ECEG – 4201: Introduction to Instrumentation

Chapter 2: Direct Current Indicating Instruments

2.1 Suspension Galvanometer:

Galvanometer is an instrument used for the detection and measurement of charge current
and potential difference.

 Depending upon its uses galvanometers can be divided into two:

 Ballistic galvanometer: This is mainly used for the detection and measurement of
charge.

 Dead beat or a periodic galvanometer: This is mainly used for the detection and
measurement of current and potential difference.

 Depending on the nature of construction galvanometers can be classified into two:

 Moving coil galvanometer

 Moving magnet galvanometer

Moving coil galvanometer

Moving coil galvanometer is a device used for measuring the current in a circuit.
Principle
Moving coil galvanometer works on the principle that a current carrying coil placed in a
magnetic field experiences a torque.
Construction
 A coil is suspended in a magnetic field. The current to be measured i s passed through
the coil. The current through the coil produce s a magnetic field which interacts with the given
magnetic field in which the coil is suspended. Due to the inter action the coil gets deflected and
measuring the angle of rotation current can be calculated.
A circular or rectangular coil of about 10 to 15 turns of a fine insulated copper or aluminum
wire is suspended from a torsion head T, by means of quartz fiber in between the concave pole pieces
of a strong magnet. The lower end of the coil is attached to a springs which brings the coil back to its
original position when the current is stopped. The suspension wire and the spring are connected with
two terminal screws at the base which act as the leads of current. The whole thing is enclosed in a
metal box provided with glass face and is supported on levelling screws. The angle of rotation of the
coil is measured by lamp & scale arrangement, reflection takes place from the tiny mirror M attached
with the suspension wire.

2.2 Torque and Deflection of the Galvanometer:

Let PQRS be a single turn of the coil (Fig). A current I flows through the coil. In a radial
magnetic field, the plane of the coil is always parallel to the magnetic field. Hence the sides QR and
SP are always parallel to the field. So, they do not experience any force. The sides PQ and RS are
always perpendicular to the field.

PQ = RS = l, length of the coil and PS = QR = b, breadth of the coil.

Force on PQ, F = BI (PQ) = BIl.
According to Fleming’s left hand rule, this force is normal to the plane of the coil and acts outwards.
 Force on RS, F = BI (RS) = BIl.This force is normal to the plane of the coil and acts inwards.
These two equal, oppositely directed parallel forces having different lines of action constitute a
couple and deflect the coil. If there are n turns in the coil,

Moment of the deflecting couple = nBIl × b = nBIA

When the coil deflects, the suspension wire is twisted. On account of elasticity, a restoring
couple is set up in the wire. This couple is proportional to the twist. If it is the angular twist, then,

Moment of the restoring couple = Cθ

Where, C is the restoring couple per unit twist and θ is the angle of defelection.

At equilibrium, deflecting couple = restoring couple

(i.e), nBIA = Cθ

∴ I = [C / (nBIA) ] * θ = Kθ
where K = C / (nBIA) is the galvanometer constant.
i.e I α θ. Since the deflection is directly proportional to the current flowing through the coil, the scale
is linear and is calibrated to give directly the value of the current.

2.3 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)instrument:

 One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C. measurements is PMMC
instrument.

 Construction: A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument. Aluminum former is

provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent magnet (Fig. 5). Coils are
wound on the aluminum former which is connected with the spindle. This spindle is
supported with jeweled bearing. Two springs are attached on either end of the spindle. The
terminals of the moving coils are connected to the spring. Therefore the current flows
through spring 1, moving coil and spring2.
 Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former. Control:
Spring control isused.

Fig. 5 PMMC Instrument

 Principle ofoperation: When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows
through it. When the current carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a force.
This force produces a torque and the former rotates. The pointer is attached with the spindle.
When the former rotates, the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. When the polarity is
reversed a torque is produced in the opposite direction. The mechanical stopper does not allow
the deflection in the opposite direction. Therefore the polarity should be maintained with
PMMCinstrument.
 If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a continuous
deflection. Therefore this instrument cannot be used inA.C.
 Advantages
 Torque/weight ishigh
 Power consumption isless
 Scale isuniform
 Damping is veryeffective
 Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field isnegligible
 Range of instrument can beextended
 Disadvantages
 Use only forD.C.
 Cost ishigh
 Error is produced due to ageing effect ofPMMC
 Friction and temperature error are present
 Galvanometer Sensitivity

Sensitivity: - A galvanometer is said to be sensitive, if it give large deflection, even when a small current is
passed through it or a small voltage is applied across its coil.

Current Sensitivity:-It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer on passing a current of one
ampere. i.e

∝
Current Sensitivity = =

Voltage Sensitivity:-It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer when a potential difference
of one volt is applied its coil.

