UNIT 23 SCHEME OF CHAPTERISATION

AND REFERENCING
Structure
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Objectives
23.3 Need for Chapterisation and its Functions
23.4 Diversity in Chapterisation
23.5 Referencing and Footnotes - Need and Importance
23.6 Various Styles of Referencing
23.7 Let Us Sum Up
23.8 Suggested Readings
23.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
FIi
?!

23.1 INTRODUCTION
Once the research data have been collected, analysed and interpreted, the next
important task is to report the results of the research, and these are to be
communicated to others. This requires preparation of research report which we
may call thesis or dissertation or project report. You have already studied about
research reports and its various components in unit 22. In a research report, the
researcher communicates both the procedures as to how the research was carried

1 out and the findings. Implications of the findings and their relationship to other
knowledge in the field also need a special mention in the report along with the
suggestions. Reporting of the entire research has to be divided into a number of
chapters. In this unit, you will learn about various chapters in the report and their
I
main functions along with referencing.

I
I
After going through this unit you will be able to:
I! describe the need for chapterisation;
list the functions of each chapter in the report;
I
explain diversity in chapteristion;
write various references and footnotes;
I
apply various styles of referencing and footnotes.

23.3 NEED FOR CHAPTERISATION AND ITS

FUNCTLONS
In any research, an 'after completion report' has to be produced for various purposes.
It may be a part of requirement in the department, faculty or institution for its
assessment. If research is assigned by a particular agency, then the report is to be
Research Reports submitted to the same for further action. In any case, a researcher is supposed to
and applications organize hislher dissertationlthesis or report according to certain guidelines which
you have studied in unit 22. A researcher is supposed to communicate clearly his1
her results along with procedure to the readers. There is a general pattern widely
used in most of the reports, sanctioned by tradition, but it has its own logic. The
entire report provides answers to five fundamental questions as reported by Glatthorn
(1 998).

1. What is the problem that I studied?

2. How does my study relate to previous works?

3. What method did I use to study the problem?

4. What result did I obtain?

5. What does it all mean?

According to Cryer (1999), your dissertationlthesis or report should focus on the

following questions.

1. How have you defined or developed the research question(s), topic(s), or

theme(s) with which the report is concerned?

2. How are you developing your research methodology? (stressing 'how it is

appropriate)

3. How do you expect to ensure that you will collect appropriate data which is
convincing for its purpose?

4. How are you using the literature?

5. How are you dealing?

From the questions raised by Glatthorn (1998) and Cryer (1999), you might have
understood the purpose of report writing. If you examine each question given by
Cryer closely, you will certainly say that each question, itself, demands a separate
chapter in the report. In whichever way you design your report, it must communicate
to the reader (i) the purpose of study, i.e. objectives of the study, professional
significance of the problem, overview of the method~logy,delimitations of the study,
definition of key words (ii) review of the theoretical and empirical literature;
(iii) description of general methodology, (iv) presentation of results and (v) discussion
of findings and suggestions. From this, it is clear that each chapter in the dissertation/
thesis has its own functions. We will discuss the chapterisation of a dissertation1
thesis under the following heads along with its function.

Introduction

"Introduction" is normally the first chapter in the dissertationlthesis. As the name

suggests, it introduces the entire topic or problem under investigation alongwith its
importance, background of the study, objectives of the study, definition of key words,
hypotheses, delimitations of the study and overview of methodology. Of course,
there is a separate chapter for methodology, but an overview about the same may
be included in the chapter on introduction. Normally such sub captionslsections are
quite common, it is not necessary to follow them rigidly, there could be variation in
order of sub captions as per the need.

