Klaus Hünig

The Copernicus-
Planetary
Assembly instructions
Mercury orbit disc Earth axis
Venus orbit disc
Moon orbit
disc

Ecliptic disc
Planetary gearing
Central shaft
Planetary gearing runner Mercury
Pulleys driving wheel

Crank handle

Hands-on-science series
3. edition, ISBN 3-935364-36-9 - Nr. 229.KOP - © Klaus Hünig - SunWatch Verlag - Graphics Nils Rhode
Mechanical planetaria were already
Things Needed For Assembly:
known in ancient Greece, though the ■ Cutter knife or scalpel with a slender blade tip.
planetary orbits with their loops, that the
■ All purpose glue. This may be used for all parts. Solvent-based glue has advantages
Ptolemaic world model constructed
over water-based glues: it will not warp the cardboard, dries much faster and adheres
around a stationary earth at its centre,
better to the lacquered cardboard surfaces. Tip: you may need several tubes/bottles.
most likely cannot have been replicated
mechanically. The most famous ■ Instant adhesive with a comfortable drying time (meaning: not too fast) for glueing
example is the Antikythera mechanism, cardboard to plastic or metal and, should this become necessary, for constructing
discovered in a shipwreck, which was NBR-rubber drive belts. Please pay careful attention to the handling and safety
much like a calculating machine. It is precautions particular to instant glues!
said that Archimede, too, was able to ■ Quick-drying white wood glue – this can be used instead of all purpose glue for the
demonstrate mechanically the orbits of larger parts, but does not work so well on lacquered surfaces. Drying times will be
Sun and Moon. much longer, but in return you will get stiffer bonds.
■ Fine sandpaper for sanding off projecting cardboard edges.
■ A cutting board made of thick, completely flat cardboard, wood or plastic material.
Almost all of the mechanical planetaria
Best are the “self-healing“ cutting mats whose cuts close by themselves again.
we know are based on the ideas of
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 -1543), ■ A ruler or set square, for cutting, measuring and checking right angles (for this
who regarded the Sun as the centre of purpose the right-angled corner of a sheet of paper will also do).
the world. He proclaimed that the Earth ■ A pair of pliers or a wire cutter for shortening the nails, if necessary. For holding or
does not remain in place but rather pressing small parts, tweezers or clothes pegs can be useful.
moves in three ways: it revolves once in ■ A steel pin and a sewing needle, or, even better, a 1 mm hand drill for widening the
24 hours, orbits around the Sun once indicated holes in the steel pin bases to a diameter of 1 mm.
per year on a circular path and, in a
■ Sellotape for reinforcing cardboard surfaces.
third movement, turns its axis in such a
way that it always points in the same ■ A round wood file will be of good use for widening the holes in the grey cardboard
direction and not towards the Sun. discs.
Despite heavy resistance, especially ■ Light, non-resinous machine or silicone oil (do not use food oil!) against squeaking
from the church, this world model noises where synthetic discs move on wooden surfaces.
continued to spread and, through
improvements made by numerous
scientists, evolved into the generally OPTIONS: The word OPTION and italics mark assembly sections that you do not have to
accepted scientific world model of carry out, but may. For these steps you will need:
today. One of these scientists was
Johannes Kepler, who discovered the ■ A piece of plywood or similar material, about 21 x 21 cm, for reinforcing the base, if the
elliptical nature of the planetary orbits. orrery needs to be prepared for regular use, for example in schools.
■ A thick black marker, white paint or correcting fluid, if you wish to colour the edges of
the grey cardboard.
At the beginning of the 18th century the
Earl of Orrery and other English ■ Opaque colours, coloured felt tip pens, correcting fluid, if you wish to paint the
aristocrats asked watchmakers to wooden globes representing Earth, Moon and planets.
manufacture crank-driven mechanical
models of the planets, which are called
orreries since that time. One of the This kit contains:
largest and most famous movable
planetariums was built by the Frisian ■ Die-cut sheets size A4: 6 sheets of unprinted grey cardboard 1.13 mm (sheets 1-6), 12
Eise Eisinga in the years 1774 to 1781 sheets printed offset cardboard.5 mm (sheets 7-18), 1 sheet printed offset paper.13
in the town of Franeker, where it is still mm (sheet 19).
exhibited. ■ Cardboard and hard paper tubes (axles and shafts): One piece 100 x 12 x 10 mm
(length x outer diameter x inner diameter), one pc. 27 x 8.8 x 7.5 mm, one pc. 38 x 6.5 x
5 mm, one pc. 14.5 x 34 x 32 mm.
Today the name „planetarium“ is mostly
■ Round wooden sticks (axles and shafts): one piece 8 x 240 mm (diameter x length),
used for projection planetariums like
one pc. 4 x 70 mm, 2 pcs. 4 x 56 mm, one pc. 4 x 38 mm.
those that were first constructed by the
Zeiss optical company in Germany at ■ Plastic bearing discs with hole (axle and shaft bearings): 6 pcs. 14 x 4.1 mm, 2 pcs. 20
the beginning of the last century. These x 8.2 mm, 2 pcs. 20 x 8.6 mm, 2 pcs. 25 x 4.1 mm, 2 pcs. 50 x 29.3 mm, 2 pcs. 55 x 34.3
project the stars onto the inside of a mm.
large dome. ■ Spring steel pins (mounting for Moon and planets): 4 pcs. 1 x 43.5 mm.
■ Wood globes (Moon and planets), pre-drilled: 2 pcs. 16 mm diameter, one pc. 6 mm,
one pc. 4.5 mm.
The AstroMedia* Copernicus Planetari-
■ Brass tube (Earth axis bearing): one pc. 1.5 mm outer x 1.1 inner diameter x 10 mm
um stands in the tradition of the
length.
mechanical, crank-driven planetary
models that are exhibited by selected ■ Neodymium magnet (Earth rotation drive): one pc. 15 x 2.5 mm.
museums as masterpieces of the ■ Silicone tube (Earth rotation drive): one pc. 2.8 mm outer x.8 inner diameter x 12 mm.
watchmaking and precision ■ NBR-rubber drive belts: one pc. 4 mm diameter, 5 pcs. 2 mm diameter.
engineering arts. Its simple drive belt
■ Ferrite magnets (Sun mounting): 2 pcs. 8 mm diameter x 4 mm
design, the robust cardboard
construction and the affordability of an ■ LED glow globe (Sun): one piece 45 mm diameter.
assembly kit make this interesting and
instructive device available to a larger
public once again.
The relevant mechanical parts of the Copernicus Planetarium
In the Copernicus Planetarium power is transferred by way of a belt transmission, consisting of groove wheels and round drive belts made
of NBR-rubber. A crank drive with handle supplies the necessary power.
Shaft is the term used for those cardboard tubes and round wooden sticks which are attached to at least one wheel in such a way that they
turn with it – as opposed to axles, which do not turn, enabling wheels or hollow shafts to turn on them. A shaft can transmit forces, an axle
cannot.
Plastic bearing disc is the term for the discs made of hard white plastic (PVC). The hole serves as a rotary bearing for axles or wheels, the
surface as a sliding bearing. The code gives outer x inner diameter, for example 14 x 4.1 mm.
A driving wheel is a wheel which transmits power onto a drive belt, which drives another wheel in turn. This is then termed runner, because
it is forced to run by the first one.
The large, fixed disc that carries the Sun in its centre is the ecliptic disc, which is supported by the central axle, made of wood and not visible
after the completed construction. The central shaft turns on the central axle, receiving its power from the crank drive and passing it on to
several drive shafts.
The group of glued-together cardboard discs moving along the edge of the ecliptic drive form the planetary gearing. Within, mounted but
freely movable, lies the hollow shaft for the Earth inclination, which enables the Earth’s axis to be inclined in one constant direction. Yet
within lies the shaft for Earth rotation; each one moving at its own, particular speed.

