmeter
on the R x 1 range. The 9.99 kΩ
resistances is the sum of the 9
kΩ, 900 Ω and 90 Ω resistors. The
2.875 kΩ and the 3.82 kΩ
resistors are the zero control and
meter resistances respectively.

Page | 55
2.5 ANALOGUE MULTIMETER
An analog meter uses a movable pointer to indicate the value of a

quantity being tested. Because analog ammeters, ohmmeters and
voltmeters use the same meter movement, they are often combined into
an instrument called a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM), or multimeter. The
number of scales used in a particular meter will vary with the ranges of
voltages and currents required.
The multimeter circuit shown in Figure 2.19 has a separate terminal

provided for each scale. This method of completing the meter circuit for a
test measurement requires a large number of terminals, but when using
this method, there is less chance of meter burn out. By using switches in
place of the terminals, much greater convenience is obtained. However,
if a switch is set incorrectly at the beginning of the measurement, or if it is
carelessly moved without regard for the correct meter scale, the meter
maybe burned out.
They must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V or they may

upset the circuit under test and give an incorrect reading. Batteries inside
the meter provide power for the resistance ranges, they will last several
years but you should avoid leaving the meter set to a resistance range in
case the leads touch accidentally and run the battery flat.

Page | 56
2.5.1 QUANTITIES MEASURED USING ANALOGUE MULTIMETER
 Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.

 Current, alternating and direct, in amperes.
 The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate
must be specified.
 Resistance in ohms.
Typical ranges for analogue multimeters like the one illustrated:

(the voltage and current values given are the maximum reading on each
range)
 DC Voltage: 0.5V, 2.5V, 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
 AC Voltage: 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
 DC Current: 50µA, 2.5mA, 25mA, 250mA.
 Resistance: 20 , 200 , 2k , 20k , 200k .
2.5.2 SENSITIVITY OF AN ANALOGUE MULTIMETER
Multimeters must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V otherwise

their resistance on DC voltage ranges may be too low to avoid upsetting
the circuit under test and giving an incorrect reading. To obtain valid
readings the meter resistance should be at least 10 times the circuit
resistance (take this to be the highest resistor value near where the meter
is connected). Meter resistance can be increase by selecting a higher
voltage range, but this may give a reading which is too small to read
accurately!

Page | 57
On any DC voltage range:

Analogue Meter Resistance = Sensitivity × Maximum reading of range
e.g. a meter with 20k /V sensitivity on its 10V range has a resistance of
20k /V × 10V = 200k .
2.5.3 DETERMINE THE STEP TO DO VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

MEASUREMENTS USING MULTIMETER
a) Measuring voltage and current with a multimeter

1. Select a range with a maximum greater than you expect the
reading to be.
2. Connect the meter, making sure the leads are the correct way
round. Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an
analogue meter may be damaged.
3. If the reading goes off the scale: immediately disconnect and
select a higher range.
Multimeters are easily damaged by careless use so please take these

safety precautions:
1. Always disconnect the multimeter before adjusting the range
switch.
2. Always check the setting of the range switch before you connect to
a circuit.
3. Never leave a multimeter set to a current range (except when
actually taking a reading). The greatest risk of damage is on the
current ranges because the meter has a low resistance.
Measuring voltage at a point

Page | 58
Figure 2.20: Voltage at a point
Use the Volts Function to Measure Voltage

1. Set the meter for the highest range provided for AC or DC Volts.
2. Insert the black (negative) probe in the "COM" or "-" jack, normally
the negative terminal of the battery or power supply.
3. Insert the red (positive) probe in the "V" or "+" jack, to the point you
where you need to measure the voltage.
4. Locate the Voltage scales.
5. Test a common electrical outlet.
6. The black lead can be left permanently connected to 0V while you
use the red lead as a probe to measure voltages at various points.
7. You may wish to fit a crocodile clip to the black lead of your
multimeter to hold it in place while doing testing like this.
Voltage at a point really means the voltage difference between that

point and 0V (zero volts) which is normally the negative terminal of the
battery or power supply. Usually 0V will be labeled on the circuit diagram
as a reminder.

Page | 59
Reading analogue scales
Figure 2.21: Analogue Multimeter Scales and Base
Check the setting of the range switch and choose an appropriate scale.
For some ranges you may need to multiply or divide by 10 or 100 as shown
in the sample readings below. For AC voltage ranges use the red markings
because the calibration of the scale is slightly different.
Sample readings on the scales shown:

i. DC 10V range: 4.4V (read 0-10 scale directly)
ii. DC 50V range: 22V (read 0-50 scale directly)
iii. DC 25mA range: 11mA (read 0-250 and divide by 10)
iv. AC 10V range: 4.45V (use the red scale, reading 0-10)
If you are not familiar with reading analogue scales generally you may
wish to see the analogue display section on the general meters page.

Page | 60
Measure Amperes by use the Amps Function to

1. Determine if AC or DC by measuring the voltage of the circuit as
outlined above.
2. Set the meter to the highest AC or DC Amp range supported.
3. Insert the black probe into the "COM" or "-" jack.
4. Insert the red probe into the "A" jack.
5. Shut off power to the circuit.
6. Open the portion of the circuit that is to be tested (one lead or the
other of the resistor).
7. Apply power and adjust range of meter downward to allow
accurate reading of pointer on the dial.
8. If you're measuring the current consumed by the device itself, be
aware of any filter capacitors or any element that requires an inrush
(surge) current when switched on.
Measuring resistance with an ANALOGUE multimeter

The resistance scale on an analogue meter is normally at the top, it is an
unusual scale because it reads backwards and is not linear. This is
unfortunate, but it is due to the way the meter works.
1. Set the multimeter to Ohms or Resistance (turn meter on if it has a

separate power switch).
2. Set the meter to a suitable resistance range. Choose a range so that

the resistance you expect will be near the middle of the scale. For
example: with the scale shown below and an expected resistance of
about 50k choose the × 1k range.

Page | 61
3. Hold the meter probes together and adjust the control on the front of
the meter which is usually labelled "0 ADJ" until the pointer reads zero
(on the RIGHT remember!). If you can't adjust it to read zero, the
battery inside the meter needs replacing.
4. Connect the black test lead to the jack marked "Common" or "-" and
connect the red test lead to the jack marked with the Omega (Ohm
symbol) or letter "R" near it.
5. Put the probes across the component.
6. Reading analogue resistance scales
7. For resistance use the upper scale, noting that it reads backwards.
8. Check the setting of the range switch so that you know by how much
to multiply the reading.
9. Sample readings on the scales shown: × 10 range: 260 × 1k range: 26k
10. If you are not familiar with reading analogue scales generally you may
wish to see the analogue display section on the general meters page.
2.5.4 MULTIMETER SAFETY PRECAUTION
As with other meters, the incorrect use of a multimeter could cause

injury or damage. The following safety precautions for using a multimeter:
1. Reenergize and discharge the circuit completely before
connecting or disconnecting a multimeter.
2. Never apply power to the circuit while measuring resistance with a
multimeter, the voltage across the resistance may damage the
meter.
Page | 62
3. Connect the multimeter in series with the circuit for current

measurements and in parallel for voltage measurements.
4. Verify the circuit polarity before making test, particularly when
measuring dc current or voltages.
5. To prevent meter overloading and possible damage when
checking voltage or current, start with the highest range of the
instrument and move down the range successively.
6. For higher accuracy, the range selected should be such that the
deflection falls in the upper half on the meter scale. Select a final
range that allows a reading near the middle of the scale.
7. Take extra precaution when checking high voltages and checking
current in high voltage circuits.
8. Adjust the "0 ohms" reading after changing resistance ranges and
before making a resistance measurement.
9. Be certain the multimeter is switched to ac before attempting to
measure ac circuits.
10. Be certain to read ac measurements on the ac scale of a
multimeter.
11. When you are finished with a multimeter, switch it to the OFF
position, if available. If there is no OFF position, switch the multimeter
to the highest ac voltage position.
12. Observe the general safety precautions for electrical and electronic
devices.
13. Renew ohmmeter batteries frequently to insure accuracy of the
resistance scale.
14. Recalibrate the instrument at frequent intervals.
15. Protect the instrument from dust, moisture, fumes and heat.

Page | 63
2.5.5 CALIBRATE THE MULTIMETER
a) Multimeters come with a red lead and a black lead. There will be
slots on the Multimeter. One slot will read volt/ohm, one will read (A)
or amps and the other will be the Ground (GND) slot. You will want
to take the red lead and insert it into the volt/ohm slot.
b) Take the black lead and insert it into the ground slot.
c) Turn on the Multimeter.
d) Turn or select the Ohms function on the meter.
e) Touch the leads together. The reading will change from infinite
ohms to zero. This is the reading of a properly calibrated multimeter.
2.6 DIGITAL MULTIMETER
A digital meter provides a digital readout of a quantity being

measured. Although digital meter are becoming increasingly popular as
test instruments, analog meter are still widely used in industry. A digital
multimeter (DMM) displays voltage, current and resistance measurements
as decimal numbers.
Numerical readout is advantageous in many applications because

it reduces human reading error and eliminates parallax error. Parallax is
caused by looking at a meter from an angle, which will cause the pointer
to appear left or right of the true position. Because the digital meter has
no pointer, parallax is nonexistent.
a. Digital Multi Meter displays readings in the form of numbers.
b. Many were constructed based on `logic building blocks’ such as
gate, register, counter encoder etc.

Page | 64
c. Digital Meter is exchange circuit (conversion circuit) such as voltage

to time with the electronic counter and display unit.
2.6.1 DIGITAL MULTIMETER BLOCK DIAGRAM
AC V Range switch or AC/DC

attenuation Converter
DC V DC V
Range switch or
attenuation
Input Selector
Selector DC V Switch
Switch DC/AC mA Current detector
and attenuation
Ohm Ohm / DC V DC V
Converter
Decimal
point
A/D Converter
LCD Display
& Display Drive
Figure 2.22 : Basic Digital Multimeter Diagram

Page | 65
2.6.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OPERATION
1. Input signal such as a DC voltage signal passes through an

attenuation circuit or range switch and A-D converter and display
drive. Readings are displayed in digital form on the LCD display.
2. Similarly, the AC voltage signal applied to input terminal, it will be

through an attenuation circuit (switch range) and then converted
to DC voltage by AC / DC converter, and fed into the A-D
converter.
3. For current measurements (DC or AC) signal will be converted to

DC or AC voltage current through the detector circuit. It will be fed
into the A-D converter.
4. To measure resistance, resistance to be measured is connected in

series with a reference resistance and current signal applied. So the
voltage across the resistor to be measured is fed to the A-D
converter.
5. Incoming signals to the A-D converter is a DC analog data.

Page | 66
2.6.3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANALOG AND DIGITAL MULTIMETER
Digital Analog
Accuracy Extremely accurate for Meter reading is more
fixed signals. Less accurate on right side
accurate for slow- of scale than on left
changing and peak side.
signals.
Reading errors Unlikely due to digital Errors in meter reading
display providing can results from
readout. parallax.
Range selection Automatic or manual. Manual.
Loading effect Minimal on low- Readings can be
resistance circuits. Can severely affected.
be substantial on high-
resistance circuits.
Electromagnetic Can adversely affect Have no effect on
fields meter. meter.
2.6.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL MULTIMETER
DMMs have many advantages over analog meters, including

automatic over range indication, over voltage protection and even
automatic range selection. Some DMMs allow you to choose between
manual and automatic ranging. A typical DMM will have four digits and a
decimal point. DMMs are also available in five-digit configurations and
have greater accuracy and resolution.

Page | 67
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
o Have high impedance, no o LCD display can be too
effect of overload. dim to read easily.
o Wide Range. o Not suitable for
o Error reading can be reduced. measuring fluctuations
o The value read is accurate and transients.
and accelerate the reading. o No zero adjustment for
o Have some sort of resistance measurement,
measurement such as dc except on advanced
DIGITAL
voltage, ac voltage, ac models.
MULTIMETER
current, dc current and
resistance.
o Able to read up to two
decimal numbers and a better
accuracy.
o Various ranges for each
measurement.
o Input waveform is high.
o Sensitive - Can measure the o Limited accuracy.
small value. o No auto ranging.
o High input impedance. o Possible to read the
o The power of batteries is low wrong scale by mistake.
ANALOG
(mobile). o Scale can be difficult to
MULTIMETER
o A wide range. read.
o Ability to measure very low o Delicate.
voltages.

Page | 68
EXAMPLE 2.1
Is
Rs1 Rs2
2 Rm
1
Switch
Figure 1a
Based on Figure 1a, the basic meter has internal resistor of 1.5 KΩ and full
scale current, Ifs = 60µA. The PMMC have a range of 10 mA (switch 1) and
50 mA (switch 2). Calculate the shunt resistor Rs1 and Rs2.
[Answer: Switch 1 Rs1 = 9.054 Ω, Switch 2 Rs2 = 1.8022 Ω]
EXAMPLE 2.2
A PMMC meter movement with FSD of 150 µA and an internal resistance

of 2 kΩ are converted into a voltmeter. Calculate the value of the
multiplier resistance if the voltmeter is measured at a full scale of 30V.
[Answer: Rs = 1.98 kΩ]
EXAMPLE 2.3
A Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMCC) instrument with 150 turn coil
has a magnetic flux density of 0.5 T in its air gap. The coil diameter is 1.5
mm and its length is 2 cm. If the flowing current is 3mA, calculate the
torque on the coil.
[Answer: 67.5 x 10-5 N.m]

Page | 69
EXAMPLE 2.4
Based on the schematic circuit in figure 1(c), find the value of I S and IT.
Im = 2mA
0.5 Ω
IT IS
2Ω
Figure 1(c)
[Answer: Is = 0.5 mA, IT = 2.5 mA]
EXAMPLE 2.5
A basic D’ Arsonval movement with a full scale deflection of 250 μA and

an internal resistance of 2 KΩ is available. The meter is to be converted
into 0 - 5 V (R1) and 0 -10 V (R2), multirange voltmeter using series
connection.
i. Draw and label a circuit diagram for the multirange voltmeter.
ii. Calculate the multiplier resistor of R1 and R2.
Rm = 2 kΩ, Im = 250 μA
[Answer: Switch Rs1 = 18 kΩ, Switch 2 Rs2 = 20 kΩ]

Page | 70
DEE1012 MEASUREMENT
CHAPTER 3
OSCILLOSCOPE AND SIGNAL GENERATOR
This chapter discuss basic concept of analogue and digital oscilloscope functional
block diagrams, types of oscilloscope probes, function of oscilloscope control
panels; display controls, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls.
This chapter also discusses use of oscilloscope for waveform measurement. Types
of signal generators, signal generators control panels; frequency selection,
frequency sweep, amplitude modulation, DC offset, waveform selection and
output. And use of signal generator as signal source to the circuits.
CHAPTER 3 OSCILLOSCOPE & SIGNAL GENERATOR
3.0 OSCILLOSCOPE & SIGNAL GENERATOR
3.1 OSCILLOSCOPE
3.1.1 DEFINITION OF OSCILLOSCOPE
i. An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display

and analyze the waveform of electronic signals. In effect, the device
draws a graph of the instantaneous signal voltage as a function of
time.
ii. An electronic measuring instrument consisting of a cathode-ray tube
(CRT) and various associated circuit sections.
iii. Oscilloscope is a device that allows the amplitude of electrical signals,
whether they be voltage, current, power, etc., to be displayed
primarily as a function of time
3.1.2 THE FUNCTIONS OF OSCILLOSCOPE
I. Commonly is used to automatically plot a particular voltage variation

versus time can measured on the two-dimensional graph drawn by
oscilloscope.
II. Parameters such as phase shift, rise time, decay time, peak-to-peak
voltage, repetition rate, pulse duration, pulse delay time, period and
frequency can all be measured using this versatile instrument.

Page | 71
Figure 3.1: Scientific data gathered by an oscilloscope
3.1.2.1 CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT)
a. The heart of the oscilloscope is the cathode-ray tube (CRT) because it

performs the basic functions to convert a signal into an image.
b. The CRT is a vacuum tube similar in shape to a TV picture tube as

illustrated in Figure 3.1. A CRT consists of an electron gun for supplying a
concentrated beam of electrons, two pairs of deflection plates for
changing the direction of the electron beam, and a screen coated with a
substance that glows when struck by the electron beam.
c. A transparent, ruled screen, called a graticule, generally is mounted in

front of the fluorescent screen.
d. An electric current is passed through the heater of the electron gun in

order to increase the temperature of the cathode to a point where
electrons are emitted.
e. The cathode is surrounded by a cylindrical cap that is at a negative

potential. This cap, which has a small hole located along the longitudinal
axis of the CRT, acts as the control grid.

Page | 72
f. Because the control grid is at a negative potential, electrons are repelled

away from the cylindrical walls and, consequently, stream through the
hole where they move into the electric fields of the focusing and
accelerating grids.
Deflection Planes
Vertical Horizontal Spot

Electron
V H
Beam
Electron
Gun
Fluorescent
screen
Figure 3.2: Basic component of a Cathod Ray Tube (CRT)
3.1.3 TYPES OF OSCILLOSCOPE
a. Analog
b. Digital
Electronic equipment can be divided into two types, analog and digital.
Analog equipment works with continuously variable voltages, while digital
equipment works with discrete binary numbers that may represent voltage
samples.
Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types. An analog
oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage being measured to an
electron beam moving across the oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the

Page | 73
beam up and down proportionally, tracing the waveform on the screen. This
gives an immediate picture of the waveform. In contrast, a digital oscilloscope
samples the waveform and uses an analog-to-digital converter (or ADC) to
convert the voltage being measured into digital information. It then uses this
digital information to reconstruct the waveform on the screen.
Figure 3.3: Digital and Analog Oscilloscopes Display Waveforms
For many applications either an analog or digital oscilloscope will do.

However, each type does possess some unique characteristics making it more
or less suitable for specific tasks. People often prefer analog oscilloscopes when
it is important to display rapidly varying signals in "real time".
Digital oscilloscopes allow you to capture and view events that may
happen only once. They can process the digital waveform data or send the
data to a computer for processing. Also, they can store the digital waveform
data for later viewing and printing. To better understand the oscilloscope
controls, you need to know a little more about how oscilloscopes display a
signal. Analog oscilloscopes work somewhat differently than digital
oscilloscopes. However, several of the internal systems are similar. Analog

Page | 74
oscilloscopes are somewhat simpler in concept and are described first, followed
by a description of digital oscilloscopes.
A. ANALOG OSCILLOSCOPE
1. Original type of oscilloscope.

2. Uses analogue techniques throughout to create the pattern on the
display.
3. Typically use a cathode ray tube where the voltages on the x and y
plats cause a dot on the screen to move.
4. In the horizontal direction this is controlled by the time base, whereas in
the vertical direction the deflection is proportional to the signal input.
5. Essentially the signal is amplified and applied to the Y plates of the
cathode ray tube.
3.1.4 THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN ANALOGUE OSCILLOSCOPE.
When connect an oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the voltage signal

travels through the probe to the vertical system of the oscilloscope. Following
Figure is a simple block diagram that shows how an analog oscilloscope displays
a measured signal.