The first chapter should conclude with a paragraph that looks ahead to the rest of
the chapters, indicating to the readers what they may expect.
52
The Introductory Chapter Scheme of Chapterisation
and Referencing
Gives the theoretical background to the specific area under investigation; f

Clearly states the problem under investigation with specific reference to its
placement in the broader area under study;
Describes the significance of the research problem focusing on why study is
undertaken;
States precisely the objectives of the study.
States hypotheses and/or research questions if any. (This you have studied in
Block 3, Units 10 & I 1 ).
Defines the important terms conceptually as well as operationally, if possible.
Defines the scope and limitations of the study.
Thus, the main function of this chapter on introduction, is to introduce the entire
thesisldissertation, in brief. By going through this chapter, the readers will be clear
about the intention of the researcher.
Review of Related Literature
Review of related literature is generally the second chapter of the research report,
and usually consists of the review of important literature related to the problem
under study. This chapter generally begins with an overview of how the chapter is
organized followed by a review of the theoretical and empirical literature and ending
with summary of what the previous research seems to mean and how it related to
this study. Here the investigator tries to identify research gaps. Focusing on what
has been done so far, when and where earlier studies were carried out, what
methodology was used by them. This chapter has two major functions. First, while
selecting a problem area or simply a topic for investigation, the investigator goes
through many books, journals, research abstracts, encyclopedia, etc. to finally
formulate a problem for investigation. Thus, a review of related literature helps in
identifying a problem. Related literature is one of the sources for identification of a
research problem. Second, review also helps the researcher to formulate the broader
assumptions about the factors/variables involved in the problem and later develops
the hypothesishypotheses for the study. Ary Donald et. al(1972) describes following
functions of review of related literature.

i) Knowledge of related research enables the investigator to define the frontiers

of his field.
hi An understanding of theory in the field enables the researcher to place his
question in perspective.

iii) Through studying related research one learns which procedures and instruments
have proved useful and which seem less promising.
iv) A thorough search through related research studies avoids unintentional
replication of previous studies.
v) The study of related literature places the researcher in a better position to
interpret the significance of his own results.
While reviewing literature in the area concerned, you have to keep in mind that the
reviewed literature has to be critically analysed and summarised in terms of
agreements and disagreements among the authors and researchers in order to justify
the necessity for conducting your investigation. 53
 Research Reports
and Applications
Design of the Study
I
Design of the study highlights methodology of the study. Design of the study is like 1!
a blue print of the entire study. In short, research design is a plan of investigation, 1

which includes an outline of what the investigator will do, ftom writing the objectives,
hypotheses and their implications to the final analysis of data. It generally includes
the subjects or participants usually called sample, instruments or tools needed for
collection of data, procedure followed for collection of data and its analysis. Design
of study has the following functions. a

i) It conveys facts about the nature and type of data required along with where
such data is found.
4

ii) Design deals with sample of the study. How has the sample been drawn?
What will be the sample size? These questions will be answered in the design
section.

iii) Design also conveys facts about various instruments needed for the study.
How will the tools be designed? How have valid and reliable tools been
constructed? Detailed description of this will find a place in the design section.
iv) Design also clarifies as to how data will be collected, tabulated and analysed.
It will briefly describe the technique for the analysis of data.
Thus, design of a study is an important section of the report which answers many
questions like: what, where, when, how much and by what, concerning a study.

I Analysis of the Data

The next chapter after the design of the study is about analysis of the data and its
interpretation. It is the heart of the whole report; because it deals with the outcome
of the study. Here data collected are presented in a tabular form and analysed with
the help of appropriate statistical techniques. Nature of your study will decide as to
how this chapter is to be organized. If the study involves hypotl~eses,one may go
for presentation of results as per the order of hypotheses. One may also present
the results as per order of research questions or objectives.
The data collected is always presented in a tabular form; before the table, purpose
of table is clarified and after table, follows the interpretation of tables. Thus, this
chapter gives an idea about actual calculations along with interpretation and final
results. It also presents the details about testing of each hypothesis and the conclusions
on it. The main function of this chapter is to provide the reader a clear idea regarding
the status of the analysis along with outcome of the study.