Tips for successful assembly – please read before starting

Tip 1: The assembly instructions are divided vent-based glues. Blowing on instant General advice on handling grey
into many small steps containing detailed adhesives will speed up the bonding cardboard pieces and cardboard
instructions. It may at first appear to be a lot process because they react with water and tubes:
of text, but it does make the construction therefore also with the humidity of your
transparent and leads to good results in an breath. Sheets 1 – 6 are made of grey
easy way. Please read each step completely cardboard, die-cut but unprinted. In
Tip 7: Larger glueing surfaces should be
before applying it and take your time. The order to identify them easily, you need
pressed while setting, for example with a
Copernicus Planetarium is an astronomical to write its code on each part before
few books on a plane surface, to prevent
model of high quality with a drive system separating it. Do this according to the
any warping.
that is quite complex but easy to build. The small-scale reproductions of the grey
more time you do allow yourself in Tip 8: Offset cardboard is processed by reel- sheets on the last page. Also write
construction, the better and more beautiful it fed printing presses and possesses a fibre sheet 1, sheet 2, etc. on them.
will turn out to be. Important: keep to the direction, meaning a preferred direction in
assembly order. which it bends easier. That is why, before The die cutting pressing machines do
glueing together any larger parts, it is not produce right angled edges in the
Tip 2: Each part on the imprinted sheets is
important to look for the fibre direction of the thick grey cardboard; for this reason the
marked with its name and code, which
two pieces and to mark it on them accordingly top of the parts is smaller than the
consists of a letter and number, according to
before glueing them together in such a way bottom by a fraction of a millimetre.
assembly succession. It is only on the blank
that their directions match. This is also When glueing together a series of
grey cardboard sheets that the code needs
described in step 20. As far as the grey identical parts, ie. the inner bearings of
to be written in, as will be explained in step
cardboard is concerned, you need to pay the groove wheels, put the smaller top
1. All parts of an assembly group carry the
attention to this only with the very large Ve- sides against one another if nothing
same letter in their code. It is best to separa-
nus and Mercury runners. else is indicated.
te only those parts from the sheets that are
needed at the time; unless you write the code Tip 9: If you want to do a perfect job, cover For the same reason, the disc hole
on the back of the parts if they do not carry the edges of the grey cardboard discs with diameter always seems to be a bit too
one yet. glue after having glued them together; this tight on the underside. It is easy to
will harden them. Do this before glueing on widen though, if necessary, with a
Tip 3: A few parts are marked “R” or “Reser-
the side guide discs made of white round file or by using the cone of a
ve” – these had to be die-cut along with the
cardboard. sharpened pencil, or an unopened pair
others for production reasons but are not
needed. Tip 10: The top of the plastic bearing discs is of scissors by turning it within the hole,
smoother than the underside where you will using only very light pressure.
Tip 4: We recommend you do not tear the IMPORTANT: the resulting burr must be
find a tiny burr. Always glue this rougher side
parts from the cardboard, but rather cut cut or sanded off.
onto the cardboard. If the hole in the disc
through the small connectors with a knife so
proves to be too tight for its axle, you can
that the edges are smooth from the onset. Cardboard is a natural product, which
widen it by turning scissors lightly in the hole,
Tip 5: Those lines marked with perforation for example. Always pay careful attention to can have noticeable tolerances in size.
cuts are all to be folded “forward”, meaning: glueing the bearing discs exactly onto the This applies to the grey cardboard parts
towards myself as I am looking onto the part. centre. as well as the tubes. If a tube will not
readily fit into its disc hole, widen the
Tip 6: Surfaces on which something will be hole as explained above or sand the
glued, are generally marked grey. A tip for tube end lightly.
using solvent-based glue on small surfaces:
apply glue liberally to one side, press both
pieces together for a moment so that both
sides are covered well with glue, pull them
apart again and blow two or three times on
both. Now strongly press the two parts into
their correct position – the bond will hold
instantly. Careful: this will work only with sol-
Section A: deep. In this place the disc-shaped bearing
for the central shaft will be glued later. A
The Pedestal similar recess is located on the vertical side
of the pedestal wing which will take the crank
The core of the pedestal is made of two drive. We will begin with this last wing now:
pedestal walls that lock into each other at a
90° angle, resulting in four wings which Step 8: Hold edge facing 1 [A31, sheet 19]
supply the necessary structural strength. onto the top side of the crank drive pedestal
Each wall is constructed of two grey Fig. 2: Distance rings on pedestal wall 2 wing, with the end that shows just one screw.
cardboard pieces that are glued together The end of the paper strip should be about 1
with six 8 mm distance rings. The grey walls one of its longer edges, this is best done mm away from the just-mentioned recess.
will eventually be covered with printed with instant adhesive. Now glue the For the moment, mould the strip to the edges
cardboard parts. The pedestal wall, made of remaining six distance rings onto the same without glue and just check whether the
parts A13, sheet 5, and A14, sheet 6, is pedestal wall side according to fig. 2. Again, edges have the correct distance. Now apply
symmetrical. The second one, made of A15, leave the hatched areas open. plenty of glue to the underside of the paper’s
sheet 5 and A16, sheet 6, is asymmetrical. edges and glue the strip onto the pedestal
When assembled, three identical, curved Step 5: Open hole and slot in pedestal wall edges. The strip now covers the gap between
pedestal wings are produced; plus a fourth, 4 [A16, sheet 6]. As before, apply plenty of the two pedestal walls from the upper hori-
more linear wing which will carry the crank glue to the upper edges of the distance rings zontal recess to the vertical side recess.
drive on its vertical side. The pedestal will as well as to the slot in wall 4, then put it on Next, take facing number 2 [A32, sheet 19]
be glued onto its base plate only at the end top of wall 3 with its distance rings and inner and put the end that has three screws onto
of section B. axle bearing. This bearing has to slip into the short vertical piece of the same pedestal
the slot with its upper edge. Now adjust the wing, just below the side recess. Mould the
Step 1: Separate the 12 distance rings [A1 two halves until their edges line up exactly paper around the corner leading to the
– A12] from sheets 11 – 16, bend them into and, again, turn the pedestal half so that the adjoining curve, so that the corner will leave
a roughly round shape and glue them glue can run toward the fresh glueing spots. a mark in the paper strip. Remove the strip
together so that they overlap about 10 mm, Pay special attention to an exact matching and fold it cleanly and sharply where the
making rings of almost 30 mm diameter. The of the two holes so that the pulley axle, which corner left its imprint. Now mould the strip
ends need to join in a straight line without will eventually rest here, will not sit at a tilted into the next curve also and then glue it onto
shifting to the side, so that no part of the angle. the pedestal edges completely. The small
finished ring rises above 8 mm when lying part that sticks out beyond the pedestal end
flat. Creases are no problem. Step 6: After drying, connect the two pedestal can be cut off cleanly after drying.
halves at a right angle by inserting the centre
slots into each other. They have be equal at Step 9: Taking edge facing 3 [A33, sheet
top and bottom and be able to stand on the 19], put the end with two adjacent screws
work surface without wobbling. Pull them onto the upper horizontal part of one of the
apart a bit, or completely if you prefer, and other pedestal wings, once again about 1
apply glue to the points of contact, then mm away from the recess. Mark the corner
reconnect them. Also, and without glue, in the paper, bend it cleanly and glue this
insert the central axle (wooden and 8 mm in uppermost horizontal piece on. Now shape
diameter) temporarily into the centre until it the strip into the adjoining curve up to the
Fig. 1: Distance rings on pedestal wall 1
reaches the intersecting base. It will stiffen next corner, again mark the fold, bend it and
the construction and serve as a sort of hand- glue this rounded section of the strip on also.
Step 2: Glue six distance rings on the front
le in the meantime. Pay attention also that Next, mould the strip onto the adjoining
of pedestal wall 1 [A13, sheet 5] according
the distances of the grey cardboard pedestal vertical part and push it into the corner with
to fig. 1. The hatched area has to remain open.
walls are equal on all top sides, otherwise a knife, or other such tool, marking the strip.
Let dry well and press down several times
the outer edge strips [A32 to A35, sheet 19] Bend at the mark and glue this section on.
while the glue sets. Now cover the upper
will not attach easily in step 8. Smooth the rest of the strip over the next
edges of the distance rings with plenty of
curved part, glue it on and cut off the excess
glue and lay pedestal wall 2 [A14, sheet 6]
Step 7: Bend forward all footlashes of the 8 after drying. – Now go through the same
on it, so that the edges of both walls are
pedestal wall facings [A19 to A26, sheets 7 process with edge facings 4 and 5 [A34 and
exactly above one another. Tap the resulting
– 10] and glue them onto the pedestal walls A35, sheet 19] and the two remaining
pedestal half on your work surface with its
so that the round outside edges match pedestal wings.
lower edge so that both wall sides come to
exactly, that is, do not project or stand back
equal height. Check again whether none of
anywhere.
the sides project beyond the other anywhere
TIP: As an alternative to painting the edges
and lay the whole piece flat with wall 2 facing
of the Moon and Mercury orbital discs
down, so that the liquid glue can run toward
TIP: You may want to glue the two wall white, use the left-over golden parts on
the new bonding area and not away from it.
segments A19 and A20, which carry sheet 19 to cover them.
Use a book, or similar thing, to weigh it down.
printed text fields, to the right and left of
the crank drive wall, for reasons of
Step 3: Take a plastic bearing disc 14 x 4.1
symmetry. Step 10: Fold forward the four corner facings
mm and glue it between the 2 halves of the
[A27 to A30, sheet 19] and glue them into
crank shaft inner bearings [A17 and A18,
the inner corners, where the wall facings
sheet 5 and 6], using instant adhesive. The
A small gap will remain at the inner corners meet.
disc hole has to be exactly in the centre of
of the base where the wall facings meet. This
the cardboard hole and the two cardboard
will be covered up later in step 10. Step 11: Glue the two parts of the central
pieces must be congruent. The plastic
shaft bearing [A36 and A37, sheet 3]
bearing disc projects at the longer edges.
The edge facings for the pedestal [A31 to together. OPTION: Paint the edges white or
After drying, cut this excess plastic off cleanly.
A35, sheet 19] do not have die-cut folding face them with white a strip of paper. Remove
lines because they would be all too visible. the wooden central axle from the pedestal
Step 4: Remove the cardboard from the small
That is why the next step is a combination of and check whether the central shaft bearing
hole and slot in pedestal wall 3 [A15, sheet
glueing and folding. – On their top all four will fit into the recess on top of the pedestal
5] and glue the inner bearing of the drive
pedestal wings have a recess, about 1 mm centre without problems. Slip the central
axle [A17 and A18] into the small slot with
shaft bearing over the central axle and apply
glue to the edges of the pedestal walls where
the bearing will be. Insert the central axle
into the pedestal again and push the bearing
down until it fits exactly into its place above
the intersecting pedestal walls. It will serve
not only as the bearing for the central shaft
that turns on the central axle, but will also
give the needed support for the central axle.
Now glue its four facings [A38 to A41, sheet
15 and 16] onto the underside of the central
shaft bearing.

The pedestal is now prepared to take the

crank drive.