Page | 75
Figure 3.4: Analog Oscilloscope Block Diagram
3.1.4.1 THE BASIC FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN ANALOGUE

OSCILLOSCOPE
Depend on the setting of vertical scale (volts/div control), an attenuator

reduces the signal voltage or an amplifier increases the signal voltage. The
signal travels directly to the vertical deflection plates of the cathode ray tube
(CRT). Voltage applied to these deflection plates causes a glowing dot to
move. (An electron beam hitting phosphor inside the CRT creates the glowing
dot.) A positive voltage causes the dot to move up while a negative voltage
causes the dot to move down.
The signal also travels to the trigger system to start or trigger a "horizontal
sweep." Horizontal sweep is a term referring to the action of the horizontal
system causing the glowing dot to move across the screen. Triggering the
horizontal system causes the horizontal time base to move the glowing dot
across the screen from left to right within a specific time interval. Many sweeps in
rapid sequence cause the movement of the glowing dot to blend into a solid

Page | 76
line. At higher speeds, the dot may sweep across the screen up to 500,000 times
each second.
Together, the horizontal sweeping action and the vertical deflection

action trace a graph of the signal on the screen. The trigger is necessary to
stabilize a repeating signal. It ensures that the sweep begins at the same point
of a repeating signal, resulting in a clear picture as shown in following figure.
Figure 3.5: Triggering Stabilizes a Repeating Waveform
In conclusion, to use an analog oscilloscope, need to adjust three basic

settings to accommodate an incoming signal:
 The attenuation or amplification of the signal. Use the volts/div control to
adjust the amplitude of the signal before it is applied to the vertical
deflection plates.
 The time base. Use the sec/div control to set the amount of time per
division represented horizontally across the screen.
 The triggering of the oscilloscope. Use the trigger level to stabilize a
repeating signal, as well as triggering on a single event.
Also, adjusting the focus and intensity controls enables you to create a sharp,
visible display.

Page | 77
3.1.5 THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPE
Figure 3.6: Digital Oscilloscope Block Diagram
3.1.5.1 BASIC FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPE
Fundamentally, with a digital oscilloscope as with an analog oscilloscope,

you need to adjust the vertical, horizontal, and trigger settings to take a
measurement.
SAMPLING METHODS
The sampling method tells the digital oscilloscope how to collect sample
points. For slowly changing signals, a digital oscilloscope easily collects more
than enough sample points to construct an accurate picture. However, for
faster signals, (how fast depends on the oscilloscope's maximum sample rate)

Page | 78
the oscilloscope cannot collect enough samples. The digital oscilloscope can
do two things:
 It can collect a few sample points of the signal in a single pass (in real-
time sampling mode) and then use interpolation. Interpolation is a
processing technique to estimate what the waveform looks like based on
a few points.
 It can build a picture of the waveform over time, as long as the signal
repeats itself (equivalent-time sampling mode).
REAL-TIME SAMPLING WITH INTERPOLATION
Digital oscilloscopes use real-time sampling as the standard sampling

method. In real-time sampling, the oscilloscope collects as many samples as it
can as the signal occurs. See following figure for single-shot or transient signals
you must use real time sampling.
Figure 3.7: Real Time Sampling Diagram
Digital oscilloscopes use interpolation to display signals that are so fast

that the oscilloscope can only collect a few sample points. Interpolation
"connects the dots." Linear interpolation simply connects sample points with
straight lines. Sine interpolation (or sin x over x interpolation) connects sample
points with curves. (See Following Figure) Sin x over x interpolation is a
mathematical process similar to the "oversampling" used in compact disc
players. With sine interpolation, points are calculated to fill in the time between

Page | 79
the real samples. Using this process, a signal that is sampled only a few times in
each cycle can be accurately displayed or, in the case of the compact disc
player, accurately played back.
Figure 3.8: Linear and Sine Interpolation Diagram
EQUIVALENT-TIME SAMPLING
Some digital oscilloscopes can use equivalent-time sampling to capture

very fast repeating signals. Equivalent-time sampling constructs a picture of a
repetitive signal by capturing a little bit of information from each repetition. (See
Following Figure) You see the waveform slowly build up like a string of lights
going on one-by-one. With sequential sampling the points appear from left to
right in sequence; with random sampling the points appear randomly along the
waveform.

Page | 80
Figure 3.9: Equivalent-time Sampling Diagram
3.1.6 Advantages And Disadvantages Digital Oscilloscope With Analogue

Oscilloscope In Term Of Accuracy.
a) Digital Oscilloscope
Advantages Disadvantages
High-accuracy measurements Can be more costly
Can be less intuitive to operate
Display storage because they typically have more
features)
Bright, well-focused display at
virtually sweep speed
Pre-trigger viewing capability
Peak/glitch detection
Automatic measurements
Computer, printer/plotter
connectivity

Page | 81
Waveform processing capability

including waveform math functions
Display modes like averaging and
infinite persistence
Self calibration
b) Analogue Oscilloscope
Advantages Disadvantages
Familiar controls Low accuracy
Instantaneous display updating for Display flicker and/or dim display
real- adjustments
Direct, dedicated controls No pre-trigger viewing capability
Adjustments like vertical sensitivity,
time base speed, trace position
and trigger level low cost
Limited bandwidth
Higher cost of ownership
Limited measurement capability
3.2 BASIC CONTROL FUNCTIONS OF OSCILLOSCOPE
This section briefly describes the basic controls found on analog and
digital oscilloscopes. Remember that some controls differ between analog and
digital oscilloscopes.

Page | 82
3.2.1 FRONT PANEL OF AN OSCILLOSCOPE
Front panel of an oscilloscope is divided into three main sections labeled

Vertical, Horizontal, and Trigger. Oscilloscope may have other sections,
depending on the model and type (analog or digital).
Notice the input connectors on oscilloscope. This is where the probes attach.
Most oscilloscopes have at least two input channels and each channel can
display a waveform on the screen. Multiple channels are handy for comparing
waveforms.
Some oscilloscopes have an AUTOSET or PRESET button that sets up the

controls in one step to accommodate a signal. If oscilloscope does not have this
feature, it is helpful to set the controls to standard positions before taking
measurements.
Figure 3.10: Front Panel Control Sections of an Oscilloscope

Page | 83
Standard positions include the following:

i. Set the oscilloscope to display channel 1.
ii. Set the volts/division scale to a mid-range position.
iii. Turn off the variable volts/division.
iv. Turn off all magnification settings.
v. Set the channel 1 input coupling to DC.
vi. Set the trigger mode to auto.
vii. Set the trigger source to channel 1.
viii. Turn trigger hold off to minimum or off.
ix. Set the intensity control to a nominal viewing level.
x. Adjust the focus control for a sharp display.
These are general instructions for setting up oscilloscope. If you are not sure how
to do any of these steps, refer to the manual that came with your oscilloscope.
3.2.2 DISPLAY CONTROLS
Display systems vary between analog and digital oscilloscopes. Common

controls include:
a. An intensity control to adjust the brightness of the waveform. As you
increase the sweep speed of an analog oscilloscope, you need to
increase the intensity level.
b. A focus control to adjust the sharpness of the waveform. Digital
oscilloscopes may not have a focus control.
c. A trace rotation control to align the waveform trace with the screen's
horizontal axis. The position of your oscilloscope in the earth's magnetic
field affects waveform alignment. Digital oscilloscopes may not have a
trace rotation control.

Page | 84
d. Scaleillum knob is used to adjust scale brightness. If this knob is turned

clockwise, brightness is increased. This feature is useful for operation in
dark places, or when taking pictures
e. CAL 0.5V terminal outputs a 0.5V p-p 1 KHz rectangular wave for
calibrating probes.
f. GND TERMINAL is a grounding terminal.
g. Other display controls may let you adjust the intensity of the graticule
lights and turn on or off any on-screen information (such as menus).
3.2.3 VERTICAL CONTROLS
Use the vertical controls to position and scale the waveform vertically.
Your oscilloscope also has controls for setting the input coupling and other signal
conditioning, described in this section. Figure 3.11 shows a typical front panel
and on-screen menus for the vertical controls.
Figure 3.11: Vertical Controls

Page | 85
Position and Volts per Division

The vertical position control let’s move the waveform up or down to exactly
where you want it on the screen. The volt per division (usually written volts/div)
setting varies the size of the waveform on the screen. A good general purpose
oscilloscope can accurately display signal levels from about 4 milivolts to 40
volts. The volts/div setting is a scale factor.
For example, if the volts/div setting is 5 volts, then each of the eight vertical
divisions represents 5 volts and the entire screen can show 40 volts from bottom
to top (assuming a graticule with eight major divisions). If the setting is 0.5
volts/div, the screen can display 4 volts from bottom to top, and so on. The
maximum voltage can display on the screen is the volts/div setting times the
number of vertical divisions.
The probe used, 1X or 10X, also influences the scale factor. You must divide the
volts/div scale by the attenuation factor of the probe if the oscilloscope does
not do it for you.) Often the volts/div scale has either a variable gain or a fine
gain control for scaling a displayed signal to a certain number of divisions. Use
this control to take rise time measurements.
Input Coupling
Coupling means the method used to connect an electrical signal from one
circuit to another. In this case, the input coupling is the connection from your
test circuit to the oscilloscope. The coupling can be set to DC, AC, or ground.
DC coupling shows all of an input signal. AC coupling blocks the DC component
of a signal so that the waveform centered at zero volts. Figure 3.12 illustrates this
difference. The AC coupling setting is handy when the entire signal (alternating
plus constant components) is too large for the volts/div setting.

Page | 86
Figure 3.12: AC and DC Input Coupling
The ground setting disconnects the input signal from the vertical system, which
lets see where zero volts are on the screen. With grounded input coupling and
auto trigger mode, a horizontal line on the screen that represents zero volts.
Switching from DC to ground and back again is a handy way of measuring
signal voltage levels with respect to ground.
Bandwidth Limit
Most oscilloscopes have a circuit that limits the bandwidth of the oscilloscope.
By limiting the bandwidth, you reduce the noise that sometimes appears on the
displayed waveform, providing you with a more defined signal display.
Channel Invert
Most oscilloscopes have an invert function that allows you to display a signal
"upside-down." That is, with low voltage at the top of the screen and high
voltage at the bottom.
Alternate and Chop Display

On analog scopes, multiple channels are displayed using either an alternate or
chop mode. (Digital oscilloscopes do not normally use chop or alternate mode.)

Page | 87
Alternate mode draws each channel alternately - the oscilloscope completes

one sweep on channel 1, then one sweep on channel 2, a second sweep on
channel 1, and so on. Use this mode with medium- to high-speed signals, when
the sec/div scale is set to 0.5 ms or faster.
Figure 3.13: Multi-Channel Display Modes
Chop mode causes the oscilloscope to draw small parts of each signal by
switching back and forth between them. The switching rate is too fast for you to
notice, so the waveform looks whole. You typically use this mode with slow
signals requiring sweep speeds of 1 ms per division or less. Figure 3.13 shows the
difference between the two modes. It is often useful to view the signal both
ways, to make sure you have the best view.
Math Operations
Oscilloscope may also have operations to allow you to add waveforms
together, creating a new waveform display. Analog oscilloscopes combine the
signals while digital oscilloscopes mathematically create new waveforms.
Subtracting waveforms is another math operation. Subtraction with analog
oscilloscopes is possible by using the channel invert function on one signal and
then use the add operation. Digital oscilloscopes typically have a subtraction

Page | 88
operation available. Figure 3.9 illustrates a third waveform created by adding

two different signals together.
Figure 3.9: Adding Channels
3.2.4 HORIZONTAL CONTROLS
Use the horizontal controls to position and scale the waveform

horizontally. Figure shows a typical front panel and on-screen menus for the
horizontal controls.
Position and Seconds per Division

The horizontal position control moves the waveform from left and right to exactly
where you want it on the screen.
Figure 3.10: Horizontal Controls

Page | 89
The seconds per division (usually written as sec/div) setting lets select the rate at
which the waveform is drawn across the screen (also known as the time base
setting or sweep speed). This setting is a scale factor. For example, if the setting is
1 ms, each horizontal division represents 1 ms and the total screen width
represents 10 ms (ten divisions). Changing the sec/div setting lets you look at
longer or shorter time intervals of the input signal.
As with the vertical volts/div scale, the horizontal sec/div scale may have
variable timing, allowing setting the horizontal time scale in between the
discrete settings.
Time Base Selections

Oscilloscope has a time base usually referred to as the main time base and it is
probably the most useful. Many oscilloscopes have what is called a delayed
time base - a time base sweep that starts after a pre-determined time from the
start of the main time base sweep. Using a delayed time base sweep allows to
see events more clearly or even see events not visible with just the main time
base sweep.
The delayed time base requires the setting of a delay time and possibly the use
of delayed trigger modes and other settings not described in this book. Refer to
the manual supplied with your oscilloscope for information on how to use these
features.
Trigger Position
The trigger position control may be located in the horizontal control section of
oscilloscope. It actually represents "the horizontal position of the trigger in the
waveform record." Horizontal trigger position control is only available on digital

Page | 90
oscilloscopes. Varying the horizontal trigger position allows to capture what a

signal did before a trigger event (called pre-trigger viewing).
Digital oscilloscopes can provide pre-trigger viewing because they constantly

process the input signal whether a trigger has been received or not. A steady
stream of data flows through the oscilloscope; the trigger merely tells the
oscilloscope to save the present data in memory. In contrast, analog
oscilloscopes only display the signal after receiving the trigger.
Pre-trigger viewing is a valuable troubleshooting aid. For example, if a problem

occurs intermittently, we can trigger on the problem, record the events that led
up to it and, possibly, find the cause.
Magnification
Oscilloscope may have special horizontal magnification settings that let you
display a magnified section of the waveform on-screen.
XY Mode
Most oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying a second channel signal
along the X-axis (instead of time). This is called XY mode.
3.2.5 TRIGGER CONTROLS
The trigger controls let stabilize repeating waveforms and capture single -
shot waveforms. Figure 3.11 shows a typical front panel and on-screen menus for
the trigger controls.

Page | 91
Figure 3.11: Trigger Controls
The trigger makes repeating waveforms appear static on the oscilloscope

display. Imagine the jumble on the screen that would result if each sweep
started at a different place on the signal (see Figure 3.12).
Figure 3.12: Untriggered Display

Page | 92
Trigger Level and Slope

Oscilloscope may have several different types of triggers, such as edge, video,
pulse, or logic. Edge triggering is the basic and most common type and is the
only type discussed in this book. Consult oscilloscope instruction manual for
details on other trigger types. For edge triggering, the trigger level and slope controls
provide the basic trigger point definition.
The trigger circuit acts as a comparator. Select the slope and voltage level of
one side of the comparator. When the trigger signal matches with the settings,
the oscilloscope generates a trigger.
 The slope control determines whether the trigger point is on the rising or
the falling edge of a signal. A rising edge is a positive slope and a falling
edge is a negative slope.
 The level control determines where on the edge the trigger point occurs.
Figure 3.13 shows you the trigger slope and level settings determine how a
waveform is displayed.
Figure 3.13: Positive and Negative Slope Triggering

Page | 93
Trigger Sources
The oscilloscope does not necessarily have to trigger on the signal being
measured. Several sources can trigger the sweep:
 Any input channel
 An external source, other than the signal applied to an input channel
 The power source signal
 A signal internally generated by the oscilloscope
Note that the oscilloscope can use an alternate trigger source whether
displayed or not. So must be careful not to unwittingly trigger on, for example,
channel 1 while displaying channel 2.
Trigger Modes
The trigger mode determines whether or not the oscilloscope draws a waveform
if it does not detect a trigger. Common trigger modes include normal and auto.
In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the input signal reaches the set
trigger point; otherwise the screen is blank or frozen on the last acquired
waveform. Normal mode can be disorienting since may not see the signal at first
if the level control is not adjusted correctly.
Auto mode causes the oscilloscope to sweep, even without a trigger. If no signal
is present, a timer in the oscilloscope triggers the sweep. This ensures that the
display will not disappear if the signal drops to small voltages. It is also the best
mode to use if looking at many signals and do not want to bother setting the
trigger each time. In practice, we will probably use both modes: normal mode
because it is more versatile and auto mode because it requires less adjustment.
Some oscilloscopes also include special modes for single sweeps, triggering on
video signals, or automatically setting the trigger level.

Page | 94
Trigger Coupling
Just as can select either AC or DC coupling for the vertical system, choose the
kind of coupling for the trigger signal. Besides AC and DC coupling, oscilloscope
may also have high frequency rejection, low frequency rejection, and noise
rejection trigger coupling. These special settings are useful for eliminating noise
from the trigger signal to prevent false triggering.
Trigger Hold off

Sometimes getting an oscilloscope to trigger on the correct part of a signal
requires great skill. Many oscilloscopes have special features to make this task
easier. Trigger hold off is an adjustable period of time during which the
oscilloscope cannot trigger. This feature is useful when triggering on complex
waveform shapes, so that the oscilloscope only triggers on the first eligible
trigger point. Figure 3.14 shows how using trigger hold off helps create a usable
display.
Figure 3.14: Trigger Hold off

Page | 95
Acquisition Controls for Digital Oscilloscopes

Digital oscilloscopes have settings that let control the acquisition system
processes a signal. Look over the acquisition options on digital oscilloscope while
read this description. Figure 3.15 shows an example of an acquisition menu.
Figure 3.15: Example of an Acquisition Menu
Acquisition Modes
Acquisition modes control how waveform points are produced from sample
points. Recall from the first section that sample points are the digital values that
come directly out of the Analog-to-Digital-Converter (ADC). The time between
sample points is called the sample interval. Waveform points are the digital
values that are stored in memory and displayed to form the waveform. The time
value difference between waveform points is called the waveform interval. The
sample interval and the waveform interval may be but need not be the same.
This fact leads to the existence of several different acquisition modes in which
one waveform point is made up from several sequentially acquired sample
points. Additionally, waveform points can be created from a composite of

Page | 96
sample points taken from multiple acquisitions, which leads to another set of
acquisition modes. A description of the most commonly used acquisition modes
follows.
i. Sample Mode: This is the simplest acquisition mode. The oscilloscope
creates a waveform point by saving one sample point during each
waveform interval.
ii. Peak Detect Mode: The oscilloscope saves the minimum and maximum
value sample points taken during two waveform intervals and uses these
samples as the two corresponding waveform points. Digital oscilloscopes
with peak detect mode run the ADC at a fast sample rate, even at very
slow time base settings (long waveform interval), and are able to capture
fast signal changes that would occur between the waveform points if in
sample mode. Peak detect mode is particularly useful for seeing narrow
pulses spaced far apart in time.
iii. Hi Res Mode: Like peak detect, hi res mode is a way of getting more
information in cases when the ADC can sample faster than the time base
setting requires. In this case, multiple samples taken within one waveform
interval are averaged together to produce one waveform point. The
result is a decrease in noise and an improvement in resolution for low
speed signals.
iv. Envelope Mode: Envelope mode is similar to peak detect mode. However,
in envelope mode, the minimum and maximum waveform points from
multiple acquisitions are combined to form a waveform that shows
min/max changes over time. Peak detect mode is usually used to acquire
the records that are combined to form the envelope waveform.
v. Average Mode: In average mode, the oscilloscope saves one sample
point during each waveform interval as in sample mode. However,
waveform points from consecutive acquisitions are then averaged

Page | 97
together to produce the final displayed waveform. Average mode

reduces noise without loss of bandwidth but requires a repeating signal.
Stopping and Starting the Acquisition System

One of the greatest advantages of digital oscilloscopes is their ability to store
waveforms for later viewing. To this end, there are usually one or more buttons
on the front panel that allow you to stop and start the acquisition system so we
can analyze waveforms at leisure. Additionally, we may want the oscilloscope
to automatically stop acquiring after one acquisition is complete or after one set
of records has been turned into an envelope or average waveform. This feature
is commonly called single sweep or single sequence and its controls are usually
found either with the other acquisition controls or with the trigger controls.
Sampling Methods
In digital oscilloscopes that can use either real-time sampling or equivalent-time
sampling as described earlier, the acquisition controls will allow to choose which
one to use for acquiring signals. Note that this choice makes no difference for
slow time base settings and only has an effect when the ADC cannot sample
fast enough to fill the record with waveform points in one pass.
Other Controls
So far we have described the basic controls that a beginner needs to know
about. Oscilloscope may have other controls for various functions. Some of
these may include:
o Measurement cursors.
o Keypads for mathematical operations or data entry.
o Print capabilities.
o Interfaces for connecting your oscilloscope to a computer.