∝
Voltage Sensitivity = = Since V=IR

Note: A galivanometer is said to be highly sensitive, if

i. N is large; ii. B is large; iii. A is large; iv. K is small; v. R is small

However, N and A cannot be increased beyond a certain limits as otherwise the size and resistance of
galvanometer will become large. Therefore B is made as large as possible and K is made as small as possible.
To decrease K the suspension wire is made of Phosphor Bronze. Restoring Torque per unit twist may further
be decrease by taking the suspension wire in the front of strip.

Voltmeter Sensitivity

It is defined in terms of resistance per volt (Ω/V). Suppose a meter movement of 1 KΩ internal resistance has
full-scale deflection current of 50 µ A.

Obviously, full-scale voltage drop of the meter movement is = 50 µ A X 1000 Ω=50mA.

When used as a voltmeter, its sensitivity would be 1000/50 X10-3 =20KΩ/V. It should be clearly understood
that a sensitivity of 20K Ω means that the total resistance of the circuit in which the above movement is used
should be 20K Ω for a full scale deflection of 1V.

Im=IFSD,Theohom/volt sensitivity of a voltmeter is given by

Galvanometer Sensitivity
Sensitivity: - A galvanometer is said to be sensitive, if it give large deflection, even when a small current
is passed through it or a small voltage is applied across its coil.

Current Sensitivity:-It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer on passing a current of
one ampere. i.e

∝
Current Sensitivity = =

Voltage Sensitivity:-It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer when a potential
difference of one volt is applied its coil.

∝
Voltage Sensitivity = = Since V=IR

Note: A galivanometer is said to be highly sensitive, if

ii. N is large; ii. B is large; iii. A is large; iv. K is small; v. R is small

However, N and A cannot be increased beyond a certain limits as otherwise the size and resistance of
galvanometer will become large. Therefore B is made as large as possible and K is made as small as
possible. To decrease K the suspension wire is made of Phosphor Bronze. Restoring Torque per unit
twist may further be decrease by taking the suspension wire in the front of strip.

Voltmeter Sensitivity

It is defined in terms of resistance per volt (Ω/V). Suppose a meter movement of 1 KΩ internal resistance
has full-scale deflection current of 50 µ A.

Obviously, full-scale voltage drop of the meter movement is = 50 µ A X 1000 Ω=50mA.

When used as a voltmeter, its sensitivity would be 1000/50 X10-3 =20KΩ/V. It should be clearly
understood that a sensitivity of 20K Ω means that the total resistance of the circuit in which the above
movement is used should be 20K Ω for a full scale deflection of 1V.

Im=IFSD,Theohom/volt sensitivity of a voltmeter is given by

Voltmeter- Ammeter method

This is very popular method for measurement of medium resistances since instruments required for this
method are usually available in laboratory. The two types of connections employed for ammeter
voltmeter method are shown in figure. In both the methods if readings of ammeter and voltmeter are

taken then we can measure value of resistance by using formula: = =

The measured value of resistance Rm, would be equal to the true value R, if the ammeter resistance is
zero and the voltmeter resistance is infinite, so that the conditions in the circuit are not disturbed. But in
actual practice this is not possible and hence both methods give inaccurate results.

Consider circuit of figure (a):

In this method ammeter measures the true value of current flowing through resistance but voltmeter does
not measures the true value of the voltage across the resistance. The voltmeter indicates the sum of the
voltage across resistance and ammeter.

Let “Ra” be the resistance of the ammeter

Therefore voltage across the ammeter =

Now measured value of the resistance = = = = +

Therefore true value of resistance = − => ( − )

Hence the measured value of the resistance is higher than the value. It also clear from the above
equation that the true value is equal to the measured only if the ammeter resistance is ZERO.

Relative error, = =

It is clear from the above equation that the error will be small if the value of the measuring resistance is
large as compare to the internal resistance of the ammeter .therefore circuit should be used when
measuring resistances are high.

Consider Circuit of figure (b):

In this circuit the voltmeter measures the true value of the voltage across the measuring resistance but
the ammeter does not measures the true value of the current flowing through the resistance .the
current through the ammeter is the sum of the current through the voltmeter and resistance.

Let Rv be the resistance of the voltmeter.

From the above equation it is clear the true value of the resistance will be equal to the measured value
only when the voltmeter resistance is equal to the infinite. However, if the resistance of the voltmeter is
very large as compared to the resistance under measurement:
 Series –type Ohmmeter

Introduction to Ohmmeter

 An ohmmeter is an instrument used to measure resistance and check the continuity of electrical
circuits and component. This resistance reading is indicated through a meter movement.
 The ohmmeter must then have an internal source of voltage to create the necessary current to
operate the movement, and also have appropriate ranging resistors to allow desired current to
flow through the movement at any given resistance.
 Two types of schemes are used to design an ohmmeter – series type and shunt type.
 The series type of ohmmeter is used for measuring relatively high values of resistance, while
the shunt type is used for measuring low values of the resistance.