Fig. 3: Pedestal with crank drive

Step 12: Push the 70 mm long wood piece glue a small plastic bearing disc 14 x 4.1
through the hole at the top of the pedestal mm onto each outer face with instant
wing so that it projects equally on both sides. adhesive, also centring it precisely. After
You may have to widen the holes a bit. This drying, install the pulley on the wooden axle
is the pulley axle. With a pencil, mark the and test whether the hole in the bearing
axle on both sides where it exits from the discs is large enough to allow easy turning.
cardboard, and make sure that these marks If necessary, widen the hole as described
are equally far from the ends. Check also before. – Repeat all with pulley 2 [parts B11
that the axle is at a right angle to the pedestal to B14, sheet 4 and B15 to B18, sheets 8
wing. Now pull the wooden piece out for 5 or and 10].
10 mm, apply glue to this area and push it
back in while turning it. Push it beyond the Step 15: Dab a bit of oil on the areas of the
mark so that glue can be applied to the other axle where the plastic discs will have contact,
side as well and then push it back to its ori- to prevent squeaking. Install both pulleys on
ginal position. The pencil marks should now the wooden axle. Now glue one stopper [B19
both be visible and the axle must project and B20, sheet 19] on each projecting axle
equally on both sides. Allow to dry. end, to keep the pulleys from falling off. Do
this in the same fashion as before with the
Step 13: Wrap the pulley axle covers 1 and pulley axle covers. Be careful that the pulleys
2 [B1 and B2, sheet 19] around one of the retain enough room between cover and
remaining round wooden sticks without glue stopper and are able to turn without friction.
so that the paper strip will bend; this makes Finally, glue facings 1 and 2 [B21 and B22,
them easier to glue on. Now glue the grey sheet 19] on the ends of the pulley axle.
end of one of the strips onto the pulley axle
with the first few millimetres of its backside, The driving wheel of the crank drive consists
directly next to the pedestal wall. Allow this of a groove wheel, the glued-on crank arm
to set and then put glue on the rest of the with its handle and the crank shaft: a 56 mm
strip. Wrap it tightly into a solid, glued long round wooden piece, glued into the
cylinder and push it against the pedestal wall centre the groove wheel. One of the crank
with pressure before the glue sets, using one shaft bearings is already installed inside the
of the 14 x 4.1 mm plastic bearing discs. Use pedestal, the second one will be glued to
the same procedure for the paper strip on the outside.
the other side of the pulley axle. The ends of
the two axle covers will now be about 40 Step 16: Glue together the two parts of the
mm apart. This determines the correct outer crankshaft bearing [A42 and A43,
Section B: distance between the pulleys. sheet 4] and make sure that it fits into the
The Crank Drive side recess of the pedestal edge, below the
Step 14: Remove the four middle parts of pulleys, without trouble. OPTION: paint
The belt drive wheels are all built basically pulley 1 [B3 to B6, sheet 3] from the grey edges white or face with a white paper strip.
in the same way: their core consists of 2 to 4 cardboard. First glue two parts against one Now glue one of the plastic bearing discs
grey cardboard discs (“middle”) coming to another with their upper sides and then glue (25 x 4.1 mm) on one side of the outer
the same thickness as the belt that will run another part onto each side, again with its crankshaft bearing.
on them. Guiding the belt is a larger disc that upper side. OPTION: paint edges black. Take
is glued on each side and made of two layers care that the discs are congruent. Next, glue
(“inner” and “outer”) of printed white outer disc 1 of pulley 1 [B7, sheet 7] on the IMPORTANT: The bearing is not to be
cardboard. The crank drive itself is made of back of its matching and identical inner disc glued on yet.
the driving wheel with its arm and handle as [B9, sheet 9] and repeat all with outer disc 2
well as two pulleys. Motion is transferred to [B8, sheet 7] and inner disc 2 [B10, sheet 9].
the central shaft runner by a belt of 4 mm Glue the two double-layered side parts on Step 17: Build the middle part of the driving
diameter; which is why the middle parts of both sides of the four-layered grey cardboard wheel for the crank drive by glueing together
the involved wheels are built of four grey middle. As you do this, check whether middle the four parts [B23 to B26, sheet 5 and 6].
cardboard discs (see fig. 3). and side parts are all centred exactly. Next, OPTION: paint edges black. Construct the
front side of the driving wheel from parts [B27 Step 25: Glue the tube stopper [B40, sheet
and B29, sheet 11 and 13] and the back IMPORTANT: The central axle is not to be 19] on the projecting wood end of the hand-
side from parts [B28 and B30, sheet 12 and glued in yet. le axle. For this it’s best to pull the axle from
14]. Now glue front and back on the four- the crank arm once more. Wrap and glue
layered grey cardboard middle, aligning the stopper around the wooden axle end,
them well. Step 22: As long as the central axle is not aligning it with the edge, in the same manner
glued in, you can use it for shaping the sun as before (bending the paper, attaching the
Step 18: With a pencil, make a mark exactly globe bearing [K1, sheet 19]. In order to end with glue, wrapping and glueing the
11 mm from the end of one of the 56 mm shape the paper strip into a tube, first wrap it rest). Push the tube back on the axle and
long round wooden sticks. Take the crankshaft around the wooden axle without glue to bend glue the wooden axle in its matching hole in
stopper [B31, sheet 19] and roll it over the it. The black end should form the last bit. Now the crank handle, just deep enough so that
stick so that it will bend well. Next, wrap and wrap the first turn without glue, then apply the tube can still turn easily with a bit of
glue the strip next to the mark on the wood, only a bit of glue and allow this portion to leeway. Glue the covers [B41 and B42, sheet
leaving 11 mm free on one side. Push this dry. Your care will achieve a close fit between 19] on both ends of the crank handle axle.
11 mm long end through the opening in the wood and tube while allowing enough play
crankshaft bearing from behind, so that for the tube to be pulled off easily. Now finish Step 26: Glue the crank handle on the driving
about 10.5 mm of wood project from the wrapping and glueing the strip into its tube wheel of the crank drive. The crank shaft end,
plastic bearing disc. Without glue, insert this shape and lay it aside; it will be needed only which sticks out of the driving wheel centre,
wood end into the hole on the black back at the very end. will enter into the crank handle hole. Glue its
side of the driving wheel, so that it comes cover [B43, sheet 11] on this hole.
about 4 mm out of the front side. This way, Step 23: Glue the four middle parts of the
the driving wheel is secured in its place on crank arm [B32 to B35, sheet 5 and 6] The crank drive is now finished. Next will be
the outer crankshaft bearing by the stopper. together. OPTION: paint the grey cardboard the central shaft which it drives.
It must be able to turn freely and easily, with edges white or face with white paper strips.
not too much but also not too little leeway. Glue the back and front [B36 and B37, sheet
Pull the wooden crank shaft out again and 15 and 16] on them. The crank arm has a
glue it into the position that you just tested. larger wheel at one end, a small one at the
The crank arm will later be glued onto the 4 other. Without glue, insert the crank handle
mm end of the projecting crank shaft. axle (the 38 mm wooden stick) into the hole
of the small wheel. Push the cover [B38,
Step 19: Insert the long end of the crankshaft sheet 19] for the crank handle axle over the
into the side opening of the pedestal so that wood piece onto the crank arm and glue it in
it locks into the central bearing, which is place.
already glued into the pedestal wall and
hidden from view. The outer crankshaft Step 24: The paper strip for the crank hand-
bearing will then slip into the side recess of le axle (B39, sheet 19) must be wrapped
the pedestal. Now apply some oil to those and glued into a tube. It has to be able to
places on the wooden axle where the inner turn on the wooden axle with a bit of play;
and outer plastic bearing discs have contact therefore you need to first enlarge the round
and glue the bearing on the pedestal wall wood diameter a little. Use the last remaining
edges in this position. Cover the remaining 56 mm wood piece (the future Earth rotation
visible portions of the grey cardboard disc shaft) as a wrapping tool and tape two layers
with facings 1 and 2 [A44 and A45, sheet 15 of newspaper (or one layer of normal paper)
and 16]. around it with sellotape. Now wrap the paper
strip once completely around this core, so
Now the pedestal can be glued on the base that it is bent well. To begin now, wrap just a
plate: little more than one turn on the core and
glue this piece to itself only.
Step 20: Mark the fibre direction, meaning
the direction in which the cardboard is
easier to bend, of parts [A47 and A48, sheet IMPORTANT: Make sure that the tube is
15 and 16], the top and bottom side of the still moveable on the core and does not
base plate. It is best to draw a line, running bond with it as you work on it.
in the same direction, on the back of both
parts, even before separating them from the
sheet. Glue the two parts on both sides of Then wrap and glue the whole strip on and
Section C:
the grey cardboard base plate [A46, sheet check that the layer edges are well aligned. The Central Shaft
2], in such a way that their fibre direction After drying, pull off the finished capsule and
runs parallel. OPTION: colour edges white also remove the additional paper from the The central shaft turns around the central
or face with white paper strips. Press well round wood. Push the tube onto the crank axle. Its task is to receive the power coming
and long to prevent any warping of the handle axle. from the crank drive by the running wheel at
baseplate. its lower end, and to pass it on to the
planetary gearing at two differing speeds by
Step 21: Push the central axle through the TIP: if you intend to use the planetarium way of the two driving wheels at its upper
pedestal until half of it emerges at the bottom. often, we recommend to wrap sellotape end. The core of the central shaft consists of
Apply glue to the pedestal’s glueing lashes, around the handle tube; this will protect the 100 x 12 mm cardboard tube (see fig. 4).
insert the end of the central axle into the the colours.
hole in the base plate and push the pedestal Step 27: Glue together the four-layered
down until the glueing lashes reach their middle of the central shaft running wheel
destinations. Adjust the pedestal exactly and from parts [C1 to 4, sheets 5 and 6]. Before
press lightly. After drying you can remove glueing, check whether the cardboard tube
the central axle again. fits into every disc hole. If necessary, widen
the hole as described at the start and/or sand
the end of the cardboard tube. OPTION: paint
the grey cardboard edges black.
 With most of the groove wheels of the belt Section D:
drive, the 2 mm drive belt leaves the wheel
in a straight line. In these cases, the middle The Ecliptic Disc
part of the groove wheel consists of two
layers of grey cardboard, producing a The ecliptic disc determines the distance to
sufficient space of 2.3 mm. The belt that the planetary gearing, which moves in a
drives the planetary transmission needs to circular motion along the outer rim of the
be slanted, though, in order to connect the planetary gearing, as if on a rail. The rubber
grooved wheels. To prevent its jumping the belts that press the planetary gearing against
wheel, the grooves of both driving wheel and the outer rim exert considerable pressure
runner need to be wider. They are therefore on the ecliptic disc. In addition, the weight of
built of three cardboard discs. One of these the moving planetary gearing provides
is a little larger than the others, providing a changing, irregular forces. Three structural
slightly asymmetrical running surface within features enable the ecliptic disc to withstand
the wheel. these potent stress factors: A solid rim
reinforcement made of grey cardboard, a
Step 31: Build the driving wheel for the light yet torsion-free hollow construction and
planetary gearing by, first of all, glueing the a solid mounting on the central axis.
middle parts [C15 and C16, sheet 2] against
one another with their upper sides, so that a Step 34: Lay the upper halves of the ecliptic
small groove between the edges results. disc [D1 and D2, sheet 7 and 8] side by side
Now glue on the third middle part [C17, sheet on your work surface, printed side facing
2], which is a bit larger, with its upper side. down. The two halves will now be glued
OPTION: paint the grey cardboard edges together using connector strips [D5 and D6,
black. The small groove is now slightly off- sheet 11 and 12]. Before you do this, make a
centre in the three-layered disc. After drying, pencil mark at each end of the line dividing
see to it that the cardboard central shaft fits the two halves – 10 mm from the rim. The
well into the hole. Next, glue the top and connector pieces have to keep clear of this
bottom of the guide discs [C18 and C19, mark to leave room for the grey cardboard
sheet 11 and 12] on their inner parts [C20 reinforcement that will run around the rim.
and C21, sheet 13 and 14]. The guide disc Now glue the connector strips first on only
with gold printing should then be glued, well- one of the disc halves, parallel to the dividing
centred, on the larger of the three grey line and leaving half of the strip projecting
cardboard discs; glue the second guide disc out. The distance to the rim is 10 mm, to the
Fig. 4: Central shaft on the other side of the middle part. disc centre a good 18 mm. Now turn the disc
halves face up, apply glue to the projecting
Step 28: Glue the top side [C5, sheet 11] Step 32: Lay the earth rotation driving wheel connectors and lay the second disc half on
and the downside [C6, sheet 12] of the built in step 30 on your work surface with the them so that the rim edges meet exactly and
running wheel each to one of the insides grey glueing area looking up and glue the a perfectly circular disc results. Repeat this
[C7 and C8, sheet 13 and 14]. Now glue just constructed planetary gearing driving procedure with the underside of the ecliptic
these double-layered guide discs on both wheel on it, well centred. The side with gold disc [D3 and D4, sheet 9 and 10] and its
sides of the central shaft running wheel, print is on top, and next to it, the larger of the connectors [D7 and D8, sheet 13 and 14].
centring them precisely. Glue a plastic three grey cardboard discs. After drying, The disc with the signs of the zodiac will
bearing disc (20 x 8.1 mm) on the black make sure that the central shaft fits into the become the top part of the ecliptic disc.
underside centre with instant adhesive. hole and then glue the remaining plastic
bearing disc (20 x 8.1 mm) on the centre of Step 35: Remove the 42 rim reinforcements
Step 29: Insert the 10 cm cardboard tube the small planetary gearing driving wheel [D9, sheet 1] from the grey sheet, taking care
into the top side of the running wheel so that with instant adhesive. Next, glue the two to remove all of the small connector residue,
it touches the bearing disc and stands at a connected groove wheels on the free end of so that the curved outside edge is clean. In
right angle on the running wheel. Check this the cardboard tube so that the tube touches the next step you will glue these 42 pieces
angle with a set square or paper corner. Then the plastic bearing disc. The wheels must be into six ring-like layers of 7 pieces each,
glue the cardboard tube into this position in at an exact right angle to the cardboard tube forming a solid rim between the top and
the running wheel. and not tilted. To check this, you can put the bottom part of the ecliptic disc.
central shaft on the central axle and spin it.