Page | 98
3.3 OSCILLOSCOPE PROBES
3.3.1 DEFINITION OF OSCILLOSCOPE PROBES
Now ready to connect a probe to your oscilloscope. It is important to use

a probe designed to work with your oscilloscope. A probe is more than a cable
with a clip-on tip. It is a high-quality connector, carefully designed not to pick up
stray radio and power line noise.
Probes are designed not to influence the behavior of the circuit we are
testing. However, no measurement device can act as a perfectly invisible
observer. The unintentional interaction of the probe and oscilloscope with the
circuit being tested is called circuit loading. To minimize circuit loading, you will
probably use a 10X attenuator (passive) probe.
Oscilloscope probably arrived with a passive probe as a standard

accessory. Passive probes provide you with an excellent tool for general-
purpose testing and troubleshooting. For more specific measurements or tests,
many other types of probes exist. Two examples are active and current probes.
3.3.2 TYPES OF OSCILLOSCOPE PROBES
Using Passive Probes

Most passive probes have some degree of attenuation factor, such as 10X,
100X, and so on. By convention, attenuation factors, such as for the 10X
attenuator probe, have the X after the factor. In contrast, magnification factors
like X10 have the X first.

Page | 99
The 10X (read as "ten times") attenuator probe minimizes circuit loading and is
an excellent general-purpose passive probe. Circuit loading becomes more
pronounced at higher frequencies, so be sure to use this type of probe when
measuring signals above 5 kHz. The 10X attenuator probe improves the
accuracy of your measurements, but it also reduces the amplitude of the signal
seen on the screen by a factor of 10.
Because it attenuates the signal, the 10X attenuator probe makes it difficult to
look at signals less than 10 millivolts. The 1X probe is similar to the 10X attenuator
probe but lacks the attenuation circuitry. Without this circuitry, more interference
is introduced to the circuit being tested. Use the 10X attenuator probe as your
standard probe, but keep the 1X probe handy for measuring weak signals.
Some probes have a convenient feature for switching between 1X and 10X
attenuation at the probe tip. If your probe has this feature, make sure you are
using the correct setting before taking measurements.
Many oscilloscopes can detect whether you are using a 1X or 10X probe and
adjust their screen readouts accordingly. However with some oscilloscopes, you
must set the type of probe you are using or read from the proper 1X or 10X
marking on the volts/div control.
The 10X attenuator probe works by balancing the probe's electrical properties
against the oscilloscope's electrical properties. Before using a 10X attenuator
probe you need to adjust this balance for your particular oscilloscope. This
adjustment is called compensating the probe. Figure 3.16 shows a simple
diagram of the internal workings of a probe, its adjustment, and the input of an
oscilloscope.

Page | 100
Figure 3.16: Typical Probe/Oscilloscope 10-to-1 Divider Network
Figure 3.17 shows a typical passive probe and some accessories to use with the
probe.
Figure 3.17: A Typical Passive Probe with Accessories

Page | 101
Using Active Probes

Active probes provide their own amplification or perform some other type of
operation to process the signal before applying it to the oscilloscope. These
types of probes can solve problems such as circuit loading or perform tests on
signals, sending the results to the oscilloscope. Active probes require a power
source for their operation.
Using Current Probes

Current probes enable you to directly observe and measure current waveforms.
They are available for measuring both AC and DC current. Current probes use
jaws that clip around the wire carrying the current. This makes them unique since
they are not connected in series with the circuit; they, therefore, cause little or
no interference in the circuit.
Where to Clip the Ground Clip

Measuring a signal requires two connections: the probe tip connection and a
ground connection. Probes come with an alligator-clip attachment for
grounding the probe to the circuit under test. In practice, you clip the grounding
clip to a known ground in the circuit, such as the metal chassis of a stereo you
are repairing, and touch the probe tip to a test point in the circuit.
Compensating the Probe

Before using a passive probe, you need to compensate it - to balance its
electrical properties to a particular oscilloscope. You should get into the habit of
compensating the probe every time you set up your oscilloscope. A poorly
adjusted probe can make your measurements less accurate. Figure 3.18 shows
what happens to measured waveforms when using a probe not properly
compensated.

Page | 102
Most oscilloscopes have a square wave reference signal available at a terminal

on the front panel used to compensate the probe. You compensate a probe
by:
i. Attaching the probe to an input connector.
ii. Connecting the probe tip to the probe compensation signal.
iii. Attaching the ground clip of the probe to ground.
iv. Viewing the square wave reference signal.
v. Making the proper adjustments on the probe so that the corners of the
square wave are square.
Figure 3.18: The Effects of Improper Probe Compensation
When compensate the probe, always attach any accessory tips use and
connect the probe to the vertical channel you plan to use. This way the

Page | 103
oscilloscope has the same electrical properties as it does when take

measurements.
3.4 APPLICATION OF OSCILLOSCOPE
3.4.1 PROCEDURE TO CALIBRATE THE OSCILLOSCOPE
If you're going to use an oscilloscope, then you're going to need to know how to
calibrate it. Just follow these simple steps.
1. Oscilloscope Screen
Oscilloscopes have an x axis and a y axis. The x axis is

horizontal and represents time in seconds (s). The y axis
is vertical and represents voltage in volts (v).
2. First, set all of the buttons and switches to their normal positions. This means all
push button switches should be in the out position, all slide switches in the up
position, all rotating dials are centered, and the TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV and
the HOLD OFF are in the Calibrated (CAL) position.
3.
Time-Div
Set the VOLTS/DIV to 1V/DIV.

Page | 104
4. Set the TIME/DIV control to 2s/DIV.
5. Switch the power to ON. You should now see the trace moving across the
screen.
6. Y-Position Control
Locate the Y-POS control. This will allow you to move the
trace up or down the screen. Adjust the trace so that it runs
horizontally across the center of the screen.
7. Now locate the INTENSITY and FOCUS controls. These will allow you to control
how bright the trace is and whether it is sharp or blurry.
8. Time/Div Control
The TIME/DIV will control the horizontal scale of the
graph. As you change this setting to a smaller number,
the trace will move across the screen faster.
9. The VOLTS/DIV control will determine the vertical scale of the graph. Set the
control to where you can see the entire vertical motion on the screen.

Page | 105
Setting Up
This section briefly describes how to set up and start using an oscilloscope -
specifically, how to ground the oscilloscope, set the controls in standard
positions, and compensate the probe.
Grounding
Proper grounding is an important step when setting up to take measurements or
work on a circuit. Properly grounding the oscilloscope protects you from a
hazardous shock and grounding yourself protects your circuits from damage.
Ground the Oscilloscope

Grounding the oscilloscope is necessary for safety. If a high voltage contacts the
case of an ungrounded oscilloscope, any part of the case, including knobs that
appear insulated, it can give you a shock. However, with a properly grounded
oscilloscope, the current travels through the grounding path to earth ground
rather than through you to earth ground.
To ground the oscilloscope means to connect it to an electrically neutral

reference point (such as earth ground). Ground your oscilloscope by plugging
its three-pronged power cord into an outlet grounded to earth ground.
Grounding is also necessary for taking accurate measurements with your
oscilloscope. The oscilloscope needs to share the same ground as any circuits
you are testing.
Some oscilloscopes do not require the separate connection to earth ground.

These oscilloscopes have insulated cases and controls, which keeps any possible
shock hazard away from the user.

Page | 106
Ground Yourself
If working with integrated circuits (ICs), you also need to ground yourself.
Integrated circuits have tiny conduction paths that can be damaged by static
electricity that builds up on your body. You can ruin an expensive IC simply by
walking across a carpet or taking off a sweater and then touching the leads of
the IC. To solve this problem, wear a grounding strap (see Figure 3.19). This strap
safely sends static charges on your body to earth ground.
Figure 3.19: Typical Wrist Type Grounding Strap
3.4.2 CONSTRUCT CONNECTION BETWEEN SIGNAL GENERATOR AND

OSCILLOSCOPE FOR SIGNAL MEASUREMENT
Figure 3.20: Connection between signal generator and oscilloscope

Page | 107
Figure 3.21: Probe from signal generator connect to oscilloscope
Procedure to make connection between signal generator and osciloscope
1. Connect the oscilloscope probe and signal generator.

2. Switch on the signal generator and adjust the output level to produce a
visible signal on the oscilloscope screen.
3. Adjust TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV to obtain a clear display and investigate
the effects of pressing the waveform shape buttons.
4. The rotating FREQUENCY control and the RANGE switch are used together
to determine the frequency of the output signal.

Page | 108
3.4.3 USING THE OSCILLOSCOPE TO MEASURE VOLTAGE, FREQUENCY, TIME AND

PHASE ANGLE IN SINUSOIDAL AND NON-SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM SUPPLIED
FROM A SIGNAL GENERATOR
Measurement Terms
The generic term for a pattern that repeats over time is a wave - sound waves,
brain waves, ocean waves, and voltage waves are all repeating patterns. An
oscilloscope measures voltage waves. One cycle of a wave is the portion of the
wave that repeats. A waveform is a graphic representation of a wave. A
voltage waveform shows time on the horizontal axis and voltage on the vertical
axis.
Waveform shapes tell you a great deal about a signal. Any time you see a
change in the height of the waveform, you know the voltage has changed. Any
time there is a flat horizontal line, you know that there is no change for that
length of time. Straight diagonal lines mean a linear change - rise or fall of
voltage at a steady rate. Sharp angles on a waveform mean sudden change.
Figure 3.21 shows common waveforms.
Types of Waves
You can classify most waves into these types:
i. Sine waves.
ii. Triangle and sawtooth waves.
iii. Square and rectangular waves.
iv. Step and pulse shapes.

Page | 109
Figure 3.22: Common Waveforms
Sine Waves
The sine wave is the fundamental wave shape for several reasons. It has
harmonious mathematical properties - it is the same sine shape you may have
studied in high school trigonometry class. The voltage in your wall outlet varies as
a sine wave. Test signals produced by the oscillator circuit of a signal generator
are often sine waves. Most AC power sources produce sine waves. (AC stands
for alternating current, although the voltage alternates too. DC stands for direct
current, which means a steady current and voltage, such as a battery
produces.)
The damped sine wave is a special case you may see in a circuit that oscillates
but winds down over time. Figure 3.23 shows examples of sine and damped sine
waves.

Page | 110
Figure 3.23: Sine and Damped Sine Waves
Square and Rectangular Waves

The square wave is another common wave shape. Basically, a square wave is a
voltage that turns on and off (or goes high and low) at regular intervals. It is a
standard wave for testing amplifiers - good amplifiers increase the amplitude of
a square wave with minimum distortion. Television, radio, and computer circuitry
often use square waves for timing signals.
The rectangular wave is like the square wave except that the high and low time
intervals are not of equal length. It is particularly important when analyzing
digital circuitry. Figure 3.24 shows examples of square and rectangular waves.
Figure 3.24: Square and Rectangular Waves
Sawtooth and Triangle Waves

Sawtooth and Triangle waves result from circuits designed to control voltages
linearly, such as the horizontal sweep of an analog oscilloscope or the raster
scan of a television. The transitions between voltage levels of these waves
change at a constant rate. These transitions are called ramps. Figure 3.25 shows
examples of sawtooth and triangle waves.
Figure 3.25: Sawtooth and Triangle Waves

Page | 111
Step and Pulse Shapes

Signals such as steps and pulses that only occur once are called single-shot or
transient signals. The step indicates a sudden change in voltage, like what you
would see if you turned on a power switch. The pulse indicates what you would
see if you turned a power switch on and then off again. It might represent one
bit of information traveling through a computer circuit or it might be a glitch (a
defect) in a circuit.
A collection of pulses travelling together creates a pulse train. Digital

components in a computer communicate with each other using pulses. Pulses
are also common in x-ray and communications equipment. Figure 3.26 shows
examples of step and pulse shapes and a pulse train.
Figure 3.26: Step, Pulse, and Pulse Train Shapes
Waveform Measurements
There are many terms to describe the types of measurements that you take with
your oscilloscope. This section describes some of the most common
measurements and terms.
Frequency and Period

If a signal repeats, it has a frequency. The frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz)
and equals the number of times the signal repeats itself in one second (the
cycles per second). A repeating signal also has a period - this is the amount of
time it takes the signal to complete one cycle. Period and frequency are
reciprocals of each other, so that 1/period equals the frequency and

Page | 112
1/frequency equals the period. So, for example, the sine wave in Figure 3.27 has
a frequency of 3 Hz and a period of 1/3 second.
Figure 3.27: Frequency and Period
Voltage
Voltage is the amount of electric potential (a kind of signal strength) between
two points in a circuit. Usually one of these points is ground (zero volts) but not
always - you may want to measure the voltage from the maximum peak to the
minimum peak of a waveform, referred to at the peak-to-peak voltage. The
word amplitude commonly refers to the maximum voltage of a signal measured
from ground or zero volts. The waveform shown in Figure 3.28 has amplitude of
one volt and a peak-to-peak voltage of two volts.
Phase
Phase is best explained by looking at a sine wave. Sine waves are based on
circular motion and a circle has 360 degrees. One cycle of a sine wave has 360
degrees, as shown in Figure 3.28. Using degrees, you can refer to the phase
angle of a sine wave when you want to describe how much of the period has
elapsed.

Page | 113
Figure 3.28: Sine Wave Degrees
Phase shift describes the difference in timing between two otherwise similar
signals. In Figure 3.28, the waveform labeled "current" is said to be 905 out of
phase with the waveform labeled "voltage," since the waves reach similar points
in their cycles exactly 1/4 of a cycle apart (360 degrees/4 = 90 degrees). Phase
shifts are common in electronics.
Figure 3.29: Phase Shift
Performance Terms
The terms described in this section may come up in your discussions about
oscilloscope performance. Understanding these terms will help you evaluate
and compare your oscilloscope with other models.

Page | 114
Bandwidth
The bandwidth specification tells you the frequency range the oscilloscope
accurately measures.
As signal frequency increases, the capability of the oscilloscope to accurately

respond decreases. By convention, the bandwidth tells you the frequency at
which the displayed signal reduces to 70.7% of the applied sine wave signal.
(This 70.7% point is referred to as the "-3 dB point," a term based on a logarithmic
scale.)
Rise Time
Rise time is another way of describing the useful frequency range of an
oscilloscope. Rise time may be a more appropriate performance consideration
when you expect to measure pulses and steps. An oscilloscope cannot
accurately display pulses with rise times faster than the specified rise time of the
oscilloscope.
Vertical Sensitivity
The vertical sensitivity indicates how much the vertical amplifier can amplify a
weak signal. Vertical sensitivity is usually given in millivolts (mV) per division. The
smallest voltage a general purpose oscilloscope can detect is typically about 2
mV per vertical screen division.
Sweep Speed
For analog oscilloscopes, this specification indicates how fast the trace can
sweep across the screen, allowing you to see fine details. The fastest sweep
speed of an oscilloscope is usually given in nanoseconds/div.

Page | 115
Gain Accuracy
The gain accuracy indicates how accurately the vertical system attenuates or
amplifies a signal. This is usually listed as a percentage error.
Time Base or Horizontal Accuracy

The time base or horizontal accuracy indicates how accurately the horizontal
system displays the timing of a signal. This is usually listed as a percentage error.
Sample Rate
On digital oscilloscopes, the sampling rate indicates how many samples per
second the ADC (and therefore the oscilloscope) can acquire. Maximum
sample rates are usually given in mega samples per second (MS/s). The faster
the oscilloscope can sample, the more accurately it can represent fine details in
a fast signal. The minimum sample rate may also be important if you need to
look at slowly changing signals over long periods of time. Typically, the sample
rate changes with changes made to the sec/div control to maintain a constant
number of waveform points in the waveform record.
ADC Resolution (Or Vertical Resolution)

The resolution, in bits, of the ADC (and therefore the digital oscilloscope)
indicates how precisely it can turn input voltages into digital values. Calculation
techniques can improve the effective resolution.
Record Length
The record length of a digital oscilloscope indicates how many waveform points
the oscilloscope is able to acquire for one waveform record. Some digital
oscilloscopes let you adjust the record length. The maximum record length
depends on the amount of memory in your oscilloscope. Since the oscilloscope

Page | 116
can only store a finite number of waveform points, there is a trade-off between
record detail and record length. You can acquire either a detailed picture of a
signal for a short period of time (the oscilloscope "fills up" on waveform points
quickly) or a less detailed picture for a longer period of time. Some oscilloscopes
let you add more memory to increase the record length for special applications.
Measurement Techniques
This section teaches you basic measurement techniques. The two most basic
measurements you can make are voltage and time measurements. Just about
every other measurement is based on one of these two fundamental
techniques.
This section discusses methods for taking measurements visually with the
oscilloscope screen. Many digital oscilloscopes have internal software that will
take these measurements automatically. Knowing how to take the
measurements manually will help you understand and check the automatic
measurements of the digital oscilloscopes.
The Display
Take a look at the oscilloscope display. Notice the grid markings on the screen -
these markings create the graticule. Each vertical and horizontal line constitutes
a major division. The graticule is usually laid out in an 8-by-10 division pattern.
Labeling on the oscilloscope controls (such as volts/div and sec/div) always
refers to major divisions. The tick marks on the center horizontal and vertical
graticule lines (see Figure 3.30) are called minor divisions.
Many oscilloscopes display on the screen how many volts each vertical division
represents and how many seconds each horizontal division represents. Many

Page | 117
oscilloscopes also have 0%, 10%, 90%, and 100% markings on the graticule (see
Figure 3.30) to help make rise time measurements.
Figure 3.30: An Oscilloscope Graticule
Voltage Measurements
Voltage is the amount of electric potential, expressed in volts, between two
points in a circuit. Usually one of these points is ground (zero volts) but not
always. Voltages can also be measured from peak-to-peak - from the maximum
point of a signal to its minimum point. You must be careful to specify which
voltage you mean.
The oscilloscope is primarily a voltage-measuring device. Once you have

measured the voltage, other quantities are just a calculation away. For
example, Ohm's law states that voltage between two points in a circuit equals
the current times the resistance. From any two of these quantities you can
calculate the third. Another handy formula is the power law: the power of a DC
signal equals the voltage times the current. Calculations are more complicated
for AC signals, but the point here is that measuring the voltage is the first step
towards calculating other quantities.

Page | 118
Figure 3.31 shows the voltage of one peak - V[p] - and the peak-to-peak
voltage - V[p-p] -, which is usually twice V[p]. Use the RMS (root-mean-square)
voltage - V[RMS] - to calculate the power of an AC signal.
Figure 3.31: Voltage Peak and Peak-to-peak Voltage
To take voltage measurements by counting the number of divisions a waveform

spans on the oscilloscope's vertical scale. Adjusting the signal to cover most of
the screen vertically, then taking the measurement along the center vertical
graticule line having the smaller divisions makes for the best voltage
measurements. The more screen area use, the more accurately reading from
the screen.