Series – type Ohmmeter

In this Figure3, R1 is the current limiting resistor, R2 is the zero adjust resistor, RX is the unknown resistor,
E is the internal battery voltage and Rm is the internal resistance of the d’Arsonvalmovement. A and B
are the output terminals of the ohmmeter across which an unknown resistor is connected.

Fig 3 Basic Series type Ohmmeter

When RX = 0 (short circuit), R2 is adjusted to get full-scale current through the movement. Then, I = Ifsd.
The pointer will be deflected to its maximum position on the scale. Therefore, this full-scale current
reading is marked 0 ohms.

When RX = ∞ (open circuit), I = 0. The pointer will read zero. Therefore, the zero current reading is
marked ∞ ohms.

By connecting different values of RX, intermediate values are marked. The overall accuracy of the scale
markings depends on the repeating accuracy of the movement and tolerance of the resistors used for
calibration. Figure 4 shows a typical scale of the series type ohmmeter.

Note that the scale is logarithmic – “expended” at the low end of the scale and “compressed” at the
high end to be able to span a wide range from zero to infinite resistance.

Fig 4 Typical Scale of s t ohm

To Calculate R1 and R2
R1 and R2 used in Figure 3 can be determined by using a value of RX corresponding to half the deflection
of the meter. For the given movement, Ifsd and Rm are known.

Let Rh be the half deflection resistance. For this value of RX, I = Ifsd/2. Further, at half
deflection, Rh = internal resistance of the

circuit looking from terminals A and B. =

Battery current needed to supply half-scale deflection is given by =

Total current, It, is supplied by the battery for full-scale deflection is double of this current, i.e =

And = −

Using KVL = −

Solving these equations, we get = = −

Example 2.9.1

In the circuit of Figure 3, a 1mA meter movement with an internal of 50Ω is to be used. The battery
voltage is 3V. Half-scale deflection should be for 2500 Ω

a) Calculate the values of R1 and R2

b) Find the change in the value of R2 if the battery voltage reduces by 10%.

c) What is the half-scale deflection if battery voltage reduces by 10%?

Solution

R2 should be changed from 250Ω to 625Ω to compensate for this reduction in battery voltage.
 Shunt –type Ohmmeter

Figure 5 shows the basic circuit of the shunt-type ohmmeter where movement mechanism is connected
parallel to the unknown resistance. In this circuit it is necessary to use a switch; otherwise current will
always flow in the movement mechanism.

Figure5: Basic shunt-type ohmmeter

Resistor Rsh is used to bypass excess current.

Let the switch be closed. When RX = 0 (short circuit), the pointer reads zero because full current flows
through Rx and no current flows through the meter and Rsh. Therefore, zero current reading is marked 0
ohms.

When RX = ∞ (open circuit), no current flows through RX. Resistor R1 is adjusted so that full-scale current
flows through the meter. Therefore, maximum current reading is marked ∞ ohms. Comparison of series
and shunt ohmmeter scales is shown in Figure 6.
 Figure6: Ohmmeter scales: (a) series scale and (b) shunt scale

To Calculate R1 and Rsh

Again, we can use the concept of half-scale deflection.

Let Rh be the half-deflection resistance. For this value of RX, Im= Ifsd/2

Further, at half deflection, current through Rh is equal to sum of the currents through Rsh and Rm, i.e. Ix=
Ish-Im

Also = −

Solving forIsh, we get = ( )Therefore, =

Now, = + + = ( + )=

Therefore =

Example 2.10.1

In the circuit of Figure5, a 1 mA meter movement with an internal resistance if 50Ω is to be used. The
battery voltage is 3V. Half-scale deflection should be for 0.5Ω. Calculate the values of R1 and Rsh.

SolutionFor half-scale deflection

 ; i.e =29.75Ω

An AMMETER measures current and is always connected in series with the circuit being measured. An ammeter
should have a low resistance so that the effect of the ammeter on the circuit will be kept to a minimum.

VOLTMETERS are used to measure voltage and are always connected in parallel with the circuit being measured.
A voltmeter should have a high resistance compared to the circuit being measured to minimize the loading effect.
Voltmeter sensitivity is expressed in ohms per volt.

OHMMETERS are used to measure resistance and to check continuity. An ohmmeter is electrically connected in
series with the resistance being measured. The ohmmeter range, which allows a mid-scale deflection, should be
used.

A CONTINUITY TEST is accomplished with an ohmmeter. This test is used to check for opens (or to see if the
circuit is complete or continuous).

GROUNDED CIRCUITS are caused by some conducting part of the circuit making contact either directly or
indirectly with the metallic structure of the ship or chassis. In testing for grounds, you may use either an ohmmeter
or a megger.

A SHORT CIRCUIT, other than a grounded one, is where two conductors touch each other directly or through
another conducting element. An ohmmeter is used to test for shorts.