IEEE/ASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL. 1, NO.

1, MARCH 1996 5

What is Mechatronics?
David M. Auslander

Abstract-With the explosively increasing costlsize-effectiveness This definition is a generalization of the original definition
of computers, mechatronic systems are becoming common in any of mechatronics which encompassed mechanical components
engineering discipline dealing with the modulation of physical
and electronically based decision making (digital and analog
power. In this article, I attempt a definition of mechatronics that
will allow for its differentiation as an identifiable field of circuitry). The term “mechatronics” has been attributed to the
engineering and then follow this direction to discuss some of the Yaskawa Electric Co. in the early 1970’s, although I have not
associated design philosophy. The definition draws on the seen any authority for that attribution. It makes sense in the
centrality of computing in mechatronic systems. context, for example, of the brushless dc motor which uses
electronics for its commutation decisions rather than relying
I. WHAT’S UNIQUE? on mechanically based decision making and, in the process,

I F mechatronics is to be recognized as a discipline we

must articulate the aspects of it that set it apart from other
results in a motor with dramatically different properties than
the original.
With the advent of computing as the preferred decision-
engineering activities. A definition that is too broad, by making medium, the definition needed to be broadened. It has
encompassing everything, encompasses nothing. Likewise, to be also become evident that a wider variety of physical systems
too narrow does not do justice to the richness of the field. I can be encompassed than just mechanical motion. Examples
believe that the uniqueness associated with mechatronics comes
from its exploitation of computation to create systems that are of these include traditional mechanical systems such as
qualitatively unlike any that came before. Although the name machine tools, manufacturing automation, as well as vehicle
implies that to be “mechatronic” a system must only contain control (automotivie, airplanes), process systems, thermal and
mechanical and electronic elements, that definition appears environmental control, building vibration control, etc.
much too broad to be useful. In other respects it is too
narrow. I see mechatronics including many physical systems, Finally, it seems likely that while software (algorithmic
not just traditional mechanical systems. It also begs the question languages) is the current decision-making medium, other
of what software is and ‘how it fits in, which is understandable tech-nologies could supplement or supplant it. Current
since control software was not a significant
candidates include artificial neural nets and fuzzy logic. Thus,
factor in the early 1970’s when the term was coined. Software is
the defi-nition points to the centrality of decision making
currently implemented using electronic deviczs,
rather than the means of realizing it.
but is really a medium in itself, independent of implementa-
tion. It is the source of unparalleled complexity-for better or
worse! Engineering systems with software based control can A. Examples
work miracles, but the technology also brings risks. New
Some examples can flesh out this definition. In the auto-
technologies call for new methodologies but people don t
motive area, for example, mechatronic engine controls have
change their ways of thinking easily.
enabled the modern automobile to simultaneously meet emis-
I think that this at least lays the groundwork for a
sion, fuel economy, and drivability specifications that could
definition of mechatronics that fits current technology and
not be duplicated using the traditional engine controller, the
has some hope of covering future developments as well.
carburetor. This is an example in which a mechatronic
solution produces essential pegormance improvements.
11. DEFINITIONOF MECHATRONICS Another example is the modern machine tool. The CNC
The application of complex decision making to the controller defines the operation and use of such a machine.
oper-ation of physical systems. The entire manufacturing process has been affected, from
“Complex decision making” covers today’s software and designing the parts to be manufactured to the potential for
distinguishes modern mechatronics from earlier attempts at fully automatic, untended operation of the machines. This is a
complexity. It identifies as “mechatronic” systems that depend case in which the introduction of mechatronics to an existing
for their unique functionality on software. It also identifies as technology resulted in a qualitative improvement.
practitioners of mechatronics those who have the skills and The above examples show the application of mechatronics
understanding to create and manage the complexity.
to existing technologies. An example of a technology that is
impossible without mechatronics is the automated teller
Manuscript received October 11, 1995; revised December 12, 1995. machine (ATM) used to deliver cash to bank customers. Such
The author is with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1740 USA.
a machine is not even conceivable without mechatronics.
Publisher Item Identifier S 1083-4435(96)02287-9. Finally, as noted above, new technologies carry new risks with
them. A recent spectacular example of the risk at work is the
baggage handling system for the new Denver International
10834435/96$05.00 0 1996 IEEE
6 IEEEIASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL. 1, NO. 1, MARCH 1996
Airport [3] .Failures attributed to the software controlling the

