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Sequence Stratigraphy

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Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_178-1
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Sequence Stratigraphy
Christopher George St. Clement Kendall*
Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Definition
A methodology of stratigraphic interpretation that uses a framework of genetically related strati-
graphic surfaces, and the sedimentary facies and geometries these surfaces bound, to determine the
depositional setting of sedimentary rocks.

Introduction
Stratigraphy is the science of the layered character of rocks, be these sedimentary, volcanic,
metamorphic, or igneous rocks. Sequence stratigraphy, a branch of sedimentary stratigraphy, is a
methodology that uses the order sedimentary strata accumulated within a framework of major
depositional and erosional surfaces to interpret the depositional setting of clastic and carbonate
sediments from continental, marginal marine, basin margins, and downslope settings. The surfaces
that bound and subdivide the strata are often interpreted to be generated during changes in relative
sea level causing associated deposition and erosion. The resulting template of surfaces and the
lithologic facies, sedimentary structures, and fauna they bound are used to interpret the depositional
setting and predict the heterogeneity, extent, and character of the lithofacies.
Sequence stratigraphy is based on the premise in that “the present is the key to the past” (Lyell,
1830, 1832, 1833). It supports the contention that the sedimentary record of the earth’s crust is the
product of uniform and common physical processes that interacted with sediments as they accumu-
lated. The section that follows is based on Catuneanu et al. (2011) and a summary of a collective
understanding of sequence stratigraphy that is available on the website SEPM STRATA.
A major problem with sequence stratigraphy is that the definition, terminology, and interpretation
of the surfaces of sequence stratigraphy can be complex and sometimes contentious. NB: Visit the
SEPM STRATA website (http://www.sepmstrata.org/) for explanations of the sequence stratigraphic
terminology used here, which is linked to pop-up boxes containing information that clarify the
understanding and use of this discipline of stratigraphy.

Bounding Surfaces of Sequence Stratigraphy

Evidence that the relative position of the sea has varied through geologic time is recorded in the
Earth’s marine sedimentary strata from the Precambrian through present by the major bounding and
subdividing surfaces of the sedimentary section (Fig. 1). These surfaces are commonly generated by
the changing position of relative sea level when the volume of water in the oceans varies and/or
ocean relief changes. The bounding surfaces are the key to sequence stratigraphy.

*Email: [email protected]

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Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_178-1
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

highstand systems tract transgressive systems tract

aggradational to progradational backstepping retrogradational
cycle bed set cycle bed set shelf break falling stage systems tract
forced progradational
SB cycle bed set

} HST
slope slumps

TST
TST } mfs lowstand systems tract
progradational
} HST
TS
cycle bed set

mfs
highstand systems tract
progradational
cycle bed set A
FSST
} }
incised
valley fill LST
B
axial channel
fluvial sandstones slope fan

coastal plain sandstones

and mudstones
marine basin floor fan
fluvial &/or estuarine sandstones TST TST marine limestone
limestone
within incised valleys TS> TS/SB> marine flooding surface
early TST estuarine/coastal FSST/LST delta plain sea level & system tract
shallow platform carbonates & sediment
SB?>
thin transgressive shales late HST distributary channel fill <SB
late LST HST
<mfs
shelf & slope mudstones & HST delta front TST
thin sandstones SB> <TS
prodelta mudstone
mfs> marine shale
submarine fan & levee-channel mfs> LST
sandstones <SB
TST marine limestone TST marine limestone FSST
unconformable boundary
<SB
maximum flooding surface TS/SB> coal sequence boundary HST
transgressive surface A TS/SB>
coal B <mfs

Christopher Kendall after Catuneanu, et al, 2011

Fig. 1 Sequence stratigraphic model and cycle types for a mixed carbonate-clastic succession based on the Yoredale
cycles of the mid-Carboniferous of northern England. The schematic logs show (A) a cycle with an incised-valley fill
sandstone cutting into shales that overlie marine carbonate and (B) coarsening-up deltaic clastics that have onlapped the
marine carbonate