TIP: You will see at once whether the wheel Step 33: Bend the central shaft facing [C22, IMPORTANT: Take care that your work
is tilted or at a right angle to the cardboard sheet 19] by wrapping it around a pencil or surface is perfectly plane, to prevent any
tube if you put wheel and tube on the around the central axle; then glue it on the warping of the ecliptic disc during glueing.
central axle in the pedestal and spin it. central shaft cardboard tube. First glue on
only the backside of the grey end, then wrap
and glue the rest on. Step 36: Glue the first reinforcing piece on
Step 30: Glue together parts [C9 and C10, the back of the ecliptic disc so that it bridges
sheet 2] to build the middle of the Earth The central shaft is now finished. the middle joining line. Its outer curved edge
rotation driving wheel. Check whether the has to be in line with the outer rim of the
cardboard tube fits into the hole and do ecliptic disc. Now glue on the other 6 pieces
adjustments if necessary. OPTION: paint the that form the first layer, without any gaps
grey cardboard edges black. Glue together between them. As you glue all the other
the side guide discs: top and bottom parts pieces into mounting layers, bridge the
[C11 and C12, sheet 11 and 12] and two underlying joints by shifting the pieces, as
inner parts [C13 and C14, sheets 13 and you would when laying bricks.
14]. Then glue the guide discs on both sides
of the grey cardboard middle.
 Step 43: Pull central axle and ecliptic disc
IMPORTANT: Pay careful attention to IMPORTANT: Do not allow any of the rim out of the pedestal together and check once
positioning also the upper layers exactly edges to project beyond the ecliptic disc more if the axle is perpendicular and does
in line with the disc rim, so that none of in any place, at top or bottom. Cut or file not wobble, using the central shaft as a hand-
the segments project beyond the edge. off anything that projects after drying. le. Push the axle out a further 20 mm from
Use a set square or ruler to check this by the ecliptic disc. Apply glue to it and then
holding the right-angled side against the twist and pull it back in until the pencil mark
ecliptic disc from the outside. It is not a Step 40: Bend rim facing 1 [D32, sheet 7] reaches the disc. Check for 90° positioning
problem, on the other hand, if one or other into a round shape by pulling it over a table again and let dry well.
of the segments stand back from the edge, edge and then glue it on the rim of the ecliptic
though. disc so that 0° is aligned with March 21st Step 44: Remove 14 of the 18 upper axle
and 90° with June 21st. The start of this rim mounting discs [D43, sheet 1, 5 and 6] from
facing will now also be aligned with the the grey cardboard. The rest is reserve
Step 37: Take the six parts of the inner axle ecliptic disc's joint line. Continue with the material. Check if the discs can be pushed
mounting [D10 – D15, sheet 3 and 4] and other segments [D33 – 35, sheet 9 – 10]; the onto the central axle well but without play.
check if the wooden central axle will fit degree count has to rise from segment to OPTION: paint grey cardboard edges black.
through the hole; then glue the six discs segment; position the next joints at Septem- Apply glue to one underside after the other,
tightly on top of one another. Before it sets, ber 24th and December 21st. Should any pushing each of the 14 discs onto the
install this block temporarily on the central gaps remain between the segments, fill them projecting end of the central axis. Press them
axle without glue, and spin it. In this way you with small cardboard cuttings. into a compact cylindrical block that is solidly
can check whether it is perpendicular to the connected to the ecliptic disc. Any glue that
axle and does not wobble. Remove the Step 41: The Earth inclination driving wheel, spills out the sides can be spread on the
round wood and glue the block into the just like the planetary gearing driving wheel cylinder wall. As the block dries, check again
centre of the rim reinforcement, exactly of step 31, is built around an asymmetrical whether the ecliptic disc is perpendicular to
above the hole in the middle of the ecliptic middle of two identical and one slightly the central axle on all sides. The projecting
disc. larger grey cardboard discs. First glue parts end should now have a length of about 6 to
[D36 and D 37, sheets 3 and 4] with their top 8 mm.
Step 38: Bend the 16 strips [D 16 – D31, sides together, then glue the larger disc
sheet 15 and 16] and glue them into 16 [D38, sheet 2] on it, so that, as before, an off- The central axle could be glued into the
distance rings of about 40 mm diameter, centre groove results. OPTION: paint grey pedestal now. It is better to wait until the last
overlapping about 8 mm. As before, the rings cardboard edges black. Glue parts [D39 and step, which deals with the belts, though,
do not need to look pretty and creases are D41, sheet 11 and 13] together to make the because it will be easier to install them this
upper guide disc, and parts [ D40 and D42, way.
sheet 12 and 14] to make the lower guide
disc (these parts are located in the centre of
the Venus orbit disc). Glue the golden back
side of the lower guide disc on that side of
the middle piece where the larger of the
three grey cardboard discs is located. Glue
the other guide disc on the opposite side.
Now glue the driving wheel’s grey side on
the golden underside of the ecliptic disc,
aligning the holes exactly. The two smaller
grey cardboard discs in the driving wheel,
along with the small groove in the wheel’s
middle, should now be on the side that is
Fig. 5: Ecliptic disc with distance rings closer to the ecliptic disc. Insert the central
axle into the driving wheel and the ecliptic
acceptable, too. The ends, though, need to
disc before the glue sets completely. Hold
be perfectly in line, just like the pedestal
the central shaft like a handle and insert the
distance rings in step 1. Now, glue the rings
central axle. You can now rotate the disc and
onto the lower ecliptic disc as shown in fig.
see at once whether it is perpendicular to
5. Use plenty of glue and position the rings
the axle, or if it wobbles.
in the area between the rim reinforcement
and the axle mounting, without touching the
Step 42: Push the central axle through the
connector strips. While they dry, press the
ecliptic disc so that exactly 23 mm of the
rings down with your fingers again and again
wood emerge on top of the disc. Insert the
to make sure that they have complete
long end into the central shaft, with the end
contact.
carrying the two groove wheels pointing
toward the ecliptic disc, and then push the
Step 39: Position the top of the ecliptic disc on
central axle into the pedestal until it is level
the lower part so that both upper and lower rim
with the ground plate. The central shaft needs
and the two middle joint lines are aligned among
to have enough play so that it can turn freely
themselves. If the reinfor-cement rim projects in
and without resistance. If it has too much
any place, use a knife or sandpaper to remove it.
play, you can lower the ecliptic disc a little
To glue top to bottom, use the same procedure
by twisting it back and forth. This will let a bit
as with the pedestal walls: apply plenty of glue to
more of the central axle emerge. If it has too
the distance ring edges and a little less glue to the
little play and is stuck between pedestal and
reinforcing rim and the axle mounting, lay the top
ecliptic disc, you need to pull out the axle a
disc on this, with the edges aligned, and then turn
little from the pedestal. Afterwards, mark the
the whole thing up-side-down so that the glue will
place where the round wood emerges with
run in the right direction. Weigh it down to press it
a pencil line all around the wooden axle.
so that all of the glueing areas will have tight
contact.
Section E: square and rotating the tube, see if it is at a Mercury driving wheel pointing up, and
precisely right angle to the runner. check carefully if it moves freely on all sides
The Planetary Gearing in its rolling motion. If you get the impression
Step 47: Remove the seven roller discs [E1 that this rolling motion is hindered
The function of the planetary gearing is to to E7, sheet 2] from the cardboard in such a somewhere, consider these possibilities:
wander around the rim of the ecliptic disc in way that nothing of the connecting bits
a rolling motion. It is made of a roller and remains on their edges. Make sure that they
several glued-on groove wheels. One of fit on the hardpaper tube that is now installed 1: The roller is not high enough, which
them is the large runner positioned beneath in the runner. OPTION: paint edges black. would make the distance between runner
the roller. Inside, a hardpaper tube serves Now, without glue, push all seven discs on and Mercury driving wheel too small; this
as a continuous hollow shaft, within which the tube with the same side facing down, will produce jamming everywhere. Solu-
other parts can rotate at their own respective and check whether they can be pressed tion: Install one or more of the washers
speeds (Earth inclination and Earth rotation). together into a compact body without trouble. [E21 and E22, sheet 19] on top of the roller.
Owing to its rolling motion, the planetary Then glue them into this position. Before it Only a little bit of play is required; in any
gearing can drive both Venus and Mercury dries completely, check again for case it is better to have a bit too much
orbit discs by way of two groove wheels; this perpendicular position of tube and roller in play than too little of it.
ability gives meaning to the gearing’s name. relation to the runner. If necessary, sand the 2: The rim facing of the ecliptic disc still
The lunar orbit disc is glued fast to the roller’s cylindrical wall after drying to make it projects beyond the edge in some places.
planetary gearing, since its rotation and or- smoother, paint it if you wish and cover it Solution: Sand or cut off any excess
bital periods are equal to those of the Moon with glue to toughen the soft cardboard material.
in respect to Earth, even though the Moon is surface. 3: The roller came out slightly
no planet in the Copernican definition (see asymmetrical, its and the Mercury driving
fig. 6). Step 48: Glue parts [E15 and 16, sheet 2] wheel's surfaces are not parallel to the
together; this is the middle piece of the large runner. This can jam the planetary
Step 45: The middle section of the planetary Mercury driving wheel. OPTION: paint edges gearing. Solution: Make the surface of the
gearing runner is made of three grey black. Make sure again that the hole is wide roller parallel by sanding off or adding on
cardboard discs as well; one of which is enough for the hard paper tube. Glue top some material.
slightly larger. Take the two smaller parts [E9 and bottom of the Mercury driving wheel [E17
and E10, sheet 5 and 6] first and glue their and 18, sheet 7 and 8] each on one of the
top sides together. Then glue the top side of inside pieces [E19 and E20, sheet 9 and When you are satisfied with the mobility of
the larger disc [E8, sheet 2] onto it. OPTION: 10], then glue the resulting double layered the planetary gearing, you can glue the
paint edges black. Check if the 27 x 8.8 mm guide discs well centred onto the middle Mercury driving wheel onto the roller. Allow
cardboard tube fits tightly into the hole; piece. to dry well.
widen it if necessary. Glue the top side of the
runner [E11, sheet 11] on inside no. 1 [E13, Step 50: Carefully remove the small discs
sheet 13], matching both parts' fibre direction IMPORTANT: Do the following step with [E33 and E34, sheet 2] for the steel pin base
as you did in step 20. Do the same with the extra care – it is responsible for the – they have a die-cut hole – from the grey
underside [E12, sheet 12], glueing it on unhindered movement of the planetary cardboard parts of the lunar orbit discs [E31
inside no.2 [E14, sheet 14]. Now glue the gearing around the ecliptic disc. and E32, sheet 2]. Punch through and widen
middle segment with the larger of the three this hole with a needle until it is large
discs exactly onto the centre of the backside enough to take one of the 43.5 mm steel
of the gold-printed lower guide disc. The Step 49: Without glue, install the Mercury pins. Glue the slightly larger undersides of
black top part goes on the other side. driving wheel on the hardpaper tube, so that the two small discs together, then glue the
the underside with the flower design has matching printed disc [E37, sheet 17] on
Step 46: Using instant adhesive, glue one contact with the roller. Hold it pressed on them after widening this hole also. Check
of the two 20 x 6.6 mm plastic bearing discs with your fingers, as if it were glued on again whether the steel pin can pass through
on the exact centre of the gold-printed already. There should be a rectangular gap all the way and is relatively vertical. This little
underside of the planetary gearing runner. between the large runner and the smaller block will be the Moon’s steel pin base.
After drying, glue the 27 mm long hardpaper Mercury driving wheel. Its width matches the
tube into the hole on the other side so that height of the roller. Now put the planetary Step 51: Glue together the front sides of the
its end touches the bearing disc. Using a set gearing on the ecliptic disc rim, with the middle parts of the lunar orbit disc [E31 and
E32, sheet 2]. OPTION: paint edges black or
white, or face with a white or a golden paper
strip. After removing the reserve piece [R]
from the underside [E36, sheet 18], glue it
and the top side [E 35, sheet 17] on. Make
sure that the planetary gearing hardpaper
tube fits into the hole. Now push the little
steel pin base temporarily and without glue
into its destined hole in the lunar orbit disc.
Insert the steel pin and keep pushing the
little block from all sides until it has contact
with the lunar orbit disc and the steel pin is
in a perpendicular position to it. It should not
project beyond the top of the lunar orbit disc.
Glue it into this position and pull the steel
pin out again. Glue the remaining plastic
bearing disc (20 x 6.6 mm) on the very centre
of the lunar disc top side with instant
adhesive, covering the hole.