highly automated baggage-handling system caused nearly a

year-and-a-half delay in opening the airport at a cost of the
K -
order of a billion dollars.
111. CONTEMPORARYREALIZATION Steam

Computers of all sizes and capabilities are used as the Engine Main Sha?
decision making elements in products affecting virtually every Fig. 1. The Watt speed governor
resident in the developed world. From a numerical perspective,
the most common type of computer in use today is the micro-
controller-very small, highly integrated microprocessors used
as decision-making elements in engineering systems. Several
hundred million of these are sold every year!
The following item from a daily newspaper highlights I 1
the extent to which embedded computing in a mechatronics software. eledronics

context is entering daily life and consciousness:

SIDEBAR: USA Today, May 1, 1995, page 1B
USA SNAPSHOTS-A look at statistics that shape
your finances
Micromanaging our lives
Microcontrollers-tiny computer chips-are now run-
ning things from microwave ovens (one) to cars (up to
IO) to jets (up to 1000). Fig. 2. Mechatronic system elements.
How many microcontrollers we encounter daily:
1985 less than 3 spin outward, moving the linkage so as to close the steam
1990 10 valve and thus slow the engine. This oft-quoted example of an
1995 50. early feedback control system is typical of the systems on this
list-its decision making (computation) is done in the same
IV. A DESIGNPHILOSOPHY medium as the major power flows in the system. This makes
these systems premechatronic for reasons discussed below.
The unique factor in mechatronics is its dependence on
sophisticated real-time computation to define the nature of
the engineering system in which the computation is em- B. Mechatronic System Organization
bedded. Successful mechatronic system designs require an The developments in electronics have made it possible to
organized approach to the design of such software. As part of energetically isolate the four central components making up a
the introduction of mechatronic principles, a focused design controlled mechanical system, Fig. 2:
methodology will be followed so that conceptualization and Computation: At the center;
documentation of mechatronic software can be done indepen- Actuation: Controlling power delivery;
dent of the medium used for its implementation. Instrumentation: What's happening;
Target System: What all the fuss is about!
A. A History of Increasing Complexity In addition, the peripheral elements connect the mechatronic
Technological history shows that there has always been a system to the world of its operators and managers:
striving for complexity in mechanical systems. The follow- Operator Integace: Normal and emergency;
ing list shows some examples of machines that show the Other: Communication with other systems, etc.
marvelous ingenuity of their inventors: Once isolated from the instruments on one side and the
(not strictly chronological!); actuators on the other, computation could be implemented
Watt governor; using the most effective computing medium, independent of
Jacquard loom; any needs to pass power through the computational element.
typewriter; That medium has been the digital computer, and the medium
mechanical adding machine; of expression for digital computers is software.
pneumatic process controller; This ability to isolate is recent. Watt's speed governor, for
carburetor; example, combined the instrument, computation and actuation
sewing machine; into the flyball element. Its computational capability was
tracer lathe; severely limited by the necessity that it pass power from the
cam grinder. power shaft back to the steam valve. Other such examples, where
A diagram of the Watt steam engine speed control (gover- computation is tied to measurement and/or actuation, include
nor) is shown in Fig. 1. As the engine speeds up, the flyballs automotive carburetors, mastered cam grinders, tracer
AUSLANDER: WHAT IS MECHATRONICS?

Fig. 3. Operational amplifier; computing configuration.