Page | 119
Figure 3.32: Measure Voltage on the Center Vertical Graticule Line
Many oscilloscopes have on-screen cursors that let you take waveform
measurements automatically on-screen, without having to count graticule
marks. Basically, cursors are two horizontal lines for voltage measurements and
two vertical lines for time measurements that you can move around the screen.
Readout shows the voltage or time at their positions.
Time and Frequency Measurements

A time measurement is taking by using the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope.
Time measurements include measuring the period, pulse width, and timing of
pulses. Frequency is the reciprocal of the period, so once you know the period,
the frequency is one divided by the period. Like voltage measurements, time
measurements are more accurate when you adjust the portion of the signal to
be measured to cover a large area of the screen. Taking time measurement
along the center horizontal graticule line, having smaller divisions, makes for the
best time measurements. (See Figure 3.33)

Page | 120
Figure 3.33: Measure Time on the Center Horizontal Graticule Line
Calculation Formula
a. Voltage,V (V) :
No. vertical division X volt/div X probe { x1 or x10 }
a. Period, T (s) :
No. Horizontal division X time/div
c. Frequency measurement, f (Hz):

1 / period
Pulse and Rise Time Measurements

In many applications, the details of a pulse's shape are important. Pulses can
become distorted and cause a digital circuit to malfunction, and the timing of
pulses in a pulse train is often significant.

Page | 121
Standard pulse measurements are pulse width and pulse rise time. Rise time is
the amount of time a pulse takes to go from the low to high voltage. By
convention, the rise time is measured from 10% to 90% of the full voltage of the
pulse. This eliminates any irregularities at the pulse's transition corners. This also
explains why most oscilloscopes have 10% and 90% markings on their screen.
Pulse width is the amount of time the pulse takes to go from low to high and
back to low again. By convention, the pulse width is measured at 50% of full
voltage. See Figure 3.34 for these measurement points.
Figure 3.34: Rise Time and Pulse Width Measurement Points
Pulse measurements often require fine-tuning the triggering. To become an

expert at capturing pulses, you should learn how to use trigger hold off and how
to set the digital oscilloscope to capture pre-trigger data, as described earlier in
the Controls section. Horizontal magnification is another useful feature for
measuring pulses, since it allows you to see fine details of a fast pulse.
Phase Shift Measurements

The horizontal control section may have an XY mode that lets display an input
signal rather than the time base on the horizontal axis. (On some digital
oscilloscopes this is a display mode setting.) This mode of operation opens up a
whole new area of phase shift measurement techniques.

Page | 122
The phase of a wave is the amount of time that passes from the beginning of a
cycle to the beginning of the next cycle, measured in degrees. Phase shift
describes the difference in timing between two otherwise identical periodic
signals.
Figure 3.35: Rise Time and Pulse Width Measurement Points
Example:
o = 360o x f x t
= 360o x 1/T x t
= 360o x 1/ 4ms x 1ms

= 90o
One method for measuring phase shift is to use XY mode. This involves inputting
one signal into the vertical system as usual and then another signal into the
horizontal system. (This method only works if both signals are sine waves.) This set
up is called an XY measurement because both the X and Y axis are tracing
voltages. The waveform resulting from this arrangement is called a Lissajous
pattern (named for French physicist Jules Antoine Lissajous and pronounced LEE-
sa-zhoo). From the shape of the Lissajous pattern, you can tell the phase
difference between the two signals. We can also tell their frequency ratio. Figure
3.35 shows Lissajous patterns for various frequency ratios and phase shifts.

Page | 123
Figure 3.36: Lissajous Patterns
ACTIVITIES
1. Calculate the peak-to-peak voltage of the sine wave shown in Figure

3.30, if the volts/division is on 2 V/cm. [Ans: 8 V]
2. Determine the frequency of the sine wave shown in Figure 3.30 if the
time/division switch is set at 1 ms/cm.
[Ans: 200 Hz]
3. For the square wave shown in Figure 3.32, determine the (a) peak-to-peak
voltage and (b) frequency. Assume the volts/division switch is set at 10
V/cm and the time/division switch is at 10 µs/cm.
[Ans: (a) 52 V, (b) 13.89 kHz]
5. Determine the average voltage of the pulse wave shown in Figure.

Assume the volts/division switch is set at 5 V/cm and the time/division
switch is set at 10 µs/cm, and the baseline is 0 V.
[Ans: Vp-p = 10 V, Vave = 1.6 V]

Page | 124
3.5 SIGNAL GENERATOR
3.5.1 DEFINITION OF SIGNAL GENERATOR
i. An electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating

electronic signals suitable for test purposes. (in either the analog or
digital domains).
ii. Is designed to provide an alternating voltage at a certain frequency
and amplitude.
iii. Generally used in designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing
electronic or electro acoustic devices; though they often have artistic
uses as well.
iv. Can be used to reproduce sinusoidal and non sinusoidal waves of
various frequencies when troubleshooting electronic circuits.
v. Often used in testing and aligning radio transmitters, receivers and
amplifiers.
vi. Use oscillators to develop voltage waveforms of varying frequency.
vii. Most signal generators are voltage-output instruments and should not
be expected to deliver large amounts of current.
3.5.2 BASIC TYPES OF SIGNAL GENERATOR
 Two basic types of signal generators – audio frequency (AF) signal

generator and radio frequency (RF) signal generators.
 Audio frequency signal generator – produce stable audio frequency
signals for testing audio equipment.
 Radio frequency signal generator – provide frequencies from 30 kHz to
3000 MHz.

Page | 125
 Figure shows a typical AF generator with a frequency range of 20 kHz

to 20 kHz.
 This frequency range is divided into separate, switch-selected ranges
with continuous tuning within each band.
 AF generator is used to inject signals into circuits, such as amplifiers, in
order to measure the amplifier’s output signal strength and frequency
response.
When using the generator, the output test signal is coupled into the circuit
being tested, and its progress through the equipment is traced by the use of
high-impedance indicating devices such as vacuum-tube voltmeters or scopes.
In many signal generators, calibrated networks of resistors, called attenuators,
are provided. These are used to regulate the voltage of the output signal and
also provide correct impedance values for matching the input impedance of
the circuit under testing. Accurately calibrated attenuators are used, because
the signal strength must be regulated to avoid overloading the circuit receiving
the signal.
Figure 3.37: AF signal generator

Page | 126
3.5.3 CLASSIFY TYPES OF SIGNAL GENERATOR
a. Video signal generator : a device which outputs predetermined video

and/or television waveform and other signals used to stimulate faults in, or
aid in parametric measurements of television and video systems.
b. Pitch generator: a types of signal generator optimized for use in audio and
acoustics applications. Sophisticated pitch generators will also include
sweep generators a function which varies the output frequency over a
range. Pitch generators are typically used in conjunction with sound level
meters, when measuring the acoustics of a room or a sound reproduction
system, and/or with oscilloscopes or specialized audio analyzers.
c. iii. Arbitrary waveform generators (AWG): Sophisticated signal generators

which allow the user to generate arbitrary waveforms, within published
limits of frequency range, accuracy and output level. Unlike function
generators, which are limited to a simple set of waveforms; an AWG
allows the user to specify a source waveform in a variety of different ways.
3.5.4 EXPLAIN STANDARD SIGNAL GENERATORS
i. Produces known and controllable voltages.

ii. Used as power source for measurement of gain, signal to noise ratio,
bandwidth, standing wave ratio, and other properties.
iii. Extensively used in testing of radio receiver and transmitter.
iv. The output signal can be Amplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency
Modulated (FM)

Page | 127
3.5.5 EXPLAIN FUNCTION GENERATOR
i. Used for generating a wide variety of signals are called function

generators.
ii. Produce different waveforms of adjustable frequency and simple
repetitive waveforms.
iii. Capable of providing square, ramp, pulse sine waves and sawtooth.
iv. The repetition rate is generally selectable from 0.0005 Hz to 5 MHz.
v. Although sine waves are useful for frequency-response tests, the square
and pulse wave are used for testing transient response.
vi. Every function generator produces an output that has three important
characteristics: amplitude, wave shape and frequency.
vii. Also capable of supplying DC offset, which adds a positive or negative
DC component to any of the waveforms produced by the generator.
viii. Function generators are typically used in simple electronics repair and
design; where they are used to stimulate a circuit under test.
ix. Function generators vary in the number of outputs they feature,
frequency range, frequency accuracy and stability, and several other
parameters.
Figure 3.38: Sine, square, triangle, and sawtooth waveforms.

Page | 128
Figure 3.39: Typical function generator
3.5.6 THE FRONT PANEL OF A SIGNAL GENERATOR
Figure 3.40: Front panel of a signal generatoR
3.5.7 THE FUNCTION OF THE FOLLOWING ITEMS LOCATED ON THE PANEL OF A

SIGNAL GENERATOR
a. Frequency Selection Group

i. Range switch: Provide seven fixed decades of frequency.
ii. Multiplier: Variable potentiometer allowing frequency setting
between fixed range.

Page | 129
b. Sweep Group
The sweep group can frequency sweep any of its function outputs. It
could be swept up or down in frequency using linear or log sweeps. Unlike
function generators, there are no annoying discontinuities or band-
switching artifacts when sweeping through certain frequencies. Two
sweep marker frequencies can be specified. When the sweep crosses
either of the marker frequencies, a TTL transition is generated at the rear-
panel output to allow synchronization of external devices.
c. Amplitude Modulation Group

Provide 20dB of attenuation of the output waveform selected by function
switch.
d. DC Offset Group
Allow the DC level of the output waveform to be set as desire.
e. Function or Waveform group

Provide selection of desired output waveform. (Square, triangle and sine
waveforms are provided)
f. Output Group
Adjust the amplitude of the generator’s out signal. The group consists of
the amplitude control knob, the three attenuation buttons and the fused
50Ω BNC connector.

Page | 130
3.5.8 CONSTRUCT SIMPLE CIRCUIT WITH SIGNAL GENERATOR USED AS A SIGNAL

SOURCE TO THE CIRCUIT
Figure 3.41: Simple circuit construction of signal generator
EXAMPLE 3.1
Determine the time measured and the number of graticule line of the sine wave
if the time per division switch is set at 50 μs/div and the frequency of the sine
wave is 2500 Hz.
[Answer: T = 400 μs, n = 8 of graticule]

Page | 131
EXAMPLE 3.2
Determine the frequency, peak-to-peak voltage and peak voltage of this

waveform, as displayed by an oscilloscope with a vertical sensitivity of 4 volts per
division and a timebase of 2.5 milliseconds per division:
[Answer: f = 80 Hz, Vp-p = 20 Volt/div and Vp = 10 Volt/div]
EXAMPLE 3.3
Based on the wave diagram (fig. 2d), calculate listed below, if the oscilloscope
setting is Volt/div: 100mV/div, Time/div: 0.5ms/div
i) Peak voltage,
ii) Peak to peak voltage,
2
iii) Time,
iv) Frequency,
3 .8 V p -p V p
A B
T
3 .8
TD
Figure 2d
10
[Answer: Vp = 380 mV, Vp-p = 760 mV, T = 5 ms and F = 200 Hz]

Page | 132
DEE1012 MEASUREMENT
CHAPTER 4
DC BRIDGES
This chapter discusses about general DC bridges, Wheatstone bridge, Kelvin

Bridge. This chapter also applies DC Bridge for measurement.
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
4.0 DC BRIDGE
4.1 BRIDGE CIRCUIT
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO BRIDGE CIRCUIT
A bridge circuit is a type of electrical circuit in which two circuit

branches (usually in parallel with each other) are "bridged" by a third
branch connected between the first two branches at some intermediate
point along them. The bridge was originally developed for laboratory
measurement purposes and one of the intermediate bridging points is
often adjustable when so used. Bridge circuits now find many
applications, both linear and non-linear, including in instrumentation,
filtering and power conversion.
4.1.2 TYPES OF BRIDGE CIRCUIT
A bridge circuit is divided into two categories:

i. Direct current Bridge (DC).
ii. An alternating current Bridge (AC).
a. DC Bridge
DC Bridge consists of four arms at the resistance of R1, R2 resistor
value fixed (arm ratio), variable resistor R3 (standard arm) and RX unknown
resistor value connected to a single cell battery and Galvanometer.

Page | 133
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
b. AC Bridge
AC Bridge is a variation of the dc bridge which had been modified
to be used to find the values of inductance and capacitance. The
principles used how to obtain the balance equation for the AC Bridge are
similar to the method of DC Bridge.
4.1.3 DC BIDGE HISTORY
The circuit we now know as the Wheatstone bridge was actually first
described by Samuel Hunter Christie (1784-1865) in 1833. However, Sir
Charles Wheatstone invented many uses for this circuit once he found the
description in 1843. As a result, this circuit is known generally as the
Wheatstone bridge. To this day, the Wheatstone bridge remains the most
sensitive and accurate method for precisely measuring resistance values.
4.1.4 THE BASIC BRIDGE CIRCUIT
The fundamental concept of the Wheatstone bridge is two voltage

dividers, both fed by the same input, as shown to the right. The circuit
output is taken from both voltage divider outputs, as shown here. In its
classic form, a galvanometer (a very sensitive DC current meter) is
connected between the output terminals, and is used to monitor the
current flowing from one voltage divider to the other. If the two voltage
dividers have exactly the same ratio (R1/R2 = R3/R4), then the bridge is said
to be balanced and no current flows in either direction through the
galvanometer. If one of the resistors changes even a little bit in value, the
bridge will become unbalanced and current will flow through the
galvanometer. Thus, the galvanometer becomes a very sensitive indicator
of the balance condition.

Page | 134
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
4.1.5 TYPES OF DC BRIDGES
The two types of DC bridges are:

i. Wheatstone Bridge
ii. Kelvin Bridge
The basic DC Bridge is the Wheatstone bridge used for the measurement
of DC resistance and the Kelvin Bridge used for the measurement of low
resistance.
4.1.6 CONSTRUCTION OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT
R1 R2
+
a M b
-
R3 R4
Figure 4.1: Basic diagram Wheatstone Bridge circuit
The best-known bridge circuit, the Wheatstone bridge, was

invented by Samuel Hunter Christie and popularized by Charles
Wheatstone, and is used for measuring resistance. It is constructed from
four resistors, two of known values R1 and R3 (see diagram), one whose
resistance is to be determined Rx, and one which is variable and
calibrated R2.

Page | 135
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
Two opposite vertices are connected to a source of electric

current, such as a battery, and a galvanometer is connected across the
other two vertices. The variable resistor is adjusted until the galvanometer
reads zero. It is then known that the ratio between the variable resistor
and its adjacent is equal to the ratio between the unknown resistor and its
adjacent, which enables the value of the unknown resistor to be
calculated.
The Wheatstone bridge has also been generalized to measure

impedance in AC circuits, and to measure resistance, inductance,
capacitance, and dissipation factor separately. Various arrangements
are known as the Wien Bridge, Maxwell Bridge and Heaviside Bridge. All
are based on the same principle, which is to compare the output of two
potentiometers sharing a common source.
In power supply design, a bridge circuit or bridge rectifier is an

arrangement of diodes or similar devices used to rectify an electric
current, i.e. to convert it from an unknown or alternating polarity to a
direct current of known polarity. In some motor controllers, an H-bridge is
used to control the direction the motor turns.
4.1.7 USING THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Figure 4.2: Wheatstone Bridge circuit connection

Page | 136
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
In its basic application, a dc voltage (E) is applied to the

Wheatstone bridge, and a galvanometer (G) is used to monitor the
balance condition. The values of R1 and R3 are precisely known, but do
not have to be identical. R2 is a calibrated variable resistance, whose
current value may be read from a dial or scale.
An unknown resistor, RX, is connected as the fourth side of the

circuit, and power is applied. R2 is adjusted until the galvanometer, G,
reads zero current. At this point, RX = R2×R3/R1.
This circuit is most sensitive when all four resistors have similar
resistance values. However, the circuit works quite well in any event. If R 2
can be varied over a 10:1 resistance range and R1 is of a similar value, we
can switch decade values of R3 into and out of the circuit according to
the range of value we expect from RX. Using this method, we can
accurately measure any value of RX by moving one multiple-position
switch and adjusting one precision potentiometer.
4.1.8 PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Figure 4.3: Basic priciple Wheatstone Bridge circuit

Page | 137
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
RX - unknown resistor
R1, R2 - Resistor has a fixed value (arm ratio))
R3 - Variable resistor (standard arm)
G - High sensitivity galvano meter
E - Battery Cell
Wheatstone bridge in balance state:

 Used to measure resistance or substances affected by the change
in resistance of an unknown value.
 Often used with strain gauges.
 Wheatstone bridge will be in balance state when no current
is flowing through the galvanometer and galvanometer needle
position is zero.
d
R1 R2
+
a b
-
R3 R4
Figure 4.4: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit in Balace State
A. Wheatstone Balance State
 Bridge circuit is in balance condition when the potential source of A

is similar capacity with the potential source of B as follows:
 Current through the galvanometer, Ig = 0 Ampere.

Page | 138
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
To get a balanced equation

Vac = Vbc
Vac - Vbc = 0
By using the voltage divider law:
 R3   R4 
Vac  E  and Vbc  E 
 1
R  R3   2
R  R 4 
 R3   R4 
E    E  
 R1  R3   R2  R4 
R2 R3  R3 R4  R1R4  R3 R4
R2 R3  R1R4
 The accuracy and sensitivity is a maximum when the ratio of R 1 = R2

i.e R2 / R1 = 1. i.e RX = R3. If R3 is the resistance of the box "decades"
that was accurate, the value of Rx = R3 can be read directly from
the scale of the resistance of the circuit box in balance.
 But the conditions R2 / R1 = 1 would limit the size range of the RX is

only the size of R3. To solve this problem used range switch. To
choose a different arm. For example, if the ratio R2 / R1 = 3 the
maximum value that can be measured is the RX. RX = 3 x R3.

Page | 139
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
Measure the unknown resistance
d
Rx uses a Wheatstone balance:
R1 R2
R 2 R 3  R 1R x
+ R2 R3
-
a M b
Rx 
R1
R3 Rx
Example 1:
Calculate the value of resistor Rx is on the side of the circuit in which the
galvanometer reading is zero.
R1= 12kO R2= 15kO
+
a M b
-
Rx
R3=32kO
Solution:
R2 R3
Rx 
R1

15k 32k 
12k
 40 k

Page | 140
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
Example 2:
Referring to Figure Wheatstone bridge circuit, given R1 = 1.5 KΩ, R2 = 1 KΩ,
R3 = 3 KΩ and RX=2 KΩ. Prove that the bridge is in balance.
Solution:
R1 RX = R 2 R 3
1.5 KΩ (2 KΩ) = 1 KΩ (3 KΩ)
3 MΩ = 3 MΩ
The answer to both is the same equation. This shows that the bridge is in
balance.
Example 3:
Figure is a Wheatstone bridge circuit, find the value of Rx as a balanced
bridge.
Solution:
RX (200 Ω) = 800 Ω (750 Ω)

RX = 800 Ω (750 Ω)
200 Ω
= 3 KΩ

Page | 141
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
B. Wheatstone Unbalance State
 Wheatstone bridge is in the unbalanced state when there

is no deflection of galvanometer indicator needle.
 Deflection occurs because there is current flowing through the
galvanometer.
 When the situation is not balanced equation of balance state is
cannot be used again.
 New equation must be derived using Thevenin's theorem.
 Method to obtaining the Thevenin equivalent circuit is short circuit
the supply voltage and the Galvanometer in the circuit must be in
an open circuit.
d d
R1 R2 R1 R2
+ + a b
a M b E a b
- -
R3 Rx R3 R4
c c
Figure 4.5: Wheatstone Bridge circuit in Unbalace State
Equivalent Thevenin Circuit
 Viewing from the galvanometer.