Fig. 6: Planetary gearing (light grey: earth inclination and earth rotation)
The Venus driving wheel is an exception in Section F: grooves. With a straight cut, take off enough
that it does not have a grey cardboard middle of the bearing disc so that it keeps about 1
segment; the cardboard tube itself will serve The Earth mm distance to the grooves when its hole is
this purpose. You will need only guide discs centred exactly above the hole in the axis
this time.
Inclination Mechanism base. Glue into position with instant
adhesive.
Step 52: Glue the inside of the Venus driving As it orbits the sun, the Earth’s inclined axis The earth axis mounting, which will be
wheel [E25, sheet 11] and its top side [E27, should always point in the same direction, installed on the axis base, has an edge that
sheet 13] together, then glue this double as it does in reality. This necessitates a se- is tilted 23.5° from the perpendicular line;
guide disc on the centre of the lunar orbit parate mechanical device, which connects this equals Earth’s inclination. It is built of
disc underside. If necessary, widen this hole, the earth axis base with the stationary central three inner pieces and two slightly wider
too. Push the four remaining parts of the Ve- axle and synchronizes them. The effect of outer parts with side supports, to which the
nus driving wheel [E26, E28 – E30, sheet this is that during one orbit the earth axis back part will be glued (see fig. 8).
12, 14 – 16] without glue on the cardboard base revolves backwards one turn, so to say;
tube coming out of the Mercury driving wheel which makes it appear to stand still. Strangely Step 55: Glue the three parts of the inner
and push the lunar orbit disc on it also. There enough, it is hardly ever mentioned that axis mounting [F5 – F7, sheet 10] together
should be a gap now between the loose Copernicus recognized this rotation as a to form a small block. Fold both side axis
discs below and those discs which are glued third movement of the earth, beside its daily mountings [F8 and F9, sheet 10] forward at
on the lunar orbit disc. This gap should be at rotation and annual orbiting (see fig. 7).
least 2 mm wide so that the drive belt can
run within. Check the gap width with one of Seitenteil
the provided drive belts. If the gap is too tight
and the belt jams, you will have to pull the Rückseite
lunar disc out a little again. If it looks like you
have to pull it too far for a reliable glueing,
you can reduce the number of loose discs.