4
lathes, DC motor commutation, timing belts used in a va- Fig. 4. Operational amplifier; follower configuration.
riety of machines to coordinate motions, rapid transit car
couplings (which are only present to maintain distance; cars Grindstone
are individually powered), and myriads of machines that use
linkages, gears, cams, etc., to produce desired motions. Many
such systems are being redesigned with software based
controllers to maintain these relationships, with associated
/"'\
improvements in performance, productivity (due to much
shorter times needed to change products), and reliability.

C. Amplijiers and Isolation

The development of electronic amplification techniques
opened the door to mechatronics. Operational amplifier (op- Fig. 5. Masterless cam grinder.
amp) based circuits, such as that shown in Fig. 3, could provide
both isolation and generation of a wide variety of linear and This is an excellent example of how mechatronics can
nonlinear, static and dynamic computing functions. change the way thlat problems are approached. In a conven-
Fig. 4 shows an alternate operational amplifier configu- tional, mastered, cam grinder the motion is controlled by a
ration, which provides even stronger isolation, but cannot mechanical system which traces the contour of a master cam.
perform as flexible computation. The mechanical tracing mechanism must fill the role of
Developments in power electronics provided the same kind of computation (transmission of the desired contour) but also
flexibility and isolation on the actuation side that op-amps carry enough power to operate the follower mechanism. This
provide on the signal side, and gave a means for translating is a limit to performance, and causes considerable loss of
commands computed in electronic form into action. productivity since the time to change the machine from one
Digital electronics added enormously to the range of com- cam profile to another is considerable.
putational functions that could be realized. Digital electronics In the mechatronic-based cam grinder, the profile is stored
also formed the basic technology for implementing as an array of numbers in software, so the machine's
computers, but with the use of computers it is software rather performance is limited only by its inherent mechanical
than electronics that represents the medium of expression. properties and the ability of the control computer to store and
Although mechatronics based on electronic computing process the data. Changeover is also much faster since it only
elements opened a new world of mechanical system control, requires loading of new data.
software has extended that world in unimaginable ways. The real-time software used in most mechanical system
Because this software must operate within timing and control is also safety-critical. Software malfunction can re-
response constraints imposed by the system under control, it sult in serious injury and/or significant property damage. In
is known as real time software and, by the present definition, discussing software-related accidents which resulted in
is at the heart of mechatronic systems. deaths and serious injuries from clinical use of a radiation
therapy machine (Therac-25), [4] established a set of
software design principles, ". . . that apparently were violated
V. REAL-TIMESOFTWARE with the Therac-25 . . ." Those are the following.
Real-time software differs from conventional software in Documentation should not be an afterthought.
that its results must not only be numerically and logically Software quality assurance practices and standards
correct, they must also be delivered at the correct time. A should be established.
design corollary following from this definition, is that real Designs should be kept simple.
time software must embody the concept of duration, which, Ways to get information about errors-for example, soft-
again, is not part of conventional software. An example ware audit trails-should be designed into the software
showing the need of on-time delivery of results is given in from the beginning.
Fig. 5. In the masterless cam grinder the rotation of cam must The software should be subjected to extensive testing
be precisely coordinated with transverse motion to cut the and formal analysis at the module and software level;
noncircular cam profile. system testing alone is not adequate.
8 IEEE/ASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL. 1, NO. 1, MARCH 1996