 Equivalent Thevenin voltage, VTH measure thought with open circuit
the galvanometer.

Page | 142
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
VTH  Vab  Vac  Vbc

 R3   R4 
Vac  E   Vcb  E  
 1
R  R3   2
R  R4 
 R3 R4 
VTH  Vab  E   
 1
R  R3 R2  R4 
Equivalent Thevenin resistance
 Equivalent Thevenin resistance, RTH measure with open circuit the

galvanometer and short circuit the power source.
d
R1 R2 RTH  R1 // R3   R2 // R4 
R1R3 RR
RTH   2 4
a b
R1  R3 R2  R4
R3 R4
 Equivalent Thevenin Circuit

RTH
a
VTH
Ig  VTH
+ Ig
RTH  Rg -
Rg

Page | 143
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
Example 1:
Wheatstone bridge supply with voltage 12V and the resistance value on
each arm is R1 = 1.2 kΩ, R2 =1.5 kΩ, R3 = 4 kΩ, and R4 = 3.6 kΩ and Rg = 1
kΩ. Calculate the current value of Ig on the meter.
Solution:
R1R3 R2R4  R3 R4 
RTH =  VTH  Vab  E   
R1  R3 R 2  R 4  R1  R3 R2  R4 
1.2k (4k ) 1.5k (3.6k )  4k 3.6k 
   12  
1.2k  4k 1.5k  3.6k  1.2k  4k 1.5k  3.6k 
= 1.98 kΩ = 0.76 Volt
VTH 0.76
Ig  
RTH  Rg 1.9 K  1K
= 0.26 mA
Sensitivity
Deflection of pointer Galvanomet er, D

Sensitivit y,S 
Current, I
Unit
milimeter degree radian
Sensitivit y,S  or or
A A A

Page | 144
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
4.1.9 USAGE OF THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
1. Resistance measurement:-
i. Low resistance less than 1.
ii. Medium resistance 1 Ω < RX < 100 KΩ.
iii. High resistance greater than 100 KΩ.
*Most suitable to measure of the medium resistance.
2. In addition to these functions are also used as a Wheatstone

bridge signal adapter in the system of physical measurement and
detector signal (sensor) such as thermistors, strain gages.
3. To detect a short circuit.
4. To detect an earth short circuit fault.
5. There are several types of Wheatstone bridge:

i. Wheatstone quarter.
ii. Half Wheatstone bridge.
iii. Full bridge Wheatstone.
4.1.10 APPLICATIONS OF THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
It is not possible to cover all of the practical variations and

applications of the Wheatstone bridge, let alone all types of bridges, in a
single Web page. Sir Charles Wheatstone invented many uses himself, and
others have been developed, along with many variations, since that time.
One very common application in industry today is to monitor sensor
devices such as strain gauges.

Page | 145
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
Such devices change their internal resistance according to the

specific level of strain (or pressure, temperature, etc.), and serve as the
unknown resistor RX. However, instead of trying to constantly adjust R2 to
balance the circuit, the galvanometer is replaced by a circuit that can
be calibrated to record the degree of imbalance in the bridge as the
value of strain or other condition being applied to the sensor.
A Wheatstone bridge also may be used to measure the DC

resistance of various types of wire, either for the purpose of quality control
of the wire itself, or of some assembly in which it is used. For example, the
resistance of motor windings, transformers, solenoids, and relay coils can
be measured. Wheatstone's bridge is also used extensively by telephone
companies and others to locate cable faults. The fault may be two lines
shorted together, or a single line shorted to ground.
Other application such as electrical power distributors used

Wheatstone bridge to accurately locate breaks in a power line. The
method is fast and accurate, and does not require a large number of field
technicians. Other applications abound in electronic circuits.
4.1.11 INTRODUCTION TO KELVIN BRIDGE
Kelvin Bridge introduced and proved by Sir William Thompson. This

circuit is designed in 1861 by Lord Kelvin to solve problems related to
the difficulty to calculating the very small value of resistance, especially in
the manufacture of telegraph cables. It can measure the very small
resistivity (less than 1 ohm). Kelvin Bridge using the same concept
as the method of Wheatstone null pointer. The balanced condition occurs
when there is no deflection of galvanometer indicator, which shows that

Page | 146
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
there is no potential difference between the two branches of the bridge

circuit.
4.1.12 KELVIN BRIDGE SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
Figure 4.6: Kelvin’s bridge circuit
Kelvin’s bridge is a modification of Wheatstone’s bridge and is uses

to measure values of resistance below 1Ω. In low resistance measurement,
the resistance of the leads connecting the unknown resistance to the
terminal of the bridge circuit may affect the measurement.
4.1.13 DERIVE BRIDGE BALANCE EQUATION FOR KELVIN BRIDGE
Ry represent the resistance of the connecting leads from R3 to Rx

(unknown resistance). The galvanometer can be connected either to
point c or to point a. When it is connected to point a, the resistance R y, of
the connecting lead is added to the indication for Rx. When the
connection is made to point c, Ry is added to the bridge arm R3 and
resulting measurement of Rx is lower than the actual value, because now
the actual value of R3 is higher than its nominal value by the resistance Ry.
If the galvanometer is connected to point b, in between points c and a, in

Page | 147
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
such a way that the ratio of the resistance from c to b and that from a to
b equals the ratio of resistances R1 and R2, then
and the usual balance equations for the bridge give the relationship
........(2)
but
Therefore
Substituting for Rab and Rcb in Eq. (2), we have

Page | 148
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
4.1.14 CALCULATE UNKNOWN RESISTANCE IN BRIDGE BALANCE USING

KELVIN BRIDGE
Example:
If in Figure 4.7 the ratio of Ra to Rb is 1000Ω, R1 is 5Ω and R1 = 0.5 R2. What is
the value of Rx ?
Figure 4.7
Solution:
Rx = R a
R2 Rb
Rx = R a = 1
R2 Rb 1000
Simplifies the equation

R1 = 0.5 R2, R2 = 5 / 0.5 = 10 Ω.
Rx / 10 = 1 / 1000
= 10 x 1 / 1000
= 1 / 100
= 0.01 Ω

Page | 149
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
4.1.15 KELVIN BRIDGE UNBALANCE STATE
1. If a Kelvin bridge is in unbalance state, there is a difference of

potential at the output terminal. This potential difference causes a
current through the detector such as Galvanometer.
2. If the bridge is used as error detection in the control circuit, a

potential difference in the output bridge is called as error signal.
3. Passive circuit elements such as pressure gauges, temperature

sensitive resistor (thermistor) or fotorestor not produce an output
voltage.
4. But when placed in one arm in Wheatstone-sensitive changes in

the stimulus (heat, light, and pressure) resulted in a change with
the resistance. Will produce an output voltage or signal error.

Page | 150
CHAPTER 4 DC BRIDGE
4.2 PROBLEM & SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 4.1
From Figure 1 (d), if P = 1.5 x 103 , Q = 750 Ω and S = 1 x 103  , find the
value of the resistor R when the bridge in balance.
[Answer: 2 k]
EXAMPLE 4.2
If the sensitivity of the galvanometer in the circuit in Figure 1(f) below is

15 mm / μA, calculate the deflection of the galvanometer. Given
Rg = 50 Ω.
[Answer: VTH = 13.24 mV, RTH = 667.8 Ω, Ig = 16.72 μA and Deflection =

250.8 mm]

Page | 151
DEE1012 MEASUREMENT
CHAPTER 5
POWER METERS
This chapter discusses the fundamental principle of wattmeter, KWH meter, Clamp
Meter and applies meters for measurement.
CHAPTER 5 POWER METER
5.0 POWER METER
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO POWER METER
5.1.1 DEFINITION OF POWER METER
Power meter may refer to:

i. Device which measures the power transmitted from source to load in the
circuit.
ii. Electricity meter - measures electrical energy (electrical power supplied to
a residence, business or machine over time) in watts and circulating in
any electric circuit.
iii. There are several types of power meter such as:
a. Electricity meter – measures electrical energy.
b. Wattmeter - measures the electrical power circulating in any
electric circuit.
c. Optical Power Meter - measures energy in an optical signal.
d. Google Power Meter - is a tool to track a household's energy usage.
e. A cycling power meter - measures the power output of a bicycle
rider.

Page | 152
5.2 PRINCIPLES OF ANALOGUE WATTMETER
i. A variety of wattmeter is available to measure the power in ac circuits.

ii. Wattmeters are generally classified by names descriptive of their
operating principles.
iii. Determination of power in dc circuits is almost always done by separate
measurements of voltage and current.
iv. However, some of the instruments described will also function in dc
circuits.
v. The simplest type is an ammeter whose scale is calibrated watts.
vi. This device can provide satisfactory indications of power generated or
consumed if:
a. The line voltage is known and varies little under any conditions
where an indication is needed.
b. The circuit uses direct current (DC), or alternating current (AC)
where the load is purely resistive.
vii. An application such as meter would provide useful indications of power

consumed is a circuit connected to a well-regulated 120 volt source, AC
or DC, has a load consisting of incandescent lamps or heating elements
and the meter is calibrated to 120 volts. If the line current is 9 amperes, the
meter indicates 1080 watts. It works on the formula V x I = P, where E is the
electromotive force in volts, I is the line current in amperes and P is the
power, in watts.
viii. If the circuit operates from an AC source and the load is an electric
motor, this type of instrument will indicate the apparent power, in volt-
amperes but this will differ from the true power, measured in watts.

Page | 153
ix. The cause of this difference is the inductance, or opposition to change in

current flow inherent in magnetic devices such as motors or iron-core
fluorescent lamp ballasts. In motor circuits, the current will lag in time
behind the voltage and the amount of this lag depends on a number of
factors, chiefly the type of motor and the torque demanded from it. In the
case of lamp ballasts, the lag is affected by ballast design, ambient
temperature, age of the bulb, etc.
x. To calculate the difference, or power factor, between apparent power

and true power if we know the lag angle (360 degrees = 1 cycle):
Watts = VA x Cos(q) or True Power = Apparent Power x Power Factor.
xi. One way determines the lag angle is with an oscilloscope, which can
indicate the amplitude of the voltage, current and their phase
relationship. This method is rarely used for AC power circuits as an
oscilloscope is costly, requires a skilled operator and these three values
must then be plugged into a formula to determine the true power.
5.2.1 SYMBOL OF ANALOGUE WATTMETER
Figure 5.1: Wattmeter symbol

Page | 154
5.2.2 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ANALOGUE WATTMETER
Figure 5.2 (a) A simplified wattmeter Figure 5.2 (b) Analogue Wattmeter
circuit
5.2.3 WATTMETER CONSIST OF VOLTAGE COIL AND CURRENT COIL
1. The analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device It

consists of a pair of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil
known as the potential (voltage) coil. (See Diagram 5.2 (a)).
2. The fixed coils are made up of a few turns of a comparatively large

conductor. The potential coil consists of many turns of fine wire. It is
mounted on a shaft, carried in jeweled bearings, so that it may turn inside
the stationary coils.
3. The movable coil carries a needle which moves over a suitably marked
scale. Spiral coil springs hold the needle to a zero position.

Page | 155
4. The current coil (stationary coil) of the wattmeter is connected in series

with the circuit (load), and the potential coil (movable coil) is connected
across the line.
5. When line current flows through the current coil of a wattmeter, a field is
set up around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line
current and in phase with it.
6. The potential coil of the wattmeter generally has a high-resistance resistor

connected in series with it. This is for the purpose of making the potential-
coil circuit of the meter as purely resistive as possible.
7. As a result, current in the potential circuit is practically in phase with line

voltage. Therefore, when voltage is applied to the potential circuit,
current is proportional to and in phase with the line voltage.
8. The actuating force of a wattmeter comes from the field of its current coil
and the field of its potential coil. The force acting on the movable coil at
any instant (tending to turn it) is proportional to the instantaneous values
of line current and voltage.
9. The wattmeter consists of two circuits, either of which will be damaged if

too much current is passed through them. This fact is to be especially
emphasized in the case of wattmeters, because the reading of the
instrument does not serve to tell the user that the coils are being
overheated. If an ammeter or voltmeter is overloaded, the pointer will be
indicating beyond the upper limit of its scale.

Page | 156
10. In the wattmeter, both the current and potential circuits may be carrying
such an overload that their insulation is burning, and yet the pointer may
be only part way up the scale. This is because the position of the pointer
depends upon the power factor of the circuit as well as upon the voltage
and current.
11. Thus, a low power- factor circuit will give a very low reading on the
wattmeter even when the current and potential circuits are loaded to the
maximum safe limit.
12. This safe rating is generally given on the face of the instrument. A
wattmeter is always distinctly rated, not in watts but in volts and amperes.
5.2.3 CONSTRUCT WATTMETER CONNECTION FOR POWER MEASUREMENT
Figure 5.4 (a): Single phase Figure 5.4 (b): Three wire system single phase

Page | 157
Figure 5.4 (c): Two phase system
Calculation to measure Power in watt, db and dbm
Decibels above 1 mW in 50 Ω, written dbm.

Power (P) = I V
 P 
Pdb = 10 * log ( Power ) Pdbm = 10 * log  
 0.001 
Example :
Given, I = 2 mA V = 25 V
Power (P) = I V
P = 2 mA x 25 V Pdb = 10 * log ( Power )
= 50 mW = 10 * log ( 50 mW )
= - 13 dB
 50 mW 
Pdb = 10 * log  
 0.001 
= 16.99 dB

Page | 158
P (watt) P (dB) P (dBm) P (watt) P (dB) P (dB)m
1 nW - 90 - 60 1W 0 + 30
10 nW - 80 - 50 2W 3.01 + 33
100 nW - 70 - 40 3W 4.77 + 34.7
1µW - 60 - 30 4W 6.02 + 36
10 µW - 50 - 20 5W 6.99 + 37
100 µW - 40 - 10 10 W 10 + 40
1 mW - 30 0 50 W 16.99 + 47
10 mW - 20 + 10 100 W 20 + 50
100 mW - 10 + 20 1000 W 30 + 60
5.3 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ANALOGUE KWH METER
Figure 5.5: Physical of Analogue KWH Meter
The kilowatt hour, or kilowatt-hour, (symbol kW.h, kW h) is a unit of energy

equal to 1000 watt hours or 3.6 megajoules. Energy in watt hours is the
multiplication of power in watts and time in hours. The kilowatt hour is most
commonly known as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric
utilities.

Page | 159
The standard unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the
joule (J), equal to one watt second. Inversely, one watt is equal to 1 J/s. One
kilowatt hour is 3.6 mega joules, which is the amount of energy converted if work is
done at an average rate of one thousand watts for one hour.
Example:
A heater rated at 1000 watts (1 kilowatt), operating for one hour uses one
kilowatt hour (equivalent to 3,600 kilojoules) of energy. Using a 60 watt light bulb
for one hour consumes 0.06 kilowatt hours of electricity. Using a 60 watt light
bulb for one thousand hours consumes 60 kilowatt hours of electricity. If a 100
watt light bulb is on for one hour per day for 30 days, the energy used is 100 W ×
30 h = 3,000 Wh = 3 kWh, the equivalent of 10.8 million joules. To convert a
quantity measured in a unit in the left column to the units in the top row, multiply
by the factor in the cell where the row and column intersect.
5.3.2 DRAW THE CONSTRUCTION OF KWH METER
Figure 5.6: 1 phase KWH construction

Page | 160
5.3.3 CONSTRUCT KWH CONNECTION FOR ELECTRICAL ENERGY MEASUREMENT
The following directions should be followed when reading the dials of a

watt-hour meter. The meter, in this case, is a four-dial type. The pointer on the
right-hand dial (fig 5.6) registers 1 kilowatt-hour, or 1,000 watt-hours, for each
division of the dial. A complete revolution of the hand on this dial will move the
hand of the second dial one division and register 10 kilowatt-hours, or 10,000
watt-hours. A complete revolution of the hand of the second dial will move the
third hand one division and register 100 kilowatt-hours or 100,000 watt-hours, and
so on. Accordingly, you must read the hands from left to right, and add three
zeros to the reading of the lowest dial to obtain the reading of the meter in watt-
hours. The dial hands should always be read as indicating the figure which they
have LAST PASSED, and not the one they are approaching.
5.4 UNDERSTAND CLAMP METER IN MEASURING HIGH ALTERNATING

CURRENT
Figure 5.7: Physical of Digital Clamp Meter
An electrical meter with integral AC current clamp is known as a clamp

meter, clamp-on ammeter. The clamp measures the current and other circuitry
the voltage. The true power is the product of the instantaneous voltage and
current integrated over a cycle of clamp meter.

Page | 161
5.4.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ANALOGUE CLAMP METER
Figure 5.8: Physical of Analogue Clamp Meter
In order to use a clamp meter, only one conductor is normally passed

through the probe. If more than one conductor is passed through then the
measurement would be the vector sum of the currents flowing in the conductors
and would depend on the phase relationship of the currents. In particular if the
clamp is closed around a 2-conductor cable carrying power to equipment the
same current flows down one conductor and up the other, with a net current of
zero. Clamp meters are often sold with a device that is plugged in between the
power outlet and the device to be tested. The device is essentially a short
extension cord with the two conductors separated, so that the clamp can be
placed around only one conductor.
The reading produced by a conductor carrying a very low current can be

increased by winding the conductor around the clamp several times. The meter
reading divided by the number of turns is the current, with some loss of
accuracy due to inductive effects. Clamp meters are used by electricians,
sometimes with the clamp incorporated into a general purpose multimeter. It is
simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of amperes) with the
appropriate current transformer. Accurate measurement of low currents (a few
milliamps) with a current transformer clamp is more difficult.

Page | 162
Less-expensive clamp meters use a rectifier circuit which actually reads

mean current, but is calibrated to display the RMS current corresponding to the
measured mean, giving a correct RMS reading only if the current is a sine wave.
For other waveforms readings will be incorrect; when these simpler meters are
used with non-sinusoidal loads such as the ballasts used with fluorescent lamps
or high-intensity discharge lamps or most modern computer and electronic
equipment, readings can be quite inaccurate. Meters which respond to true
RMS rather than mean current are described as "true RMS". Typical hand-held
Hall Effect units can read currents as low as 200mA, and units that can read
down to 1mA are available.
Clamp meters are used in some meters to measure electrical power and
energy. The clamp measures the current and other circuitry the voltage; the true
power is the product of the instantaneous voltage and current integrated over
a cycle. Comprehensive meters designed to measure many parameters of
electrical energy (power factor, distortion, instantaneous power as a function of
time, phase relationships, etc.), energy analyzers, use this principle. With an
appropriate instrument measurements may be made on three-phase, as well as
single-phase, power systems.
5.4.2 CONSTRUCT CLAMP METER CONNECTION FOR ALTERNATING CURRENT

MEASUREMENT.
When the load is connected (switched on), the leakage current measured
includes leakage in load equipment. If the leakage is acceptably low with the
load connected, then circuit wiring leakage is even lower. If circuit wiring
leakage alone is required, disconnect (switch off) the load.