a Summary and Discussion

This is usually the final chapter of the report. The title of this chapter varies from
individual to individual. For some it is Major Findings and Conclusion, for some it is
Suggestions and Conclusion, for some it is Summary and Discussion. This chapter
mainly deals with major findings and conclusion thereon, suggestions based on the
findings of the study, suggestions for further study and discussion of findings in the
light of the studies reviewed earlier.
The major findings of study analysed and interpreted in the preceding chapter are
precisely and objectively stated in this chapter. Here the investigator uses specialized
or technical language, but in this (final) chapter, same must be presented in non-
technical language so that a non-specialist like a planner or an administrator can
also understand them. Major findings are followed by a discussion of the results.
For discussion of the results, studies reviewed earlier will be kept in focus. Here,
54 one is trying to relate his findings to previous studies. If the findings have any
I
I disagreement with earlier studies or findings, they do not explain at length the problem Scheme of Chapterisation
i and Referencing
under study, and an explanation with proper justification has to be provided. Based
on findings, a researcher should provide implications. These implications will suggest
I
activities and some directions for the practitioners in the field. It is followed by
suggestions for further research. These suggestions are provided based on limitations
of the present study. Some researchers include summary of the entire report in this
chapter, which includes the theoretical background to the suggestions for further
study. Thus, the present chapter is very important from the view point of users of
the research mainly in two ways: (i) it gives practical suggestions, directions and
activities to be carried out by users in the field and (ii) it suggests areas for further
research so that new beginnings can be made in this area in future.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.

b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
1. State two main functions of the following chapters in the research report.
i) Introduction
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
ii) Review of related literature
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
iiii Design of the study
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
iv) Analysis of the data
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
v) The summary and discussion.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
1

23.4 DIVERSITY IN CHAPTERISATION

Earlier we have seen that a research report generally comprises the following
chapters, (i) Introduction (ii) Review of related literature, (iii) Design of the study,
(iv) Analysis of the data & (v) The summary and discussion. This is a general
guideline to organize the research report, but one should not be too rigid about it.
Whatever pattern you follow to organize your report, it must enable you to
communicate your procedure and results clearly to the readers. Patterns of
organization have no intrinsic value, they operate only to facilitate communication.
55
Research Reports The particular, organization pattern one selects will be decided by certain
and Applications considerations as the nature of the study, the field in which one is working and the
particular requirements of the institute or agency. This may lead to diversity in
chapterisation.
Thus, you will agree that one need not follow a rigid pattern for chapterisation, but
the same should be decided based on the field of study, nature of research area
and requirement of the department or agency. We will study certain cases where
diversity is seen in chapterisation.
Suppose, one is working on some latest area, which has not been explored to a
large extent. Here the investigator may be tempted to describe the theoretical
background in greater detail; one may devote a full chapter for the background of
the study. Suppose, an investigator is studying one or more aspects of District
Primary Education Programme (DPEP) in India. Here one may be interested to
communicate to the readers the emergence of DPEP along with its historical
background. This requires one full chapter other than the review of related literature.
So one has to deviate from the normal pattern of chapterisation. Similarly, an
investigator working on an area of "Distance Education" may write a separate
chapter on Distance Education focusing on its history, emergence, its status in India,
etc. On other hand, when an investigator does not find enough number of research
studies related to histher problem under investigation, he/she may not go for a
separate chapter on review of related studies but the same could be combined with
the chapter on "introduction".
i
Another illustration of diversity is found where one goes for construction of tools.
If an investigator is interested in constructing some test to measure achievement or
intelligence or a tool to measure attitude or aptitude, he/she may devote one full
chapter on various aspects like writing of items, item analysis, reliability, validity
and norms.
Many investigators report the results based on each objectives separately. In a
study where various States, Districts, Blocks are involved, results for each of them
are separately presented. There are investigators interested in writing a full length
chapter on discussion only.
Thus, we have seen that depending on the need of the study, an investigator may
deviate from the general pattern of reporting. Whichever pattern you follow,
ultimately, it should answer certain questions related to the research problem, its
significance, its relevance with previous studies, methods used for data collection

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
2. State three factorsresponsible for diversity in chapterisation.
..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
56
 Scheme of Chapterisation
23.5 REFERENCING AND FOOTNOTES - NEED AND and Referencing-
IMPORTANCE
Research reports present references and bibliography. A bibliography is a list
of published works, although by common usage both published and unpublished
materials are listed in a bibliography. Many researchers use these two terms
. references and bibliography interchangeably, but the two terms have definite
meanings. A bibliography is a list of titles - books, research reports, articles,
papers etc. that may or may not have been referred to in the text of the research
report. References include only such studies, books, articles or papers that have
been actually referred to in the text of the research report. In short
REFERENCES consists of all documents, including journal articles, books,
chapters, technical reports, computer programmes and unpublished works that
are mentioned in the text of the manuscript. A bibliography contains everything
that would be in the reference section plus other publications which were
consulted by the researcher but were not cited in the manuscript.