Step 53: Remove the lunar orbit and the Side part
loose discs from the cardboard tube again. Back part
3 x parts
Three inner Innenteil
OPTION: paint the cardboard tube black
where it will be visible. Then, with glue, push Side part Seitenteil
the lower Venus driving wheel discs on the
cardboard tube and also glue the lunar orbit Fig. 8: Earth axis mounting
on top, preserving the pre-determined 2 mm
gap for the drive belt. Check whether the the die-cut lines. Each is made of one part
lunar orbit keeps parallel to the Mercury that is similar to the inner mounting pieces,
driving wheel by looking from the side and only wider, and a fold-away side support.
by rotating it. Now glue the small block between the two
similar-looking parts of the side pieces so
The planetary gearing is now finished and that they end together at the round lower
ready to receive the earth inclination back side. At the front, on the sloped edge,
mechanism within which the earth rotation will be a groove, because the side pieces
shaft moves. project about 1 mm. This groove is three
cardboard layers or about 1.5 mm wide and
will take the brass tube that allows the Earth
axis to turn within it. Now glue the two folded-
away side supports onto the back of the axis
Fig. 7: Earth inclination mounting [F10, sheet 10], which shows the
(light grey: earth rotation) same round cut-outs at its ends. A diagram
of the finished axis mounting will show a T
Step 54: Glue the middle parts of the axis with a short upward stroke and a very wide
base [F1 and F2, sheet 5 and 6] together. horizontal bar; it matches with the cut-out
The round cut-out areas on the side must be groove on the axis base. Check now if it fits
exactly aligned. Use a knife to cut completely into the groove and, if need be, widen it with
through the partly die-cut lines on the upper a sharp knife.
side of the axis base [F3, sheet 17]. The
grooves that result will take the Earth axis
mounting later on. The die-cut lines on the IMPORTANT: The lower edge of the axis
underside of the axis base [F4, sheet 18] mounting needs to enter completely into
will not be cut; this piece could serve as a the groove, otherwise it would sit on the
reserve part if a wrong cut were made on basis at a tilted angle. The inclination of
the upper part. Now glue both sides on the the Earth axis would then be incorrect.
middle part; try to allow as little glue as
possible to run into the cut-out grooves.
OPTION: Paint edges black or white or face Step 56: First, push the brass tube into the
with white or golden paper strip. Check if the inclined groove in the axis mounting, so that
38 x 6.5 mm hardpaper tube will fit into the the funnel-like end is at the top and finishes
hole. Widen it if necessary. Put the last 14 x with the cardboard parts. Glue it into this
4.1 mm plastic bearing disc on the centre of position with instant adhesive but do not
the upper side. It will cover part of the cut-out allow any glue to run into the openings. Now
glue the complete axis mounting into the T-
like grooves.
 inclination base into the planetary gearing paper tube on the unsanded side of the
TIP: Instead of constructing the earth axis from above. Push the runner onto the magnet, using instant adhesive. Take care
stopper from paper as described in the projecting end of the tube, below the gearing. to position the mounting at a 90° position as
next step, you can cut off about 3 mm of Check if runner and Earth axis base are able well as in the centre of the magnet.
the silicone tube and install it on the Earth to turn freely. There should be just enough
axis end. This is easier to remove, should play above as well as below to enable Step 61: Construct the middle of the Earth
maintenance work be necessary. unhindered movement. If there is too much rotation runner from parts [G2 and G3, sheet
play, the cardboard tube can be shortened 3 and 4]. OPTION: paint edges black. Now
a little. In those places where the plastic build the top side from parts [G4 and G6,
Step 57: Wrap and glue the narrow paper bearing discs will touch the cardboard tube, sheet 15 and 16], and the lower side from
strip of the Earth axis stopper [F11, sheet wrap cello-tape around it to reduce friction [G5 and G7, sheet 15 and 16], then glue
19] on the end of one of the steel pins. As and protect them. Now glue the runner to them on the middle pieces. Glue the cover
before, bend it first by wrapping it on without the tube and check by rotating it several [G8, sheet 12] beneath the hole in the
glue. Then first glue on only the short edge times whether it is vertical and does not underside and then glue the 56 mm round
with instant adhesive, followed by wrapping wobble. wood all the way into the hole. Check if it is
and glueing the rest into a roll with about 3 at a 90° angle to the runner by turning it.
mm diameter that ends at the wire’s tip. After Then glue the cover [G9, sheet 13] on the
drying, push the wire into the brass tube from magnet’s centre.
below. The stopper will keep the Earth axis
from being pulled out of the brass tube by Step 62: From below, push the round wood
the magnetic driving wheel. Now push the through the hollow Earth inclination shaft
silicone tube onto the steel pin from above, and hold the magnet with its paper mounting
only so far as to allow it to still turn freely into its place up above at the same time. It
within the brass tube. Spin the steel pin will attract the Earth axis with its edge at once.
between your fingers to check its ability to With a twist, push the wood end that is
turn easily and without hindrance. Remove projecting at the top, into the tube and then
any possible obstacle. check if the mounting is not too long. This
would force the magnet into a tilted position.
Step 58: Install one of the two 16 mm wood In this case, shorten the paper mounting a
globes on the end of the steel pin and check little. Also check the length of the wood; if it is
whether it is exactly above the hole in the too long, the runner will have too much
centre of the axis base. If it projects too far,
Section G: distance to the Earth inclination runner
shorten the steel pin with a wire cutter. You The Earth Rotation above. In this case, shorten the round wood
can glue the globe on already with instant a little by setting the knife on the wood at the
adhesive, but if you wish to paint it, do so Earth axis rotation is caused by a chosen cutting point and rolling the round
before glueing the globe in place. Install the neodymium magnet, which pulls the wood back and forth. It is alright if the wood
38 mm long hardpaper tube in the axis base silicone-covered steel pin toward its edge, is a little shorter than the paper mounting on
and check if it enters easily into the lunar forcing it to rotate as it turns (see fig. 9). top, though.
orbit disc and the planetary gearing. Now
glue it into the axis base and check by turning
it whether it is perpendicular and does not IMPORTANT: Set the round wood into the
wobble. magnet mounting without any glue, so
that it is easier to dissemble in case
Step 59: The Earth inclination runner is built adjustments or repairs are needed.
of three middle parts, one of them slightly
larger than the others. Glue the two smaller
grey cardboard pieces [F12 and F13, sheet
3 and 4] together with their top sides, then TIP: If the mounting is too loose on the
glue the third, larger piece [F 14, sheet 2] on round wood, you can apply a thin glue
them. OPTION: paint edges black. Construct layer to either the end of the wood or the
the upper and lower guide disc from parts inside of the paper tube or to both.
[F15 and F17, sheet 15 and 17] and [F16 Remember, though, to let them dry well
and F18, sheet 16 and 18], then glue the before reassembly.
white top side onto the larger of the three
grey middle discs; the lower disc, which has
a small grey glueing area, goes on the other The planetary drive, including the integrated
side. Make sure that the 38 mm hardpaper moving elements, is now finished and you
tube fits well into the hole. Using instant can go on to the inner planets Mercury and
adhesive, glue the remaining 25 x 4.1 mm Venus.
plastic bearing disc on the underside of the
finished runner, where the two smaller grey
cardboard discs are. Now insert the Fig. 9: Earth rotation
cardboard tube that carries the Earth
Step 60: Glue the paper strip [G1, sheet 19]
into a 12 mm long tube, black on the outside,
and with 4 mm internal diameter. Do this in
the same way as before by wrapping it
around the last remaining 56 x 4 mm round
wood. The tube can be quite tight on the
wood, but do not allow it to be glued to it in
the least – you have to be able to pull it off
afterward. Then, roughen the edge of the 15
x 2.5 mm neodymium magnet on one side
with sandpaper. This will give it a better grip
on the earth axis silicone tube. Glue the black
Section H: on each one, parallel to the longer edge of to turn, you will have to carefully scrape
the sheet. Then, aligning the fibre direction, material off the inside. If less than one half of
The Mercury Orbit Disc glue each of the insides against one of the a grey cardboard disc emerges at the top,
top and bottom sides. These have a gap, you may have to glue one of the reserve
The Mercury orbit disc cannot be driven into which you can glue the filler pieces [H5 discs on it. This can also be done later at any
directly by a belt because it would collide and H6, sheet 17 and 18]. Press and let dry point.
with 'the steel pin on the Venus orbit disk. well. Now glue top and bottom sides of the
Instead, a runner is driven, which is Mercury runner on the grey cardboard
connected to the Mercury orbit disc that lies pieces, so that the sides with the filled gap
above it by a hollow shaft. The Venus orbit lie on the outside and the fibre directions
disc rotates around this shaft in turn (see fig. are aligned. Again, press well during drying.
10). – For production reasons, the upper side Glue the last hardpaper tube (34 x 14.5 mm)
of the Mercury runner has to be assembled into the hole so that it reaches the bottom
from the two pieces [H3 and H5], the and is perpendicular to the runner. Now glue
underside from parts [H4 and H6]. the 50 x 29.3 mm plastic bearing disc over
the hole in its underside, using instant
adhesive and centring it well. Section J:
IMPORTANT: The Mercury and Venus
orbits (section J) are the largest grey Step 64: Take the steel pin base pieces [H13 The Venus Orbit Disc
cardboard discs. With their dimensions and H14, sheet 3 and 4] out of the cardboard
as they are, even a little bit of warping middle parts of the Mercury orbit disc and For production reasons, the middle piece of
would be a problem. Before taking the widen the die-cut holes as you did before the Venus orbit disc is ring-shaped; its centre
pieces out of the sheets, then, mark their with the lunar orbit. Glue the printed had to be used for the inner Mercury
fibre direction, and let these be parallel cardboard part [H15, sheet 15] from the top segment.
when you glue the pieces together. If side on them. Assemble the middle segment
needed, bend them into shape gently of the Mercury orbit from parts [H9 and H10, Step 65: Construct the middle piece of the
before glueing. Allow to dry completely sheet 3 and 4], pressing them while the glue Venus orbit disc – which also serves as
while being pressed. sets. OPTION: paint edges black or white or runner – from the two large rings [J1 and J2,
If the doubled grey cardboard discs come face with a white or golden paper strip. Glue sheet 3 and 4] by glueing them together with
out warped despite your best efforts, you the bottom side [H11 and H12, sheet 15 and aligned fibre directions, and pressing them
can do the following: apply parallel cuts,1 16] on this, again pressing well. Now push well to prevent any warping. If needed, apply
cm apart, on the hollow, concave side, the steel pin base into its hole with glue, so parallel cuts as described in the last
parallel to the valley line, using a cutter that the steel pin (which is not to be glued in IMPORTANT box. OPTION: paint edges
and ruler. This takes the tension out of the yet!) is vertical. Check if the disc can be black. Mark the fibre direction on the back of
disc and you can then bend it into shape, installed on the hardpaper tube that is the orbit disc’s upper side [J3, sheet 11] and
which will be made permanent when the already in place in the runner; if necessary, inner side 1 [J5, sheet 13]. Remove the small
top and bottom layers are glued on later. widen the hole. Using instant adhesive, glue part [J11] that belongs to the steel pin base
the other 50 x 29.3 mm plastic bearing disc from the upper side, and also the
exactly in the centre of the decorated top corresponding reserve piece from the
Step 63: Mark the fibre direction on the side of the Mercury orbit disc. After drying, underside. Now glue the upper and inner
middle of the Mercury runner [H1 and H2, set the orbit disc on the hardpaper tube and side together in such a way that the small
sheet 3 and 4], then glue the two pieces check if this ensemble of two discs and one holes for the steel pin base lie above each
together with aligned fibre directions. Press hollow shaft can be installed on the upper other. Press well. Do the same with the
well. Mark the fibre direction on the top and axle mounting of the ecliptic disc. This block underside [J4, sheet 12] and inner side 2
bottom side as well as on the inside parts 1 made of 14 grey cardboard discs will serve [J6, sheet 14], but do not remove the small
and 2 [H3 and H4, H7 and H8, sheet 17 and as an axle for the two plastic bearing discs. If discs marked [R] and do not place them
18], before removing them, by drawing a line the bearing discs are too tight and are unable above each other when glueing them.