Page | 163
Figure 5.9: Measurement of Leakage Current to Ground
Test single-phase circuits by clamping the phase and neutral conductor. The
measured value will be any current flowing to ground.
Figure 5.10: Single-phase circuits test
Test three-phase circuits by clamping around all three-phase conductors. If

a neutral is present, it should be clamped along with the phase conductors. The
measured value will be any current flowing to ground.

Page | 164
Figure 5.11: Measuring leakage current through the ground conductor
To measure the total leakage flowing to the intended ground connection,

place the clamp around the ground conductor.
Figure 5.12: Measuring leakage current to ground via unintentional paths

to ground
Clamping phase/neutral/ground together identifies imbalance current that

represents leakage at an outlet or electrical panel via unintentional paths to
ground (such as the panel sitting on a concrete base). If there are other
electrical bonding connections exist (such as a connection to a water pipe), a
similar imbalance may result.

Page | 165
Figure 5.13: Tracing the source of leakage current
This series of measurements identifies the overall leakage and the source.
The first measurement can be made on the main conductor to the panel.
Measurements 2, 3, 4 and 5 are made subsequently to identify circuits carrying
the larger amounts of leakage current.
Figure 5.14: Tracing the source of leakage current on electrical pole

Page | 166
Leakage current can be an indicator of the effectiveness of insulation on

conductors. High levels of leakage current may be present in circuits where
electronic equipment with filters is used, and can cause voltages that disrupt
normal operation of equipment. It is possible to locate the source of leakage
current by using a low current leakage current clamp to take methodical
measurements as described above. If necessary, this enables you to re-distribute
loads around the installation in a more balanced way.
5.4.3 INSTRUCTIONS TO USE CLAMP METER
1. Step 1
Turn on the clamp meter and set the function for measuring current. There will
also be a selection knob or button to select whether you're measuring
alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) flow. Most household electric
devices use household voltage from an outlet, which will be AC current.
2. Step 2
Clamp the meter onto the power cord. The ends of the clamp meter arms,
which resemble pincers, will have a recessed area through which the power
cord should be placed. Ensure that the clamp meter arms are stable with the
cord between them.
3. Step 3
Read the current flow on the clamp meter display. Most clamp meters have
automatic range finders, but if yours does not, increase the range of the meter
until you get a reading. Write down the reading, which will be numbers that
represent the amount of amperes, or amps, flowing through the cable.

Page | 167
4. Step 4
Measure the amount of current flow through an appliance such as a washing
machine by turning the appliance on and having it perform its functions. The
current flow will be much higher when the washing machine motor is turning.
The same applies for a dishwasher. For a refrigerator, turn down the thermostat
to turn on the cooling action, which will increase current flow.
5. Step 5
Adjust the position of the clamp meter to ensure you're getting accurate current
flow readings.
6. Step 6
Remove the clamp meter from the power cord.
5.4.4 ADVANTAGE USING ANALOGUE CLAMP METER
1. Versatile clamp meter with AC current, AC/DC voltage, resistance and

temperature measurement.
2. Tear drop shaped jaws for ease of use in crowded cable areas.
3. Rotary switch for one hand operation.
4. Pointer lock device to freeze readings.

Page | 168
ACTIVITIES
1. Wattmeter is built based on …….
2. An electrical device having two jaws which open to allow clamping

around an electrical conductor is known as a …………………………….
3. Define the following meters:

i. Power meter
ii. Wattmeter
4. Figure 4
Based on Figure 4,
i. Name the meter.
ii. Briefly explain the basic principle of meter.
5.
Based on Figure above

i. Name the meter.
ii. Explain how to use the meter.

Page | 169
CHAPTER: REFERENCES
REFERENCES
1. Kalsi, H.S. (2004). Electronic Instrumentation. New Delhi: Tata McGraw -

Hill.
2. Bakshi U.A, Bakshi A.V. (2009). Electronic Instrumentation, Technical

Publications.
3. Bhavani V, Vasantha S. (2008). Measurements & Instrumentation, IBS
4. Bell, D.A., (1994), Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements. (2nd

Ed.) New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
5. Bolton W., (1992), Elecrical And Electronic Measurement And Testing.

United Kingdom: Longman.
6. Boylestad R., Nashelsky L., (1999), Electronics Devices and Circuit

Theory (7th Ed.), New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
7. Cooper W.D., Electronic Instrumentation And Measurement

Technique, India: Prentice Hall.
8. Measurement and Instrumentation, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

(UTHM).
MEASUREMENT (EE101) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

Page | 171
MEASUREMENT – DEE1012
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
SECTION A: OBJECTIVES
1. There are the definition of measurement system, EXCEPT
A. The process of comparing an unknown quantity with an

accepted standard quantity.
B. The fault of the person using the instruments.
C. Result of comparison between the quantities to be measured.
D. Monitor a process or operation.
2. “The degree of exactness of a measurement compared to the

expected value, or the most probable value, of the variable being
measured.” This statement is referred to……………
A. Precision
B. Relative accuracy
C. Accuracy
D. Significant figure
3. Which of the following is the common standard used in a measurement?

A. Institution Standard. B. First Standard.
C. Secondary Standard D. Third Standard.
CHAPTER 1: ERROR AND MEASUREMENT

4. ……………. the differences between the highest and lowest value in

measurement.
A. Scale C. Resolution
B. Range D. Precision
5. Absolute error can be defined as ……………

A. the expected value of the variable
B. the measured value of the variable
C. the difference between the expected value of the variable and
the measured value of variable.
D. the standard of expected value of the variable
6. Describe the accuracy of measurement.

A. The degree of exactness of a measurement compared to the
expected value.
B. A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements.
C. The smallest change in a measured variable to which instrument
will respond.
D. The number of significant figures used in a measured quantity
indicate the precision of measurement.
7. There are elements of measurement system, EXCEPT

A. Primary sensing
B. Error sensing
C. Data presentation
D. Variable manipulation
8. Error is the difference or deviation from the true value measured. List THREE (3)
types of common errors encountered in the measurement.
i. Random error
ii. Gross error
iii. Calculation error
iv. Systematic error

A. i, ii, iii
B. ii, iii, iv
C. i, iii, iv
D. i, ii, iv
9. There is an accepted standard at the national level for respective

countries. This statement refers to ….
A. International Standards
B. Primary Standards
C. Secondary Standards
D. Working Standards
10. This standard is known as the reference standard and is used in

industrial laboratories ….
A. International Standards
B. Primary Standards
C. Secondary Standards
D. Working Standards
11. One way to overcome the gross error is to ….

A. Take readings with the correct method
B. Calibrate equipment before use
C. Use statistical methods to obtain the actual reading
D. Reduce the environmental impact of the measurement
is done

SECTION B: STRUCTURES
1. List down THREE (3) elements of measurement system.

(3 marks)
2. Determine absolute error in measurement by using related formula.

(3 marks)
3. List FOUR (4) of the Measurement Standards.

(3 marks)
4. Describe the following characteristic of measurement:

a. Accuracy
b. Precision
c. Resolution
(3 marks)
5. Explain gross error and systematic error.

(3 marks)
6. Explain measurement and sensitivity.

(3 marks)
7. A voltmeter with a measurement range of 0 – 100 V has a 1% full skill

deflection. This voltmeter is used to measure a voltage of 90 V. Calculate the
percentage of error for this reading.
(3 marks)

8. Refer to figure below, calculate the percentage of error and percentage of

accuracy if ammeter shown 15 mA.
1 k
mA
15V 500
(3 marks)
SECTION C: ESSAY
QUESTION 1 (a)
Describe the following types of error:
a. Gross error
b. Systematic error
c. Random error
d. Absolute error
e. Relative error
(10 marks)
QUESTION 1 (b)
List three types of systematic errors and give an example of each.
(6 marks)
QUESTION 1 (c)
Three different type of resistance have different values of R 1 = 15 kΩ ± 5%, R2 = 25
kΩ ± 2% dan R3 = 8.0 kΩ ± 5% that are connected in series. Calculate the
percentage of maximum error when their total resistance is measured.
(9 marks)

ENGINEERING
1. This force causes the pointer to move from its zero position when the current
flows.
A. Deflecting force.
B. Controlling force.
C. Damping force.
D. Oscillating force.
2. A Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMCC) instrument with a 100 turns coil
has magnetic flux density in its air gap of B = 0.2 T. The coil dimension, D = 1
cm and length of the coil, l = 1.5 cm. Calculate the torque on the coil for a 1
mA.
A. 3 x 10-6 Nm
B. 3 x 10-4 Nm
C. 0.3 Nm
D. 3 x 10-10 Nm
3. Referring to figure A (5), Rs is known as …………….
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
A. Internal resistance
B. Multiplier resistance
C. Coil resistance
D. Zero adjust resistance
4. A 300 mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 600 Ω is used in 0

to 1000 mA ammeter. Calculate the required shunt resistance.
A. 1Ω
B. 257.14 Ω
C. 257.14 kΩ
D. 3.33 Ω
5. A basic Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMCC) meter movement with full
scale deflection current of 20µA and has an internal resistance of 200 Ω is
used as a voltmeter. Calculate the value of the multiplier, Rs needed to
measure a voltage range of 0 – 10 V.
A. 499.8 Ω
B. 0.499Ω
C. 499.8 kΩ
D. 4.998 MΩ
6. mA
Name the type of damping.
time
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
A. Under Damping
B. Critical Damping
C. Over Damping
D.. Curve Damping
7. Calculate the multiplier resistance, Rs for a 100v range voltmeter that uses
an inner resistance of a 50 kΩ for its motion meter with full scale current
range of a 250 μA meter.
A. 340 kΩ
B. 345 kΩ
C. 350 kΩ
D. 360 kΩ
8. Flux density for a coil device in its air gap is 0.15T. The cross sectional area
is 5.375 x 10-2 m2. Determine the required number of turns in the coil if the
damping torque is 6.5 Nm when the current flow is 200mA.
A. 4.031x 103 turns
B. 403.1 x 103 turns
C. 40.31 x 103 turns
D. 4.03 x 10-3 turns
9. Figure below is designed for …………basic meter.
A. a multirange DC current
B. a DC current
C. a multirange DC Volt
D. a DC Volt
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
1. How can the DC meter movement be used to measure resistance?

(3 marks)
2. What is the basic difference between an analog meter and a digital meter?
(3 marks)
3. How does voltmeter loading affect a circuit being tested?

(3 marks)
4. Referring to figure B (4), calculate the value of Rs.
Figure B (4)
(3 marks)
5. Draw a multi-range ammeter consists of depletion instrument two multiplier

resistors and a rotary switch.
(3 marks)
6. A PMCC instrument with a 200 turn coil has a magnetic flux density in its air
gaps of B = 0.3 Tesla. The coil dimensions are D = 2cm and l = 1.5cm.
Calculate the torque on the coil for a current of 1mA.
(3 marks)
7. State safety precautions to use multimeter.

(3 marks)
8. An ohmmeter is an instrument that is used to……………. (3 marks)
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
9. A PMMC meter movement with FSD of 100 µA and an internal resistance of

5KΩ are converted into a voltmeter. Calculate the value of the multiplier
resistance if the voltmeter is measured at a full scale of 15V.
(3 marks)
SECTION C: ESSAY
QUESTION 1
a) The figure 1(C) show a simple series circuit of R1 and R2 connected to a 250V
dc source. If the voltage across R2 is to be measured by the voltmeters having
a sensitivity of 500 Ω/V and used on 150 V range. Calculate the voltage drop
on R2.
Figure 1(C)
(8 Marks)
b) A PMMC meter movement with FSD of 150 µA and an internal resistance of 2

kΩ are converted into a voltmeter. Calculate the value of the multiplier
resistance if the voltmeter is measured at a full scale of 30V.
(3 marks)
c) A Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMCC) instrument with 150 turn coil has a
magnetic flux density of 0.5 T in its air gap. The coil diameter is 1.5mm and
its length is 2cm. If the flowing current is 3mA, calculate the torque on the
coil.
(4 marks)
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
QUESTION 2
Consider the following circuit. Given RM=2.5KΩ, IM=100µA, R1=1.5Ω, R2=2.0Ω and
R3=2.5Ω. Answer the following questions.
IM RM
IT A B C
R1 R2 R3
a) Name the type of meter.

(1 marks)
b) Find the ranges of each shunt resistor.

(6 marks)
c) Find IT for each range.

(3 marks)
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
ENGINEERING
1. Which knob controls the waveform from moving in an oscilloscope?

A. Volt / Div
B. Time / Div
C. Hold off
D. Trigger Level
2. The brightness of waveform displayed on oscilloscope can be

adjusted by using ………….
A. Vertical control knob
B. Horizontal control knob
C. Intensity control knob
D. Focus control knob
3. Oscilloscope can be used to determine the following quantity EXCEPT

A. AC voltage
B. DC voltage
C. Frequency
D. Resistance
CHAPTER 3: OSCILLOSCOPE AND SIGNAL GENERATOR

4. The up and down movement of the waveform on the screen is

controlled by ………….
A. Horizontal control
B. Vertical control
C. Trigger control
D. Focus control
5. The following statements are TRUE about oscilloscope EXCEPT

A. Oscilloscope can be used to determine voltage value of AC
signal.
B. Oscilloscope can be used to determine frequency value of AC
signal.
C. Oscilloscope can be used as AC power supply to any electronic
circuit.
D. Oscilloscope can be used to determine the time of AC signal.
6. An oscilloscope can measure …………….

A. AC voltage
B. DC voltage
C. Both DC and AC voltages
D. Both DC and AC currents
7. The cathode ray tube is the heart of an oscilloscope. The main parts
of cathode ray tube are listed below EXCEPT…
A. Electron Gun
B. Selection System
C. Fluorescent Screen
D. Class Tube
8. The amplitude read on an oscilloscope of 1 V/div is 1.5 cm on vertical

axis. The value of amplitude in V is ………….
A. 1.5 V C. 1V
B. 5V D. 0.15 V

9. FOUR important uses of the oscilloscope are

A. Waveform display, voltage measurement, current measurement,
and power measurement.
B. Waveform display, voltage measurement, determining frequency,
and power measurement.
C. Waveform display, voltage measurement, determining phase, and
power measurement.
D. Waveform display, voltage measurement, determining phase, and
determining frequency.
10. The following statements are TRUE about oscilloscope EXCEPT

A. Oscilloscope can be used to determine voltage value of AC signal.
B. Oscilloscope can be used to determine frequency value of AC signal.
C. Oscilloscope can be used as AC power supply to any electronic
circuit.
D. Oscilloscope can be used to determine the time of AC signal.
11. TWO types of passive oscilloscope probes are _________________

i. 0.1 X scope probe ii. 10 X scope probe
iii. 1 X scope probe iv. 1000 X scope probe
A. i and ii
B. ii and iii
C. iii and iv
D. ii and iv
12. THREE (3) common types of oscilloscopes in use are ….

i. the storage oscilloscope
ii. the multi function oscilloscope
iii. the digital oscilloscope
iv. the multichannel oscilloscope
A. i,ii, ii C. i, ii, iv
B. ii, iii, iv D. i, iii, iv

13. A knob controls the brightness of a point or trace. This statement refers to
the ……
A. intensity knob
B. focus knob
C. trace rotation knob
D. scleillum knob
14. This Probe is also known as the high-impedance probe.
A. Active Probe
B. Direct Probe
C. Current Probe
D. Passive Probe
15. There are TWO (2) types of oscilloscope probes

i. active
ii. current
iii. low frequency
iv. high frequency
A. i,ii
B. i,iii
C. ii,iv
D. iv, i
16. What is the use of a function generator?

A. To measure the frequency.
B. To generate a sine wave and square wave.
C. To show the difference waveform.
D. To generate the difference waveforms when the frequency is
adjustable.

1. What is an oscilloscope used for? List THREE (3) for it.

(3 marks)
2. Determine the time measured and the number of graticule line of the sine wave
wave is 2500 Hz.
(3 marks)
3. List THREE (3) types of signal that can be generated using a signal generator.
(3 marks)
4. List THREE (3) parts of an oscilloscope block diagram.

(3 marks)
5. What is an oscilloscope used for? List THREE (3) for it.

(3 marks)
6. Determine the time measured and the number of graticule line of the sine wave
wave is 2500 Hz.
(3 marks)
7. Explain briefly the function of Display Controls below.

a. Power Switch On / Off
b. CAL 0.5V Terminal
c. GND Terminal
(3 marks)
8. What is the function of a FOCUS KNOB of an oscilloscope?

(3 marks)
9. Give TWO (2) basic type of a signal generator?
(3 marks)

SECTION C: ESSAY
QUESTION 1
a) What is signal generator?
(2 marks)
b) Based on the wave diagram (figure 2d), calculate listed below, if the
oscilloscope setting is Volt/Div: 100mV/Div, Time/Div: 0.5ms/Div
i) Peak voltage,
ii) Peak to peak voltage,
iii) Time,
iv) Frequency,
(8 marks)
2
3 .8 V p -p V p
A B
T
3 .8
TD
Figure 2d
10
c) Based on Figure 2e, if Yo = Ym = 1.8cm and 2.3cm, what is the phase

angle.
(2 marks)
Figure 2e

d) What is the function of the intensity and the dial focus of the oscilloscope.
(2 marks)
QUESTION 2
a) Name the 4 type of oscilloscope that usually use in the laboratory.
(2 marks)
b) Explain the basic function of:

i. Vertical controls
ii. Horizontal controls
iii. Display controls
iv. Trigger Controls
(8 marks)
c) Determine the frequency, peak-to-peak voltage, peak voltage and root means
square voltage of this waveform, as displayed by an oscilloscope with a vertical
sensitivity of 4 volts per division and a time base of 2.5 milliseconds per
division:
(7 marks)
d) Give THREE (3) differences between an oscilloscope and signal generator.

(6 marks)

QUESTION 3
a) State FIVE oscilloscope usages.
(5 marks)
b) State FIVE key component in an oscilloscope.

(5 marks)
c) Draw and label the cathode ray tube.
(6 marks)
d) Elaborate cathode ray tube operation.
(6 marks)
d) In a measurement, found that the image in oscilloscope is bright but not sharp
until complicate to get accurate reading. What adjustment that suitable to seek
bright image and sharp.
(3 marks)

ENGINEERING
1. When a DC bridge is in null condition …………..

A. no battery source is needed.
B. the deflection of galvanometer is in full scale.
C. all resistors in the bridge will have the same value of resistance.
D. no current flows in either direction through the galvanometer.
Figure 1
2. When DC bridge in Figure 1 is in balance condition, ………….
A. voltage across Ra is equal to the voltage across Rb.
B. voltage across R1 is equal to the voltage across R2.
C. current which flows through Ra is equal to the current flows
through R1.
D. current which flows through R1 is equal to the current flows
through R2.
CHAPTER 4: DC BRIDGE
3. The balance formula of DC Bridge circuit in Figure 1 is ………….

A. RaR2 = R1 Rb
B. RaRb = R1R2
C. RaR1 = RbR2
D. RaR2 = R1R2
4. Bridge circuits are instruments for making comparison measurements

and are used to measure ………….
i. resistance
ii. inductance
iii. capacitance
iv. impedance
A. i and iii
B. Ii and iv
C. i, ii and iii
D. i, ii, iii and iv
5. The DC bridge is also used for ………….