AAer having clarity about references and bibliography, let us understand the
need and importance of referencing and footnotes. Articles, papers, books,
research reports (Dissertationslthesis) monographs etc. quoted inside the text
of the report should find a place in the reference section. In the text of the
report, the author's surname along with the year of publication is given e.g.
(Glatthorn, 1998). When few sentences are quoted from a source, the page
number too is noted, e.g. (Glatthorn 1998 :137-138). Full length reference be
placed at the end of the chapter or at the end of the thesislreport or at the foot
of that page as footnote. The traditional style of giving references is to place
them as the footnotes on the relevant page(s). The footnotes areoserialized
inside the text and in the footnotes of each chapter. In some cases footnotes
are generally avoided, instead full reference is given at the end of the report.

Footnotes and reference perform many functions. As the name implies, footnotes
are usually found at the foot of a page, although in some manuscripts they
appear at the end of each chapter or at the and of a paper. Footnotes and
references are used to ;

i) Validate a point, statement or argument. The original source or authority is

acknowledged through the use of a footnote or reference.

ii) provide the reader with sufficient information to enable himlher to consult
the sourcels independently.

iii) provide cross-references to material appearing in other parts of the report.

V v ) explain, supplement or amplify material that is included in the main body of

chapterlpaper
e
iv) acknowledge a direct quotationls.

Thus, it is very clear that researchers acknowledge their indebtness to other

authors not only as a matter of courtesy but also as means of confirming their
work.

By now you might have understood the concept of footnotes and references
alongwith their importance. Now, let us see how to use footnotes and references
in the report.
Research Reports
and Applications 23.6 VARIOUS STYLES OF REFERENCING
There are mainly two style manuals used for referencing. These are:
American Psychological Association, Publication Manual, 3rd edition.
Washington, DC : American Psychological Association, (1983).
The Chicago Manual of style, 13" revised edition, Chicago University of Chicago
Press, 1982.
Generally, references are arranged in alphabetical order where the researcher has
cited the name of the author and the year of publication of the work in the text.
Another practice followed is references are arranged in a sequence as they appear
in the text of the research report. Here related statement in the body of the text is
numbered. :
However, most research reports use alphabetical listing of references.
Now, let us see how to use footnotes:-
* Footnotes are always double-spaced between each other, though each footnote
is typed single-spaced.
It is usual to give the full name of the author in its normal order, i.e. first name
(or initial) and second name precede surname. e.g.
6 John, W. Best. (1993). Research in Education. New Delhi : Prentice Hall
of India, P. 148 here '6' indicates number given in the text, "John" is first
name, "W" is second name and Best is surname and P. 148 indicates that
matter or direct sentence or quotation is taken from that page.
Ibid in the footnote refers to the same work and the reference that precedes
it. Here the succeeding references to a work immediately follow the first full
citation. Ibid in latin means the sarne.e.g.
6 John, W. Best. (1993). Research in Education. New Delhi : Prentice Hall
of India. P. 148
7 Ibid. P.148 (This indicates the same work and the same page as above i.e.
'6' here).
8 Ibid, p. 149 (This indicates the same work as above but a different page)
Op. cit :-0p.cit. in Latin means the work cited. It is used in a footnote to the
same work as a preceding but not immediately preceding reference, so here
another reference to the same work is made but not consecutively.
For example
5. Allan, A Glatthorn (1998): Writing the Winning Dissertations: A Stepby-
Step Guide. California: Corwin Press Inc. P.189.
6. Fred, N. Kerlinger. (1 973): Foundations of Behavioural Research. NewYork:
Holt, R. Inehart & Winston. P. 259.
7. Glatthorn, op.cit. P. 191.
Here reference 7 refers to the same reference as 5 except the pages differ in
the two cases
Loc. Cit. Loc. Cit, is used when reference is made to the same page as a
preceding but not immediately preceding reference, the last name of the author
and phrase loc. Cit. are used.
e.g. 8. Kerlinger, loc, cit. here this refers to same work as in '6' on the same
58 Page.
A number of other abbreviations appear in research reports. While writing a research
report, abbreviations, may be used to condense space in references or footnotes. If
a researcher is not familiar, s h e h e should consult the relevant literature as and
when required. In the following table, a comprehensive list of abbreviations has
been given for ready reference.
Table: 23.1: List of some important abbreviations used in footnotes and bibliographic.