In particular, it was determined that a number of these intertwined with the computation aspects. This situation
prob-lems were associated with asynchronous operations, relates directly to the first design principle listed above,
which while uncommon in conventional software, are the “documenta-tion should not be an afterthought.” If the
heart and soul of real-time software. Asynchronous operations system engineering is separated from the computational
arise from preemptive, prioritized execution of software technology, then the documentation will have to exist
modules, and from the interaction of the software with the independent of the program; otherwise, documentation can be
physical system under control. viewed as an additional burden.
Because of preemptive execution, it becomes impossible to The following definitions will be used to separate these
predict when groups of program statements will execute roles as they appear in the proposed methodology:
relative to other groups, as it is in synchronous software. System engineering: Detailed specification of the relation-
Errors that depend on particular execution order will only ship between the control software and the mechanical sys-
show up on a statistical basis, not predictably. Thus, the tem.
technique of repeating execution until the source of an error Computational technology: A combination of computa-
is found, which is so effective for synchronous (conventional) tional hardware and system software that enables
software, will not work with for this class of real time error. application software based on the engineering specification
In a like manner, there are errors that depend on the to meet its operational specifications.
coincidence of certain sections of program code and events Using these definitions, the engineering specification de-
taking place in the physical system. Again, because these scribes how the system works; the computational specification
systems are not strictly synchronized, they can only have determines its peformance. As a result of this separation, if a
statistical characterization. suitable paradigm is adopted to describe the engineering
specification, a much broader discussion and examination can be
A. Nasty Software Properties brought to bear because, the details of the engineering can be
Software complexity tends to increase exponentially with discussed by project participants familiar with the problem, not
size. What starts out as a small, manageable project, can ex- just those familiar with computing languages and real time
pand into something which, quite literally, never gets programming conventions. This provides for meaningful design
finished. To compound this problem, the economics of review of projects that are software intensive.
software based products is that over the lifetime of the
product, maintenance costs dominate the total expense.
Both the complexity and the asynchronous nature of real- C. Software Portability
time software lead to situations in which bugs can remain
In mechanical system control, portability has consequences
dormant for long time periods, waiting to do their dirty work
both for product lifetime and for the desigddevelopment
at the most inopportune time.
cycle. The mechanical part of the system can have a
The antidotes to these problems flow from adopting an
commercial lifetime of anywhere from 5-20 years. On the
engineering perspective so that code writing (programming)
other hand, the computational technology used for its control
should not be viewed as a creative activity!
only has a lifetime of 3-5 years. To remain competitive, new
On the engineering side, a method must be found to
versions of the product need to use new computers to take
describe in detail how the control software should behave. This
advantage of the ever-increasing computational capability.
allows both for the needed engineering review function and
Doing this cost-effectively requires software that will “port”
enables the act of code production to become much more routine
since the creative engineering part has been done at the
easily from the original target processor to new ones.
descriptive level. Software portability seriously affects the de-
sigdimplementation cycle as well. Early stages of the
The second way of avoiding at least some of the
software tend to be simulations, done to test hypotheses and
complexity problems is to modularize the software and its
to substitute for hardware not yet built. Later stages use
production process. In this way, specific pieces of software
laboratory prototypes, then pilot prototypes, then, finally, the
are directly connected to certain machine functionality.
actual production system. If software can’t migrate from step-
System malfunc-tions can thus be traced to the relevant
to-step in this process, the whole process can become greatly
software more quickly, system changes can be made with
elongated as new software must be created for each step, and
reasonable assurances that the changes will not adversely
there are significant possibilities for introducing new bugs at
affect some unexpected part of the machine, and individual
each stage.
software elements can be tested more easily.
Portability is complicated by the real-time constraints.
B. Engineering DesignKornputational Perj4ormance
If real-time software environments are used as aids in
meet-ing those constraints (kernels, schedulers, real-time
Too often, the only detailed documentation of real-time
operating systems), software written for one environment
software is the program itself. Furthermore, the program is
usually designed and written for a specific real-time target can require substantial rewriting to run in another.
environment. The unfortunate consequence of this is that the Crossing the full spec-trum from simulation to production
engineering aspects of the design problem become inextricably traverses environments in which program structure itself
is incompatible. The proposed methodology provides a
layer of abstraction one higher than
AUSLANDER: WHAT IS MECHATRONICS? 9