Figure 10: Mercury and Venus orbit discs (light grey: ecliptic disc with Sun)
Step 66: Remove the small steel pin base Section K: side walls [L3 and L4] on it, also with their
discs [J9 and J10, sheet 3 and 4] from the tops, and in such a way that the outer edges
grey cardboard, widen the pin holes and The Sun align and a 2 mm gap is made between
glue them together. Glue disc [J11], from the them.
upper side, onto the base discs. Now glue Our Sun is represented by the white plastic
the two mounting pieces for the steel pin ball, which contains an LED that you can Step 71: To become familiar with the glueing
base [J7 and J8, sheet 3 and 4] together. turn with the micro switch in the base. The technique, first practice with a piece of the 4
These are disc-shaped, with one cut-off side. Sun is connected to the central axle by a mm round belt. Cut the ends of the belt at
Lay the Venus orbit disc with its printed side magnetic support. identical 45° angles, in order to increase the
down on your work surface so that the back glueing surface. To do this, lay the ends,
side faces up. Now glue the steel pin base Step 69: The paper tube that will now serve facing one another, on your cutting surface,
mounting [J7 and J8] over the small hole so as a stopper for the Sun support was already overlapping about 1 cm and directly side by
that the cut side points out toward the rim. made in step 22. Glue one of the 8 mm side. Secure them in place with a piece of
Then glue the ring-shaped, grey cardboard magnets into one of its ends. It has the same sellotape (see fig. 11). Now position a set
middle segment on the top side, centring it, dimensions as the central axle, but you may square or ruler on the belt at a 45° angle,
and glue the underside on it as well. Press still have to widen the tube end a bit to fit the push it down to hold the ends in place and
well while you allow to dry. magnet in. Afterward, install the tube on the then cut through them with a sharp knife.
central axle. This will also keep the cover Remove the tape. You should now have two
Step 67: Push and glue the steel pin base underneath in its place. Set the second identical oval cuts at the ends. Roughen the
into its hole from the top and take care again magnet on it, and on this the Sun globe, surface up very gently with fine sandpaper
to position the steel pin vertically. Glue the which has a flat base for this purpose. The and do not touch the cutting surfaces with
last two plastic bearing discs (55 x 34.3 mm) centre point of the Sun should now be at your fingers.
on the centre of the top as well as the bottom about the same height as that of Earth, when
side of the Venus orbit disc. Take care to the planetary gearing is installed on the Step 72: Put one end in the groove of the
arrange them perfectly above each other. ecliptic disc rim. Now glue the magnet into glueing form with the cut facing up, apply a
Now remove the Mercury orbit, which is not this position underneath the Sun globe with small drop of instant adhesive to it and press
glued on, and check if the Venus disc can be instant adhesive – but with the right side so the other cut end on it strongly. The two
installed on the hollow shaft in the Mercury that it does not repel the other magnet. To do glueing surfaces have to be congruent, no
runner. Also test its ability to turn freely on this, sand the battery lid lightly to roughen edge projecting, and fitting tightly. Hold the
the shaft. If not so, widen the hole a little by the surface, then glue the magnet on this lid ends in their place for some time and then
scraping off material. Then return the Mercury – not to the surrounding base, though, slowly pull the belt out of the glueing board,
orbit to its end position on the hollow shaft. If otherwise you would not be able to change not by pulling it up but rather by peeling it
it holds well and tight you do not need to the battery later. away to the side and from your fingers, too.
glue it on; this has the advantage that the Blow on the glueing area; this makes the
Mercury-Venus-disc unit can be The Copernicus Planetarium is now finished glue set quicker. After some time, test the
disassembled when needed. Remember except for the transmission belts. belt to see if it can withstand a light pulling
that the Mercury orbit disc needs to be very force.
parallel to its runner. Then set the whole unit
on the axle block, which is situated on top of Step 73: Now cut off 32.5 cm of the 4 mm
the ecliptic disc, and test everything for good material and construct the thicker belt in its
mobility. correct length with this. This length includes
a 10 mm allowance for the overlap cuts.

TIP: To reduce the wear on the grey Step 74: Next, do a few glueing tests with
cardboard axle block through abrasion the 2 mm material also. Avoid producing
by the plastic bearing discs, you can cover Section L: strongly curved glueing surfaces and take
it with glue once more and wrap cello- into account that the instant adhesive may
tape around this after drying. The Drive Belts glue the belt to the grey cardboard
surrounding the glueing spot, and also to
You can skip the following section because your fingers. Always remove the belt by
Step 68: Glue top and bottom side of the your assembly kit contains pre-fabricated peeling it away, not by pulling, otherwise the
ecliptic disc cover [D44 and 45, sheet 17 drive belts. Use this section when you wish still fresh glueing joint could come apart
and 18] together, aligning the fibre direction. to cut and shorten one of the belts or want to again.
Install the cover on the short protruding end construct new ones from commercially
of the wooden central axle. It should hold available NBR-rubber string of 2 and 4 mm Step 75: Now construct five rings out of the
without glue to keep the Mercury-Venus-unit diameter. 2 mm material. For these, cut off the following
easily accessible. belt lengths – each includes the 10 mm
Step 70: First, construct the glueing form for allowance already: 2 x 336 mm, 1 x 375 mm,
connecting the belts from the grey cardboard 1 x 450 mm, and 1 x 555 mm. The three
parts [L1 – L4, sheet 3 and 4]. Glue the two smaller ones will be installed beneath the
larger pieces [L1 and L2] together with their ecliptic disc; the two larger ones are for
top sides; this will be the base. Glue the two Mercury and Venus.