A. measuring the inductance and capacitance values.
B. detect short circuits and damage to the earth leakage circuit.
C. measuring the strain and the impedance.
D. opening circuit to detect defects.
6. The _____________ is used to measure the value of resistance below

1Ω.
A. Kelvin bridge.
B. Standard bridge.
C. Wheatstone bridge.
D. H bridge.
7. The DC bridge is also used for ….
A. Measuring the inductance and capacitance values

B. Measuring the strain and the impedance
C. Detect short circuits and damage to the earth leakage circuit
D. Open circuit detecting defects
8. Based on Figure 2, the Rx is ….
2kΩ 4kΩ
10v
G
3.5k Rx
Ω Figure 2
A. 4 kΩ
B. 5 kΩ
C. 6 kΩ
D. 7 kΩ
1.
Figure 2
If the DC bridge in Figure 2 is in balance condition, what is
a. the current readings at Galvanometer (G)?
b. the value of R2 if Ra = 10kΩ, Rb = 40kΩ and R1 = 15kΩ.

(3 marks)
2. Write the equation of the Wheatstone bridge circuit in Figure 3.
Figure 3
(3 marks)
SECTION C: ESSAY
QUESTION 1
a) List TWO (2) types of DC Bridge.
(2 marks)
b) State THREE (3) usage of the Wheatstone bridge.

(4 marks)
c) State TWO (2) conditions when the Wheatstone bridge is in a balance

conditions.
(4 marks)
d) Refer to the circuit in Figure 4, derive the equation for R when the bridge in
balance.
(3 marks)
e) From Figure 1 (d), if P = 1.5 k, Q = 750 Ω and S = 1 k , find the value
of the resistor R when the bridge in balance.
(4 marks)
f) If the sensitivity of the galvanometer in the circuit in Figure 1(f) below is

15 mm / μA, calculate the deflection of the galvanometer. Given Rg = 50 Ω.
(8 marks)
QUESTION 2
a) State THREE (3) usage of the Wheatstone bridge.
(3 marks)
b) State TWO (2) conditions when the Wheatstone bridge is in a balance

conditions.
(2 marks)
c) Based on Figure 2 (c) below, find the equation for Rx if the bridge is in a
balance condition.
Figure 2 (c)
switch R1
R2
E
G
R3
RX (5 marks)
QUESTION 3
a) Figure 3 (a) is a Wheatstone bridge.
i. Wheatstone bridge has high accuracy measurement compared with other
measurement. Explain why?
(3 marks)
ii. How you know that Wheatstone bridge in balanced state?

(3 marks)
iii. State one usage of Wheatstone bridge.

(1 marks)
200 800
4V G
20
R
Figure 3 (a): Wheatstone bridge
b) Figure 3 (a) is a Wheatstone bridge. Refer to figure 3 (a), one R is unknown

value.
i. Calculate the R value in figure above during in balanced state.
(5 marks)
ii. If the R value is 81Ω, What is the current value which flow through the
galvanometer. Internal resistance galvanometer is Rg = 50Ω.
(10 marks)
R1 R2
V G
R3
Rx
Figure 3 (b): Wheatstone bridge
iii. Derive the equation of Rx in the circuit figure 3 (b) if the Wheatstone
bridge in balanced.
(5 marks)
QUESTION 4
a) If there is no deflection in galvanometer, M = 0.
i. Calculate the Rx value if R1 = 350Ω, R2 = 10kΩ dan R3 = 5kΩ.
ii. Calculate the Rx value if R1 = 3.5kΩ, R2 = 10Ω dan R3 = 500Ω.
iii. Calculate the Rx value if R1 = 5kΩ, R2 = 1.5kΩ dan R4 = 15kΩ.
(6 marks)
b) Wheatstone bridge in figure 4 (c) used to measure resistance from range 10 Ω

to 100 Ω. If R1 = 250 Ω and R2 = 200 Ω, calculate maximum resistance value
and minimum for R3.
(7 marks)
R1 R2
V G
R3
Rx
Figure 4 (c): Wheatstone bridge
c) Calculate the current through the galvanometer in the circuit of figure 4 (c).
Given Rg = 100Ω.
(6 marks)
1k 1k
3V G
10.5k
11.5kΩ
d) Calculate the value of Rx in the circuit of figure 4 (d) if VTH = 28mV and Ig =
14.6A
Figure 4 (d): Wheatstone bridge
(6 marks)
MEASUREMENT –DEE1012
ENGINEERING
1. A current coil of the wattmeter is connected in _____________ with

the load.
A. measuring the inductance and capacitance values.
B. detect short circuits and damage to the earth leakage circuit.
C. measuring the strain and the impedance.
D. opening circuit to detect defects.
2. Wattmeter is built based on …..

i. Copper loop
ii. Current loop
iii. Voltage loop
iv. Power loop
A. i , ii
B. ii , iii
C. iii , Iv
D. iv , i
3. A DC meter has a load consisting of incandescent lamps and the

meter is calibrated to 200 volts. If the line current is 10 amperes, find
the power measured in dB.
CHAPTER 5: POWER METER

A. 32 dB
B. 33 dB
C. 34 dB
D. 35 dB
1. Wattmeter is built based on ……………………

(3 marks)
2. An electrical device having two jaws which open to allow clamping around an
electrical conductor is known as a …………………………….
(3 marks)
3. Define the following meters:

i. Power meter
ii. Wattmeter
(3 marks)
4.
Figure 4
Based on figure 4,
i. Name the meter.

(3 marks)

5.
Figure 5
Based on figure 5,
i. Name the meter.

(3 marks)
6. Draw the connection of Wattmeter.

(3 marks)

ENGINEERING
ANSWER SCHEME
1. B
2. D
3. C
4. A
5. C
6. A
7. B
8. D
9. A
10. D
11. A

QUESTION 1
List down THREE (3) elements of measurement system.
1. Primary Sensing Element. ---------- (1 marks)
2. Variable Conversion Element. ---------- (1 marks)
3. Variable Manipulation Element. ---------- (1 marks)
4. Data Presentation Element. ---------- (1 marks)
Select only 3 answers
(3 marks)
QUESTION 2
Determine absolute error in measurement by using related formula.
Absolute Error
Absolute error is the difference between the expected value of the variable and the
measured variable, or ---------- (1.5 marks)
Absolute error = expected value – measured value ---------- (1.5 marks)
(3 marks)
QUESTION 3
List FOUR (4) of the Measurement Standards.
1. International Standard ---------- (0.75 marks)
2. Primary Standard ---------- (0.75 marks)
3. Secondary Standard ---------- (0.75 marks)
4. Working Standard ---------- (0.75 marks)
(3 marks)
QUESTION 4
Describe the following characteristic of measurement:
a. Accuracy
The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the
expected value. ---------- (1 marks)

b. Precision
A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e.
successive reading do not differ. ---------- (1 marks)
c. Resolution
The smallest change in a measured variable to which instrument will respond.
---------- (1 marks)
(3 marks)
QUESTION 5
a. GROSS ERROR
Generally the fault of the person using the instruments and is due to such
things as incorrect reading of instruments, incorrect recording of experimental
data or incorrect use of instruments.
b. SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Due to instrument, environment or observational error, these quantities recur
if several measurements are made of the same quantity under the same
conditions. (3 marks)
QUESTION 5
Measurement
The process of determining the amount, degree or capacity by comparison (direct or
indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units being used.
Sensitivity
The ratio of the change in output of the instrument to a change of input or measured
variable.
(3 marks)
QUESTION 6
1% 1V
magnitude of error = (100V ) % error = (100%)
100% 90V
= 1V = 1.11 %
(3 marks)

QUESTION 7
voltage,V 15V
current, I = =
resis tan ce, R (1k  500)
= 0.01 A @ 10 mA
percent of error = (10mA  15mA) x100%

10mA
= - 50. 0%
percent of accuracy = 100 % - % error
= 100 % - 50 %
= 50% (3 marks)
SECTION C: ESSAY
QUESTION 1 (a)
Describe the following types of error:
a. Gross error
Gross error is generally the fault of the person using the instruments and is
due to such things as incorrect reading of instruments, incorrect recording of
experimental data or incorrect use of instruments.
b. Systematic error
Due to instrument, environment or observational error, these quantities recur
if several measurements are made of the same quantity under the same
conditions.
c. Random error
These errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been
substantially reduced or at least accounted for. Accumulation of small effects
and may be of real concern in high degree of accuracy measurement.

d. Absolute error
Absolute error is the difference between the expected value of the variable
and the measured variable, orAbsolute error = expected value – measured
value. In terms of error percentage, it is:
Percent error = Absolute error x 100
Expected value
e. Relative error
If a resistor is known to have a resistance of 500 Ω with a possible error of
±50 Ω, the ±50 Ω is an absolute error. This is because 50 Ω is stated as an
absolute quantity, not as a percentage of the 500 Ω resistance. When the
error is expressed as a percentage or as a fraction of the total resistance, it
becomes a relative error. Thus, the ±50 Ω is ±10%, relative to 500 Ω, or
±1/10 of 500. So the resistance can be specified as R = 500 Ω ± 10%.
(10 marks)
QUESTION 1 (b)
List three types of systematic errors and give an example of each.
These errors maybe due to friction in the bearings of the meter movement,
incorrect spring tension, improper calibration, or faulty instruments.
Instruments error can be reduced by proper maintenance, use and handling of
instruments.

Subjected to harsh environment such as high temperature, pressure, or
humidity or strong electrostatic or electromagnetic fields, may have
detrimental effects, thereby causing error.

Parallel error introduced in reading a meter scale and the error of estimation
when obtaining a reading from a meter scale.
(6 marks)

QUESTION 1 (c)
(a) Limiting error for each resistor.
5% 2% 5%
R1 = (15k) R2 = (25k) R3 = (8k)
100% 100% 100%
= 0.75 kΩ @ 750 Ω = 0.5 kΩ @ 500 Ω = 0.4 kΩ @ 400 Ω
(b) magnitude of maximum error

R1 = 15 kΩ + 0.75 kΩ R2 = 25 kΩ + 0.5 kΩ R3 = 8 kΩ + 0.4 kΩ
= 15.75 kΩ = 25.5 kΩ = 8.4 kΩ
(c) Total resistance

R1+R2+R3 = 15 kΩ + 25 kΩ + 8 kΩ
= 48 kΩ (real value)
R1+R2+R3 = 15.75 kΩ + 25.5 kΩ + 8.4 kΩ

= 49.65 kΩ (with maximum error)
(d) Percentage of maximum error

Percent of error = 48k  49.65k (15k) = - 3.437 % @ 3.44 %
48k
(9 marks)

ENGINEERING
ANSWER SCHEME
1. A
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. C
6. C
7. C
8. A
9. C
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
QUESTION 1
How can the DC meter movement be used to measure resistance?
When the instrument is connected to the electrical circuit to measure the electrical
quantity, deflecting torque moves the moving system of the instrument from its zero
position. The method of producing this torque depends on the type of instrument.
(3 marks)
QUESTION 2
What is the basic difference between an analog meter and a digital meter?
Digital Analog
Accuracy Extremely accurate for

fixed signals. Less Meter reading is more
accurate for slow- accurate on right side of
changing and peak scale than on left side.
signals.
Reading errors Unlikely due to digital Errors in meter reading can

display providing readout. results from parallax.
Range selection Automatic or manual Manual
Loading effect Minimal on low-resistance

circuits. Can be Readings can be severely
substantial on high- affected
resistance circuits.
Electromagnetic Can adversely affect

Have no effect on meter
fields meter
(3 marks)
QUESTION 3
How does voltmeter loading affect a circuit being tested?
A voltmeter should have an extremely high resistance. A voltmeter is always
connected across, or in parallel with the points in a circuit at which the voltage is to
be measured. If its resistance is too low, it can alter the circuit voltage.
(3 marks)
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
QUESTION 4
Referring to figure B (4), calculate the value of Rs.
Figure B (4)
V = Im ( Rm + Rs )
V
Rm + Rs =
Im
V
Rs = - Rm
Im ---------- (1 marks)
V = 50 V FSD,
Im = 100 µA
15 V
Rs = - 1 kΩ = 299 kΩ ---------- (2 marks)
50 µA
(3 marks)
QUESTION 5
Draw a multi-range ammeter consists of depletion instrument two multiplier resistors
and a rotary switch.
(3 marks)
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
QUESTION 6
The deflecting torque is given as:
TD = BANI
B = 0.3 Tesla
A = 2 cm x 1.5 cm
= 3 cm
N = 200
I = 1 mA
TD = (0.3 T) x (3 cm) x (200) x (1 mA)

= 1.8 mNm @ 1800 Nm
(3 marks)
QUESTION 7
Multimeter safety precaution.
Always disconnect the multimeter before adjusting the range switch.
1. Always check the setting of the range switch before you connect to a circuit.
2. Never leave a multimeter set to a current range (except when actually taking a
reading). The greatest risk of damage is on the current ranges because the
meter has a low resistance.
(3 marks)
QUESTION 8
An ohmmeter is an instrument that is used to…………….
i. measure a total resistance in a circuit.
ii. find a short circuit fault.
iii. find a earth circuit fault.
(3 marks)
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
QUESTION 9
Given :
FSD (Im) = 100 µA
Rm = 5 kΩ
Vm = 15 V
Rs = ?
V = IR
Vm = Im ( Rm + Rs)
15V
Rs = Vm – Rm =  5k
100A
Im
= 145 kΩ
(3 marks)
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
SECTION C: ESSAY
QUESTION 1
Question 1 (a)
Given: Sensitivity, S = 500 Ω/V
Rm = S x V ---------- (0.5 marks)
= 500Ω/V x 250 V
= 125 kΩ ---------- (2 marks)
Req = R2 || Rm ---------- (0.5 marks)

= 25 kΩ x 125 kΩ
25 kΩ + 125 kΩ
= 20.83 kΩ ---------- (2 marks)

V= Req
X 250 V
(Req + R1) ---------- (1 marks)
= 20.83 kΩ
X 250 V
(20.83 kΩ + 20 kΩ)
= 127.54 V ---------- (2 marks)
(8 marks)
Question 1 (b)
Given :
FSD (Im) = 150 µA
Rm = 2 kΩ
Vm = 30 V
Rs = ?
V = IR
Vm = Im ( Rm + Rs)
30V
Rs = Vm – Rm =  2k ---------- (1 marks)
150A
Im
= 198 kΩ -------- (2 marks)
(3 marks)
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
Question 1 (c)
TD = BANI ---------- (1 marks)
= 0.5T x (1.5mm x 2cm) x 150 x 3mA
= 0.5T x (0.15cm x 2cm) x 150 x 3mA
= 0.5T x (0.3cm/100) x 150 x 3mA ---------- (1 marks)
= 0.5T x 0.003m x 150 x 3mA
= 67.5 x 10-5N.m ---------- (2 marks)
(4 marks)
QUESTION 2
IM RM
IT A B C
R1 R2 R3
Question 2 (a)
Multi-range ammeter
Question 2 (b)
Range of each shunt resistor.
Vm = Vs IT = Im + Is
ImRm = IsRs Is = IT - Im
Vs = Vm
= ImRm
= (100 µA)( 2.5 kΩ)
= 0.25 V
At point A At point B
Is = Vs / Rs Is = Vs / Rs
= Im ( Rm ) / ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = Im ( Rm+R3 ) / ( R1 + R2 )
= 0.25 V / ( 1.5 Ω + 2 Ω + 2.5 Ω ) = 0.25 V / ( 1.5 Ω + 2 Ω )
= 41.667 mA @ 41.7 mA = 71.429 mA @ 71.43 mA
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
At point C
Is = Vs / Rs
= Im ( Rm+R2+R3) / ( R1 )
= 0.25 V / ( 1.5 Ω )
= 166.667 mA @ 166.7 mA
(6 marks)
Question 2 (c)
Find IT for each range.
At point A At point B
IT = Im + Is IT = Im + Is
= 100 µA + 41.7mA = 100 µA + 71.43mA
= 41.8 mA = 71.53 mA
At point C
IT = Im + Is
= 100 µA + 166.7mA
= 166.8 mA
(3 marks)
CHAPTER 2: DC METER
ENGINEERING
ANSWER SCHEME
1. C 13. A
2. C 14. A
3. D 15. A
4. B 16. D
5. C
6. C
7. B
8. A
9. D
10. C
11. B
12. D

QUESTION 1
What is an oscilloscope used for? List THREE (3) for it.
1. Display and analyze waveform of electronic signal. ------- 1 marks

2. Measure the voltage (AC or DC) ----------- 1 marks
3. Measure the time. ----------- 1 marks
4. Measure the frequency. ----------- 1 marks
5. Measure the phase differential between two waveforms.
----------- 1 marks
Select only 3 answer
(3 marks)
QUESTION 2
Determine the time measured and the number of graticule line of the sine wave if the
time per division switch is set at 50 μs/div and the frequency of the sine wave is 2500
Hz.
The time measured of the sine wave,

1
T = ----------- 0.5 marks
F
1
=
2500 Hz
= 400 μs ----------- 1 marks
T
Number of graticule line, n = ----------- 0.5 marks
Time/Div
400 s
=
50 s/div
= 8 of graticule ----------- 1 marks

(3 marks)

QUESTION 3
List THREE (3) types of signal that can be generated using a signal generator.
1. Square Waveform.
2. Sine Waveform
3. Triangular Waveform.
(3 marks)
QUESTION 4
1. Vertical system.
2. Horizontal system.
3. Trigger system.
4. Display system.
(3 marks)
QUESTION 5
1. Display and analyze waveform of electronic signal. ----------- 1 marks
2. Measure the voltage (AC or DC) ----------- 1 marks
3. Measure the time. ----------- 1 marks
4. Measure the frequency. ----------- 1 marks
5. Measure the phase differential between two waveforms. ----------- 1 marks
Select only 3 answer
(3 marks)
QUESTION 6
The time measured of the sine wave,
1
T = ----------- 0.5 marks
F
1
=
2500 Hz
= 400 μs ----------- 1 marks

T
Number of graticule line, n = ----------- 0.5 marks
Time/Div
400 s
=
50 s/div
= 8 of graticule ----------- 1 marks

(3 marks)
QUESTION 7
1. Primary Standard Power Switch On / Off
Main power switches of the instrument. When this switch is turned on, the
LED above the switch is also turned ON. ----------- 1 marks
2. CAL 0.5V Terminal

Outputs a 0.5V p-p 1 KHz rectangular wave for calibrating probes.
----------- 1 marks
3. GND Terminal
This is a grounding terminal. ----------- 1 marks
(3 marks)
QUESTION 8
What is the function of a FOCUS KNOB of an oscilloscope?
A focus knob to adjust the sharpness of the waveform. Digital oscilloscopes may not
have a focus control.
(3 marks)
QUESTION 9
Give TWO (2) basic type of a signal generator?
1. Audio frequency (AF) signal generator -------------- 1.5 mark
2. Radio frequency (RF) signal generators. -------------- 1.5 mark
(3 marks)

SECTION C: ESSAY
QUESTION 1 (a)
What is signal generator?
a. An electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating electronic
signals. -------------- 1 mark
b. Is designed to provide an alternating voltage at a certain frequency and
amplitude. -------------- 1 mark
(2 marks)
QUESTION 1 (b)
Based on the wave diagram (figure 2d), calculate listed below, if the oscilloscope
setting is Volt/Div: 100mV/Div, Time/Div: 0.5ms/Div.
i) Peak voltage, Vp = 3.8 Div x 100mV/Div = 0.38 V @ 380 mV

-------------- 1 mark
ii) Peak to peak voltage, Vp-p = 7.6 Div x 100mV/Div = 0.76 V @ 760 mV
-------------- 1 mark
iii) Time, T = 10 Div x 0.5ms/Div = 5 ms @ 0.005 s -------------- 1 mark
iv) Frequency, T = 1 / T = 200 Hz @ 0.2 kHz -------------- 1 mark