the real-time environments, so offers a means of bypassing The organization into processes and threads is purely for
these incompatibility problems. performance purposes. As is noted below, there is no theoret-ical
Further portability challenges arise from the operator inter- necessity for such organization at all. The organization serves
face section of the program, and the interprogram communica- only to meet performance specifications when the chosen
tion for those solutions implemented with multiple processors. processor is not sufficiently fast to meet the specs with a single-
thread structure. It does this by shifting processor resources from
D. Control System Organization low-priority to high-priority tasks. As a further note, the
portability requirements enumerated above imply that several
A two-level organization is used on both the engineering
different computational organizations will be used in the course
and computational sides of the control software design. On
of a development project.
the engineering side, a job is organized into
tasks VI. CONCLUSION
states I have presented an approach to the definition of what
and, on the computational side, into constitutes the field of mechatronics and an approach to the
design of systems based on that definition. The purpose for
processes doing this is to establish the central skills and experience that
threads. are expected of those who are or wish to be mechatronics
specialists. If that is not done, mechatronics will remain a
The breakdown of the engineering specification into tasks loosely defined “mterdisciplinary” area which will greatly
and then states is a subjective process, requiring considerable hamper attempts to move the field forward in a reasonably
engineering judgment. This stage is the primary creative orderly way and will make it difficult to define educational
design step.
paths that will lead to this specialty. I expect that not all
Tasks represent units of work; they are the functional sub-
readers share this vision of mechatronics but I hope that this
units of the job. Tasks can often be designed by breaking a article might lead to enough further discussion so that a
system down along both time scales and physical components. consensus definition will emerge-perhaps in the pages of
For example, there might be separate tasks to handle the high-
new journal.
level part of controls for several motor-driven axes, and other
tasks to handle the higher-speed operations associated with REFERENCES
measurement and actuation of those same motors.
Tasks, in general, are active simultaneously. They are used D. M. Auslander and P. Sagues, Microprocessors for Measurement and
Control. Berkeley, CA: OsborneiMcGraw-Hill, 1981.
to describe the parallelism inherent in the physical system. D. A. Dornfeld, I).M. Auslander, and P. Sagues, “Programming and op-
Internally tasks are organized in a strictly sequential manner timization of mull i-microprocessor controlled manufacturing
into states [l], [2], [5] , and [ 6 ] . States describe specific processes,” Mech. Eng., vol. 102, no. 13, pp. 34-41, 1980.
W. W. Gibb, “Software’s chronic crisis,” Sei. Amer., pp. 8 6 9 5 , Sept.
activities within the task; only one state can be active at a time. 1994.
The active state controls the current activity of the task. N. G . Leveson and C. S. Turner, “An investigation of the Therac-25
accidents,” IEEE Computer, July 1993.
The primary reason for this distinction between the nature M. J. Simms, “Using state machines as a design and coding tool,”
of tasks and states is that sequential activity is a part of many Hewlett-Packard J., vol. 45, no. 6, Dec. 1994.
mechanical systems. Even for systems that do not seem to be P. T. Ward and S . J. Mellor, Structured Development for Real-Time
Systems. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1985.
fundamentally sequential, such as process or web systems,
the sequential breakdown within tasks seems to work quite
well. During normal operation, tasks tend to stay in only one
or two states. However, during start-up and shutdown, the
taskhtate structure describes the operation very well.
The sequential state structure also serves as one test for David M. Auslander completed undergraduate
appropriate task definition. If tasks are aggregated to much, studies at the Cooper Union and graduate studies at
MIT, both in mechanical engineenng.
they will end up with parallel operations which cannot be He is currently a Professor of Mechanical
described effectively by states. Breaking the task into several Engineenng at the University of California at
smaller tasks solves the problem. Berkeley, and has interests in dynamic systems and
control. His research and teaching interests include
On the computational side, processes describe computa- bloengineenng, mechanical control, and real-time
tional entities that do not share an address space (this includes software. Current projects in these areas are cardiac
signal analysis, nanometer mechanical positioning,
independent processors). Threads are computational entities design methodology for real-time control software,
that share an address space but can execute asynchronously. A and control of bioregenerative life-support systems He conwlts in industrial
thread can contain one or more tasks; a process can contain one servo control systems and other control and computer applications.
or more threads. Dr. Auslander is a member of ASME.