Fig. 11: 45° cuts of belt ends

Section M: Step 79: Install the planetary gearing on the same level as the imaginary line between
ecliptic disc rim. Pull one of the two smaller, the centres of Sun and Earth. If one of the
Final Steps thin rings onto the earth inclination driving pins is too long, shorten it. If the centre of the
wheel, which is connected to the underside Sun is higher than that of Earth, you can
of the ecliptic disc. Then pull the belt on the shorten the tube on which it rests.
TIP: Wipe the belts down with alcohol or second runner from the bottom on the
a similar cleaner; this increases surface planetary gearing; this one is connected to OPTION: If you wish to paint the globes, do
friction and makes the belts less likely to the earth inclination base. Lay the other, so before glueing them on. For this, bend
slip. Also stretch the rings before installing smaller ring on the small groove wheel at open a paper clip and push the globe on its
them on their wheels. The rubber material the top of the central shaft and pull it on the end. TIP: do not use glossy paints and apply
can easily take stretching up to almost large planetary gearing runner. Be aware a primer coat first, for example with correcting
double its length. If you have glued the that these two belts change levels as they fluid. EARTH: draw in only the equator and
rings yourself, stretch them only after the run from driving wheel to runner; they cross four meridians (lines from pole to pole); or
glueing joints have dried completely. over when looked at from the side (see fig. paint the globe blue and add white cloud
Protect them by taking the joint between 12). layers (correcting fluid) plus a thin equator
your fingers and stretching the ring with line (“our blue planet”); or indicate the
the other hand on the opposite side. Before attaching the third belt you need to continents … there is no limit to what you
install a counterweight above: may do! MOON: white – this will make the
Moon phases more distinctive in the dark.
Step 76: Pull the central axle out of the Step 80: Pull the smaller of the two large VENUS: copper red (copper is the metal
pedestal, lay the pre-stretched 4 mm belt as rings onto the Mercury runner, which is traditionally associated with Venus); or green
well as the three smaller of the 2 mm belts hidden from view beneath the Venus orbit (also a traditional association). MERCURY:
on top of it and then insert the axle again. disc, and also onto the Mercury driving yellow – one of the traditional colours of
wheel of the planetary gearing, which rests Mercury.
Step 77: You can now glue the central axle on the upper side of the ecliptic disc. To do
into the pedestal. Pull it out of the pedestal, this, you may temporarily remove the You have now finished the construction
remove the central shaft and apply a bit of Mercury and Venus orbits, which are not of the Copernicus Planetarium.
oil to the spots where the plastic bearing glued on. The Venus orbit itself is connected Congratulations! With much skill and
discs of the central shaft make contact. Then to its small driving wheel by the largest belt; patience you have built a valuable
reinsert it, together with the central shaft, this wheel is located directly underneath the astronomical demonstration apparatus.
about halfway into the pedestal. The lower lunar orbit disc. It would surely deserve prominent
half of the rectangular space that holds the exhibition, but is even more suitable for
central axle has only two walls. From Step 81: The last belt is to be put into position showing, understanding and learning
underneath, apply plenty of glue to these under the ecliptic disc by pulling it on the purposes.
walls' last centimetres; then, twisting it, two remaining earth rotation drive groove
reinsert the axle into the pedestal to a depth discs. In this case the belt has to be twisted
which allows the central shaft free mobility, half a turn to form a horizontal 8, otherwise
but with not too much play, as before. We the Earth globe would turn in the wrong
recommend to align the ecliptic disc’s middle direction and the belt would also be much
joint line with the pedestal walls. Allow to too loose. If you turn the crank handle now,
dry well. all parts should move as desired. Solutions
for possible problems are given in the last
section.
TIP: Once the central axle is glued in, any
belts that need to be exchanged or Step 82: Using instant adhesive, glue the
repaired have to be pulled over the three steel pins into the steel pin bases of
pedestal. This is more of an effort, but is Moon, Venus and Mercury. Before glueing,
easily done if the belts are stretched and thread one of the covers [E38, H17 and J13,
perhaps warmed in addition. sheet 11 to 13] on each of the pins; then
cover the glueing areas with them. The pins
must be in a very perpendicular position. Now
Step 78: Pull the thicker belt onto the install the globes on the steel pins
crankshaft driving wheel and its pulleys as temporarily: Moon (4.5 mm) is the smallest,
well as onto the runner down by the central Mercury (6mm) is medium size and Venus
shaft. Check if it is set in motion when the (16 mm) the largest. With instant adhesive,
crank handle is turned. glue them on so that they are all at about the

Figure 12: Drive belt installation below the ecliptic disc

Things you can demonstrate with the Copernicus Planetarium: Having problems? Here are
As observers on Earth, we have the sensation of being in the centre of all that we see. This some possible solutions:
world view, which was also at the core of antiquity’s concept of the world, is still valid in our
time, especially in our daily lives, which are ruled by nature’s rhythms. After all, at dawn we
1. Earth turns the wrong way: Does the
speak of the sunrise and not of the “earth-turn”. Concepts based on the Copernican world
Earth rotation belt cross over, like a lying
view, though, where the focus of our thinking is moved to the Sun, supply an especially
8?
simple and plausible physical explanation and are therefore no less valid. If you have clear
knowledge about the point from which you observe and explain some object, then you can
2. The illumined halves of the planets are
understand and accept both world definitions at the same time. This can be compared to
not clearly distinguishable: Is the surface
touching a glove – you would sense and describe it very differently depending on how you
of the globes rough enough to prevent
encountered it: from the inside or the outside.
reflecting? Perhaps you need to cover up
In this sense the Copernicus Planetarium is a useful tool for explaining well-known
the reflecting surfaces of the Mercury and
phenomena experienced on Earth only, from a point of view that encompasses the whole
Venus orbit discs for cer tain
solar system. The sizes of Earth, Moon and the planets are represented in correct relation
demonstrations?
(the Sun’s is not); the distances, though, are nowhere near correct – this would blow any
model’s proportions. The orbital times are about correct in comparison to astronomical facts.
3. The orbit times differ strongly from the
One crank turn will move everything one week further. Please be aware that a belt-driven
ideal times: Does the transmission
transmission is always subject to some slip; this produces deviations.
encounter too much resistance in any
place? Is one of the plastic bearing discs
■ The change of night and day and the Sun’s course through the day correspond with the too tight on its axle? Is there too much
daily rotation of Earth on its axis. (For technical reasons the Earth globe goes through 5 friction or even jamming in some part of
instead of 7 rotations per crank turn, which is hardly noticeable, though.) the mechanism?
■ The course of the year with its change of seasons corresponds with the orbit of Earth
around the Sun (about 52 crank turns). The inclined Earth axis keeps its direction throughout 4. The pulleys squeak when cranking:
the orbital period, this lets the Northern hemisphere receive more light at one time and the Apply a drop of machine oil, or, even bett-
Southern hemisphere at another. To demonstrate this, turn the Earth inclination base until er, silicone oil (do not use edible oils) next
the (upper) North pole of the Earth globe points toward the Sun when positioned at the to the bearing discs with a toothpick.
June 21st marking (summer solstice).
■ The zodiac is the traditional series of twelve star constellations in which the terrestrial 5. The glued joints of the drive belts do
observer sees the Sun in the course of one year. not hold (only applies to self-constructed
belts): Do the glueing surfaces have flat
■ The changing of the Moon phases is caused by the varying position of the Moon in
contact? Are they grease-free and
relation to Earth and Sun. One half of the Moon is illumined by the Sun all of the time, but
sanded lightly? Are you using a good,
it shows this half to us only at full moon; at other times we are shown less and nothing at
fresh instant adhesive? If done well, the
all during new moon. The particular phase symbol on the lunar orbit disc which points
bonds will withstand even high tension.
toward the Sun, indicates the Moon phase visible from Earth at the time. During one
annual Earth orbit, the Moon passes through all of its phases about 12 and 1/3 times (this
6. A slipping drive belt: Are the belts de-
equals about four crank turns per month). The Moon always turns the same side towards
greased sufficiently? TIP: If not in use for
Earth.
longer periods, it is a good idea to take
■ Lunar and solar eclipses happen when the Moon enters Earth’s shadow or when Earth is the belts off; they will then regain their
hit by the Moon’s shadow. Information: Owing to the unavoidably incorrect relative distances original tensile force. Replacement belts
in this model, every full moon position causes a lunar eclipse, while every new moon can be obtained through the AstroMedia
brings about a solar eclipse. This, of course, is not so in reality. customer service.
If you wish to demonstrate only the above phenomena, you can remove the Mercury and
Venus orbits. The model would then be called a “Tellurium” – an Earth-Moon-Sun model. 7. A drive belt jumps its groove wheel:
The planetary drive would in this case be held in place by the lower drive belts only. perhaps you need to straighten a bent
groove edge and harden it with glue? Is
one of the groove wheels at a wrong ang-
■ Venus is recognized as the morning star when the observer on Earth sees it to the right of le, or is it warped? Are there grooves that
the Sun. It will then rise before the Sun does. We see Venus as the evening star when are too tight and need to be widened by
positioned to the left of the Sun; it will then set after it. running a blunt-tipped instrument through
■ The phases of Venus can be observed with a telescope only. They appear when only a them?
fraction of sunlit Venus is visible from Earth.
■ The superior and inferior conjunctions of Mercury and Venus appear when the planet in Do you have any other suggestions for
question is exactly in front of the Sun (inferior) when seen from Earth, or exactly behind it solving difficulties? Please send word to:
(superior conjunction). Unlike Moon and the so-called outer planets Mars, Jupiter, Saturn [email protected].
and so on, Venus and Mercury can never be in opposition – meaning, in the opposite
direction to the Sun when seen from Earth.
■ The pentagram of Venus conjunctions is made by connecting those points on the zodiac
with each other where Sun and Venus stand during a superior conjunction as seen from
Earth (the same goes for the inferior conjunctions). Generally, this is seen as the reason
for associating the pentagram symbol with Venus; a connection known since antiquity. In
relation to the Mercury conjunctions there is a similar connection: the Mercury triangle,
though this is not as commonly used.
■ The sidereal orbit time of a planet or of the Moon describes the duration of a complete
orbit around the Sun until it reaches the same fixed star (lat. sider) again. Mercury takes
88, Venus 225 and the Moon 27 ¼ days for this (as observed from Earth).
■ The synodic orbit time of a planet or of the Moon is the time it takes to reach the same
position in relation to the Sun again, as seen from Earth. Mercury takes 116, Venus 584
and the Moon 29 ½ days (one lunation, the time from new moon to new moon).
 E1 E4
C9 C10

E2 E5
D9
Bogen 2 E3 E6

A46

D43 D43 D43 D43 D43 D43

E31 E33 E34 E32

E7

D9
Bogen 1 D38
C15 F14

E8 C16

E15 C17 E16

D36 F12 D37 F13

Bogen 4

D10 D13

H1 H2

L3 L4
J1 J2
D11 D14
B3 B11
H13 H14

L1 B4
A36
Bogen 3 L2 B12
A42
D12 D15
J9 B5 J10 B13
H9 G2 H10 G3
A37 A43
J7 B6 J8 B14

D43 D43 D43 D43

C1 C3

E9 D43 E10 D43

F1
Bogen 6 F2

D43 C2 D43 C4
D43 D43

B23 B25
B24 B26

A17 A18
A15 A16
B33 B35
D43 D43

B32 B34

A13 A14

(Reserve) Bogen 5 (Reserve)