(4 marks)
3 .8 V p -p V p
A B
T
3 .8
TD
Figure 2d
10

QUESTION 1 (c)
Based on Figure 2e, if Yo = Ym = 1.8cm and 2.3cm, what is the phase angle.
Figure 2e
Sin θ = Yo axis / Ym axis

θ = Sin -1 ( Yo axis / Ym axis )
= Sin -1 ( 1.8 cm / 2.3 cm )
= 51.5o -------------- 2 mark
(2 marks)
QUESTION 1 (d)
What is the function of the intensity and the dial focus of the oscilloscope.
Intensity - adjust the brightness of the waveform. -------------- 1 mark
Dial focus - adjust the sharpness of the waveform. -------------- 1 mark
(2 marks)
QUESTION 2 (a)
Name the 4 type of oscilloscope that usually use in the laboratory.
1. Storage Oscilloscope. ----------- 1 mark
2. Multichannel Oscilloscope. ----------- 1 mark
3. Digital Oscilloscope. ----------- 1 mark
4. Analog Oscilloscope. ----------- 1 mark
(4 marks)

QUESTION 2 (b)
Explain the basic function of:
i. Vertical controls
Use the vertical controls to position and scale the waveform vertically.
ii. Horizontal controls

Use the horizontal controls to position and scale the waveform
horizontally.
iii. Display controls

Display systems vary between analog and digital oscilloscopes.
iv. Trigger Controls

The trigger controls let you stabilize repeating waveforms and capture
single - shot waveforms.
(8 marks)
QUESTION 2 (c)
Determine the frequency, peak-to-peak voltage, peak voltage and root means
square voltage of this waveform, as displayed by an oscilloscope with a vertical
sensitivity of 4 volts per division and a time base of 2.5 milliseconds per division:
The frequency of the waveform, F=

1
= T
1
= 5 x 2.5 msec = 80 Hz ---------- 2 mark

The peak-to-peak voltage, V p-p = n x 4 volts/div

= 5 x 4 volts/div
= 20 volts/div. ---------- 2 mark
The peak voltage, Vp = 0.5 Vp-p The root mean square voltage, V(rms)
= 0.5 (20 V) V(rms) = 0.707 Vp
= 10 V ------ 1 mark = 0.707 (10 V)
= 7.07 V ------- 2 mark
QUESTION 2 (d)
Give THREE (3) differences between an oscilloscope and signal generator.
Oscilloscope Signal generator

Display and analyze the waveform of Generates repeating or non-repeating
electronic signals. electronic signals.
Draws a graph of the instantaneous Provide an alternating voltage at a
signal voltage as a function of time. certain frequency and amplitude.
Consisting of a cathode-ray tube (CRT) Reproduce sinusoidal and non sinusoidal
and various associated circuit sections. waves of various frequencies when
troubleshooting electronic circuits.
Measured on the two-dimensional graph Generally used in designing, testing,
drawn by oscilloscope troubleshooting, and repairing electronic
or electroacoustic devices.

QUESTION 3 (a)
State FIVE oscilloscope usages.
i. display waveform
ii. measure voltage
iii. measure phase shift
iv. measure frequency
v. measure time
Each answer 1 mark
(5 x 1 mark = 5 marks)
QUESTION 3 (b)
State FIVE key component in an oscilloscope.
i. X amplifier (vertical)
ii. Time base
iii. Trigger circuit
iv. Electron gun
v. Network delay
vi. Y amplifier (horizontal)
vii. Screen
(5 marks)
QUESTION 3 (c)
Draw and label the cathode ray tube.
(6 marks)

vacuum
fluorescent
screen
spot light
electron beam
Plat-X
filamen cathode Grid focusing accelerates Plat-Y
control anode anode
[Sketch – 2 mark ]
[ Select only 4 label – 4 mark ]
(6 marks)
QUESTION 3 (d)
Elaborate cathode ray tube operation.
1. Heating is supplied by a filament cathode. This heating removes electrons
from the cathode.
2. Production at the cathode grid will control the electron beam coming out of
the tube and then move toward the screen. The number of electrons
determines the brightness on the screen.
3. Focusing movement of electrons is controlled by the focusing anode. This
section will focus electrons to produce a fine point of light on the screen.
4. The plates are two horizontal deflection and vertical deflection plates that
produce synchronization between the horizontal deflections to the input on
a vertical plate.
5. Fluorescent screen of cathode ray tubes precipitate formed with phosphor
material coated on the inside surface tube. When electron beam hits the
screen, the light will be removed. The color of light emitted embers on the
screen can be red, green or white depending on the material used.
Each answer 2 mark, select only 3 answers
(6 marks)

QUESTION 3 (e)
In a measurement, found that the image in oscilloscope is bright but not sharp until
complicate to get accurate reading. What adjustment that suitable to seek bright
image and sharp.
The image is not sharp due to incorrect focus adjustment. Then to get a sharp image
focus adjustment is made at the anode (focus button).
(3 marks)

ENGINEERING
ANSWER SCHEME
1. D
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. B
6. C
7. C
8. D
QUESTION 1
If the DC bridge in Figure 2 is in balance condition, what is
a. the current readings at Galvanometer (G)?
b. the value of R2 if Ra = 10kΩ, Rb = 40kΩ and R1 = 15kΩ.
a. the current readings at Galvanometer (G) is ) 0 A.

----------- 1 marks
b. R a R 2  R 1R b ----------- 1 marks
R1 Rb
R2 
Ra
(15k)(40k)

10k
 60k ----------- 1 marks
(3 marks)
QUESTION 2
Vac  Vbc ----------- 0.5 marks
 Rc 
Vac  E  ---------- 0.5 marks and Vbc  E R X 
 -------- 0.5 marks
 Rc  Rb  R R
 X a 
 Rc   Rx 
E    E  
 Rc  Rb   Rx  Ra  ----------- 0.5 marks
Rc Rx  Rc Ra  Rc Rx  Rb Rx ----------- 0.5 marks
Rc Ra  Rb Rx ----------- 1 marks
(3 marks)
SECTION C: ESSAY
Question 1 (a)
TWO (2) types of DC Bridge:
a. Wheatstone Bridge -------- 1 marks
b. Kelvin Bridge -------- 1 marks
(2 marks)
Question 1 (b)
THREE (3) usage of the Wheatstone bridge :
a. Measure resistance in DC circuit. -------- 1 marks
b. Detect short circuit fault. -------- 1 marks
c. Detect earthing fault. -------- 1 marks
d. Signaling adapter in the measurement system and detector of physical
signal (sensor). -------- 1 marks
either 3 answer
(3 marks)
Question 1 (c)
TWO (2) conditions when the Wheatstone bridge is in a balance conditions.
i. Voltage at point A and Voltage at point B is equal. ------ 2 marks
ii. Potential across arm AC must be same as the potential across arm BC. -------
- 2 marks
iii. Zero current through galvanometer. (Ig = 0 A) -------- 2 marks
either 2 answer
(4 marks)
Question 1 (d)
Equation for R when the bridge in balance.
Vac  Vbc -------- 1 marks
 R   S 
Vac  E  -------- 1 marks and Vbc  E  -------- 1 marks
R P S Q
 R   S 
E   E   -------- 1 marks
R P S Q
 R   S 
     -------- 1 marks
R P S Q
SR  RQ  SR  SP
-------- 1 marks
R Q = S P -------- 2 marks
(8 marks)
Question 1 (e)
From figure 1 (d), if P = 1.5 k, Q = 750 Ω and S = 1 k , find the value of the
resistor R when the bridge in balance.
R Q = S P -------- 1 marks
R=SP/Q
= (1 k)(1.5 k) / 750  -------- 1 marks
= 2 k -------- 2 marks
(4 marks)
Question 1 (f)
If the sensitivity of the galvanometer in the circuit in figure 1(f) below is 15 mm / μA,
calculate the deflection of the galvanometer. Given Rg = 50 Ω.
VTH  Vab  Vac  Vbc
 R3 R4 
VTH  Vab  E   
 1
R  R3 R2  R4 
 500 500  = 13.24 mV -------- 2 marks

 6V   
 500  1k 500  1010 
RTH  R1 // R3   R2 // R4 

R1R3 RR
RTH   2 4
R1  R3 R2  R4
(500)(1k) (500)(1010)
 
500  1k 500  1010
= 667.77 Ω @ 667.8 Ω -------- 2 marks
VTH
Ig 
RTH  Rg
13.24mV

667.77  50
= 16.72 μA -------- 2 marks
Sensitivity = Deflection / Ig
Deflection = (15 mm / μA) / 16.72 μA
= 250.8 mm -------- 2 marks
(8 marks)
QUESTION 2 (a)
State THREE (3) usage of the Wheatstone bridge.
To measure resistance value in the circuit. -------------- 1 mark
i. To detect short circuit fault. -------------- 1 mark
ii. To detect damage to the earth leakage circuit. -------------- 1 mark
(3 marks)
QUESTION 2 (b)
State TWO (2) conditions when the Wheatstone bridge is in a balance conditions.
1. It is in a balance condition when there is no current flow through the
galvanometer (Ig = 0) -------------- 1 mark
2. It is in a balance condition when potential voltage at node A is equal to
potential voltage at node B. -------------- 1 mark
(2 marks)
QUESTION 2 (c)
Based on Figure (3d) below, find the equation for Rx if the bridge is in a balance
condition.
Figure 3d
switch R1
R2
E
G
R3
RX
To find equation for Rx if the bridge is in balance condition
Vac  Vbc or Node A  Node B -------------- 1 mark
By using voltage diverder law :

 R3   Rx 
Vac  E  -------------- 0.5 mark and Vbc  E  -------------- 0.5 mark
 R1  R3   R2  R x 
 R3   Rx 
E    E  
 R1  R3   R2  Rx  -------------- 1 mark
R2 R3  R3 Rx  R1 Rx  R-3 Rx ------------- 1 mark

R R 
Rx   2 3  ------------- 1 mark
 R1 
(5 marks)
QUESTION 3 (a)
Figure 2a is a Wheatstone bridge.
i. Wheatstone bridge has high accuracy measurement compared with other
measurement. Explain why?
Wheatstone bridge has high accuracy measurement because of the unknown
value is found compare to the known components (standard).
(3 marks)
ii. How you know that Wheatstone bridge in balanced state?

Wheatstone bridge is balanced when the galvanometer reading is zero.
(3 marks)
iii. State one usage of Wheatstone bridge.

Use a Wheatstone is to measure the resistance
(1 marks)
200 800
4V G
20
R
Figure 3 (a): Wheatstone bridge
b) Figure 3 (a) is a Wheatstone bridge. Refer to figure 3 (a), one R is unknown

value.
i. Calculate the R value in figure above during in balanced state.
Refer to figure 2a, one R is unknown value.
Nilai R ialah
R2 R3
R  ............................................. [ 1 mark ]
R1
(800)(20) ............................................... [ 2 mark ]
R 
200
R  80 .................................................[ 2 mark ]
(5 marks)
ii. If the R value is 81Ω, What is the current value which flow through the
galvanometer. Internal resistance galvanometer is Rg = 50Ω.
Using Theavenin Theorem
200 800
c d
20 81
200 800
ETH  (  ) x(4) ......... [ 1 mark ]
200  20 800  81
200 800
ETH (  )(4)
220 881
10
ETH ( )(4) ......... [ 1 mark ]
9691
ETH  0.00413  4.13mV .......... [ 2 mark ]
200 x 20 800 x81

RTH  (  ) .......... [ 1 mark ]
200  20 800  81
4000 64800
RTH (  ) .......... [ 1 mark ]
220 881
RTH  91.73 .......... [ 2 mark ]
Therefore, current through galvanometer
ETH
Ig  .......... [ 1/2 mark ]
RTH  Rg
0.00413
Ig  .......... [ 1/2 mark ]
91.73  50
Ig  29.14 A .......... [ 1 mark ]
(10 marks)
R1 R2
V G
R3
Rx
Figure 3 (b): Wheatstone bridge
iii. Derive the equation of Rx in the circuit figure 3 (b) if the Wheatstone
bridge in balanced.
Derive formula at balance state,,

Vca = Vda ...........................[ ½ mark ]
I1R1 = I2R2 ......................... [ ½ mark ]
When,
E
I1 
R1  R3
and
E
I2 
R2  R x
insert I1 and I2 to equation (1)
E E ............................ [ 1 mark ]
( )(R1 )  ( )(R2 )
R1  R3 R2  R x
R1 R2
 ........................... [ 1 mark ]
R1  R3 R2  R x
R1(R2  R x )  R2(R1  R3 ) ................................ [ 1 mark ]
R1 R2  R1 R x  R2 R1  R2 R3
....................................[ 1 mark ]
R1 R x  R2 R3
R2 R3
Rx  # proved
R1
(5 marks)
QUESTION 4
a) If there is no deflection in galvanometer, M = 0.
i. Calculate the Rx value if R1 = 350Ω, R2 = 10kΩ dan R3 = 5kΩ.
ii. Calculate the Rx value if R1 = 3.5kΩ, R2 = 10Ω dan R3 = 500Ω.
iii. Calculate the Rx value if R1 = 5kΩ, R2 = 1.5kΩ dan R4 = 15kΩ.
If there is no deflection in galvanometer, M = 0.
(10k)(5k)
i. 
350  142.86k
........................... [ 2 mark ]
(10)(500)
ii.   1.429
3.5k
........................... [ 2 mark ]
(5k)(15k)
iii.   50k
1.5k
.......................... [ 2 mark ]
(6 marks)
b) Wheatstone bridge in figure 4 (c) used to measure resistance from range 10 Ω

to 100 Ω. If R1 = 250 Ω and R2 = 200 Ω, calculate maximum resistance value
and minimum for R3.
If R4 = 10 Ω
RR
R3  1 4 ........................... [ 1 mark ]
R2
(250)(10)

200
 12.5 ........................... [ 2 mark ]
If R4 = 100 Ω
R1 R4
R 
3 R2 ........................... [ 1 mark ]
(250)(100)

200
 125
........................... [ 2 mark ]
(6 marks)
R1 R2
V G
R3
Rx
c) Calculate the current through the galvanometer in the circuit of figure 4 (c).
Given Rg = 100Ω.
 R3   R4 
Vac  E   Vcb  E  
 1
R  R3   2
R  R 4 
 R1 R2 
VTH  Vab  E   
 R1  R3 R2  R4 
 1k 1k 
 3V     20.87mV
 1k  10.5k 1k  11.5k 
 
...................... [ 2 mark ]
RTH  R1 // R3   R2 // R4 

d
R1 R2
RR RR
RTH  1 3  2 4
R1  R3 R2  R4
a b
(1k)(10.5k) (1k)(11.5k)
 
1k  10.5k 1k  11.5k
 1.833k R3 R4
........................... [ 2 mark ]
c
VTH
Ig 
RTH  Rg
20.87mv
  10.797A ........................... [ 2 mark ]
1.833k  100
(6 marks)
d) Calculate the value of Rx in the circuit of figure 4 (d) if VTH = 28mV and Ig =
14.6A
Figure 4 (d): Wheatstone bridge
Calculate the value of Rx in the circuit of figure 4 if VTH = 28mV and Ig =

14.6A
R1 R3 R R
RTH   2 x
28mv R1  R3 R2  Rx
14.6A 
RTH  100
(1k)(10k) (1k) Rx
28mv 1.818k  
RTH   100 1k  10k 1k  Rx
14.6A
(1k) Rx
1.818k  909.1 
 1.818k 1k  Rx
(1k) Rx
908.9 
1k  R x
908.9k  908.9Rx  1kRx
91.1Rx  908.9k
Rx  9.977k
(6 marks)
ENGINEERING
ANSWER SCHEME
1. B
2. B
3. B
QUESTION 1
Wattmeter is built based on ……………………
i. 2 coil current coil.
ii. 1 voltage coil.
iii. 1 potential coil
(3 marks)

QUESTION 2
An electrical device having two jaws which open to allow clamping around an
electrical conductor is known as a …………………………….
Clamp meter
(3 marks)
QUESTION 3
Define the following meters:
i. Power meter
Device which measures the power transmitted from source to load in
the circuit.
ii. Wattmeter
Wattmeter is an electrodynamics instrument. Device can provide
satisfactory indications of power generated or consumed if:
a. The line voltage is known and varies little under any conditions where
an indication is needed.
b. The circuit uses direct current (DC), or alternating current (AC) where
the load is purely resistive.
(3 marks)
QUESTION 4
Figure 4
Based on figure 4,
i. Name the meter.
Wattmeter


The analog wattmeter is an electrodynamics instrument. The device It
consists of a pair of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil
known as the potential (voltage) coil.
(3 marks)
QUESTION 5
Figure 5
Based on figure 5,
i. Name the meter.
Clamp meter.
a. Turn on the clamp meter and set the function for measuring
current.
b. Clamp the meter onto the power cord.
c. Read the current flow on the clamp meter display.
d. Measure the amount of current flow through an appliance such as
a washing machine by turning the appliance on and having it
perform its functions.
e. Adjust the position of the clamp meter to ensure you're getting
accurate current flow readings.
(3 marks)

QUESTION 6
Draw the connection of Wattmeter.
-------------- 3 mark
(3 marks)

Yhgv PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Yhgv PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Yhgv PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THIRD EDITION

Engr. Mohd Khairul Muzhafar B. Md Nor

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

FOR INTERNAL USED ONLY, NOT FOR SALE

Editor: Engr. Muhammad Muizz Bin Mohd Nawawi

Editor: Mohd Mayuzie Bin Mohd Yusof

Cover Designer: Engr. Mohd Khairul Muzhafar Bin Md Nor

Third Edition, 2014

© Muzhafar, Muizz and Mayuzie

All rights reserved. This publications is protected by copyright and permission

1.0 MEASUREMENT AND ERROR 1

3.0 OSCILLOSCOPE AND SIGNAL GENERATOR 71

4.0 DC BRIDGES 133

5.0 POWER METERS 152

6.0 EXERCISE 170

ERROR AND MEASUREMENT

1.0 MEASUREMENT & ERROR

1.1 UNDERSTAND MEASUREMENT

1.1.1 DEFINATION OF MEASUREMENT

 Measurement is the result of comparison between the quantity to be

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

 Analog instrument is identifying as deflection-type instruments that

1.1.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Electrical measureng instruments are mainly classified as:

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

1.1.2.2 ELEMENTS OF ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS

Transducer Signal Modifier Indicating

Figure 1.1: Element of electronic instruments

 Transducer – Converts non electrical signal into an electrical signal.

1.1.3 ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

a. Primary sensing element

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

 In case the primary sensing element has a non-electrical input and

b. Variable conversion element

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

c. Variable manipulation element

Input Primary Signal

Data Data Variable Variable

Figure 1.2 : Functional elements of an instrumentation system

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

d. Data presentation element

1.1.4 TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

Monitoring of process and operations

Control of processes and operations

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

1.1.5 TERMINOLOGIES IN MEASUREMENT

1.2 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

1.2.1 DEFINATION ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

 A measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

 Error maybe expressed either as absolute or as a percent of error. It

1.2.2 TYPES OF ERRORS

ii) Environment errors

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

iii) Observational errors

In terms of error percentage, it is:

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH

1.2.3 ABSOLUTE ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT (DEE1012) POLYTECHNIC KOTA KINABALU, SABAH