Words Abbreviations
Anonymous anon.
About (approximate data) c.
And others et. al.
Book, Books bk. , bks.
Chapter, chapters. chap.' chaps.
Column, Columns col., cols.
Division, Divisions div., divs.
Editor, Editors ed., eds.
Edition, Editions ed., eds.
For example e.g.
Figure, Figures fig., figs.
Idem (the same as before) id.
Line, Lines I,11

Manuscript ms.

Mimeographed mime0.
No date given n.d.
No name given n.n
No place given n.p.
Number, Numbers no., nos.
Page, Pages P-. PS.
Part, Parts pt., pts.
Paragraph, Paragraphs par., pars.
Previously cited op.cit.
Revised rev.
Same person idem.
Same reference ibid.
Section, Sections sec., secs.
The place cited loc. cit.
That is i.e.
Translated trans.
Volume vol.
59
I Research Reports
and Applications
Thus, we have seen how to use footnotes/references in the report. You have already
studied in detail about bibliography in unit 22. Here our discussion is limited to only
references/footnotes. Note the following points while using footnotes.
Having adopted a method of footnoting, be consistent throughout the whole
report.
Footnotes should be concise, but clarity and readability should not be sacrificed
for brevity.
All footnotes regardless of length are terminated by a full stop.
The same bottom margin should be maintained on each page of the typescript,
regardless of the number of footnotes.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
3. State three uses of footnotes.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
4. When do you use ibid, op.cit. and Loc. cit.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

23.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed the need for chapterisation and its functions. Each
chapter in the report has its own functions. We have also seen that there is no
uniformity in the scheme of chapterisation. Diversity in chapterisation mainly depends
on, (i) field of study, (ii) nature of research area, (iii) requirement of a department
or agency. We have also seen some of the cases where diversity enters.
Footnotes in the report, though it is a traditional concept, has many functions in the
research report. It is always advisable to maintain consistency in writi.~gfootnotes.
We have discyssed how to make use of footnotes in the report.

23.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ary D., Jacobs L.C. and Razaviewh, H. (1972): Introduction to Research in
Education. N.J.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.

1 Cryer, P. (1999): The Research Student5 Guide to Success. New Delhi : Viva 1
I Glatthorn, A.A. (1998): Writing the Winning Dissertations: A Step-by-Step Guide.
in Press, Inc.
 Schtme of Chapterisation
23.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS and Referencing

1. i) Introduction:
a) Gives the theoretical background to the specific area under study.
b) Describes the significance of the present problem focusing on why
study is undertaken.

i Review of related Literature :

a) Review of related literature enables the researcher to place his question

in a proper perspective.
b) It also enables the researcher to define the frontiers of his field.
iii) Design of the study.
a) It conveys the nature and type of data rkquired along with where
such data is found.

b) It will clarify how data will be collected, tabulated and analysed.

iv) Analysis of data:

a) This chapter will give idea about actual calculations alongwith its
interpretations and end results.
b). This caption provides the reader with a clear idea regarding status of
analysis alongwith outcome of study.
v) The Summary and Discussion

a) This chapter deals mainly with major findings of the study and
discussion.

b) This chapter also provides practical suggestions and areas for further

2. Three factors responsible for diversity in chapterisation are:

i) Field of study;

ii) Nature of research area; and

iii) Requirement and department or agency.
3. Uses of Footnotes:

i) footnotes help in validating a point, statement or argument.

ii) they provide cross-references to other sections of a paper.

iii) they provide the reader with sufficient information to enable him to consult
sources independently.
4. Ibid is used to refer to the same work and reference that precede it.
Op. cit is used in a footnote when another reference to the same work is made
on the same page but not consecutively.
Loc.cit. is used when reference is made to the same page as preceding but not
immediately preceding the reference.
-.

NOTES