A cycle of the rise and fall of relative sea level will likely produce a corresponding response in the
sedimentary section and marked changes in the flow regime that form subdividing sequence
stratigraphic surfaces. For instance, when eustasy, worldwide sea level, rises or the local crustal
substrate subsides, a relative rise in sea level occurs. The resulting transgression floods the shore and
a nearshore transgressive surface (TS) forms. When the rate of sea level rise reaches its most rapid
increase, sediment accumulation seaward of the shore is reduced. Meanwhile pelagic and benthic
fossils and organic matter continue to accumulate in the open sea. As a result condensed accumu-
lations of fossils are found on the sediment surface or within a thin sedimentary zone, and,
coincidentally, the organics sequestered radioactive elements producing a strong radioactive signal
on the gamma logs. This zone and/or surface is known as the maximum flooding surface (mfs).
Following the highest position of the sea, a drop in sea level may cause the shore and the nearshore to
be eroded, forming an unconformity or sequence boundary (SB).
Sequence stratigraphic interpretation identifies the subdividing surfaces of TS, mfs, and SB
described above. These surfaces envelope the discrete sediment geometries of the sedimentary
section. Interpretation involves conceptually reversing the order of deposition and back-stripping
the geometries from oldest to youngest. They are then reassembled in the order of accumulation,
using as a template the subdividing surfaces, lithofacies geometry, and fauna to interpret the
evolving character of depositional setting. The reassembly tracks the evolution of the sedimentary
system, its hydrodynamic setting, and accommodation.
The back-stripping analysis is aided by the subdivision of the sequence stratigraphic section on
the basis of major depositional and erosional surfaces alluded to above. A variety of elements are
subdivided by the surfaces. Their hierarchy from low frequency to high frequency includes:

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Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_178-1
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

• Sequences: fundamental stratal units of sequence stratigraphy (Catuneanu et al., 2011) composed
of relatively conformable successions of genetically related strata generated by cycles of change
in accommodation (the space available to be filled) (Jervey, 1988), and/or sediment supply are
bounded by similar stratigraphic surfaces which have same origin through geologic time.
• Systems tracts: subdivisions of a sequence linked to “contemporaneous depositional systems”
(Brown and Fisher, 1977) and sea level position. Include highstand systems tract, falling stage
systems tract, lowstand systems tract, and transgressive systems tract.
• Parasequences and/or cycles: relatively conformable successions of genetically related beds or
bed sets (within a parasequence set) bounded by marine flooding surfaces or their correlative
surfaces (Van Wagoner, 1995). Stacking of parasequence sets is used in conjunction with
boundaries and position within a sequence to define systems tracts (Van Wagoner et al., 1988)
and their relationship to eustacy.

As sediments are reassembled, the genetic character of the sequences, systems tracts, and
parasequences is determined as products of changes in accommodation and the regional setting.
A limit to this analytical strategy is often the extent of the understanding of the inferred depositional
setting.

Sequence Stratigraphy of Depositional Systems

Understanding how modern and ancient depositional systems are tied to sequence stratigraphy and
the processes that formed them aids the interpretation of depositional systems. The sequence
stratigraphic framework is used to analyze and explain how sedimentary rocks acquire their layered
character, lithology, texture, faunal associations, and other properties. These properties explain how
the mechanisms of sediment accumulation, erosion, and interrelated processes produced the current
configuration of the rocks. This strategy leads to new questions and more realistic interpretations and
enhances predictions of lithofacies heterogeneity. These systems include:

• Clastic systems
• Marine: barrier island coasts; deltaic systems; deepwater fans; deepwater basins
• Continental: glacial; eolian; alluvial fans; braided streams; coarse and fine-grained fluvial
systems; lacustrian
• Carbonate systems
• Inner carbonate shelf; outer carbonate shelf and margins; deepwater carbonates

Both respond to changes in base level and are subdivided by similar surfaces, the major difference
being carbonate accumulation tending to be “in situ production” while clastics are transported to
their depositional setting. Rates of carbonate production are linked to photosynthesis and depth
dependent with rates greatest close to the air/sea interface, so carbonate facies and their fabrics are
often clear indicators of sea level position. Additionally organisms have the capacity to produce and
accumulate sediments above the hydrodynamic thresholds associated with clastic systems generat-
ing the ecological accommodation of Pomar (2001).

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Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_178-1
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Walther’s Law
Hypothetical section offshore Hunting Island, South Carolina
demonstrates that depositional settings change their lateral
position and fill accommodation, as sedimentary facies of
adjacent depositional settings succeed one another as a
vertical sequence.

Foreshore

Offshore
N

10 Kms
After Kendall, 2012

Fig. 2 Hypothetical section offshore Hunting Island, South Carolina, demonstrating that, as Steno (Dott and Batten,
1976) indicated, sediments accumulate vertically from oldest to youngest and extend laterally while, as Walther
(Middleton, 1973) indicated, depositional settings change their lateral position and fill accommodation, so that
sedimentary facies of adjacent depositional settings succeed one another as a vertical sequence

Niels Stensen and Johannes Walther

The interpretation is better, and predictions of local and regional stratigraphy are more accurate
when the sequence stratigraphic framework is integrated with:

• Steno’s laws of sediment accumulation (Dott and Batten, 1976)

• Walther’s law (Middleton, 1973) of the vertical and lateral equivalence of sediments

Steno established that younger rock sedimentary layers overlie in order older layers (principle of
superposition), sediments fill over basal irregular surfaces enclosed above by a smooth surface
(principle of original horizontality), and sediment layers have continuity to where they pinch out, or
are prevented by a barrier to spread further, or are disrupted by folding and/or faulting (principle of
lateral continuity). Walther recognized that as sediments fill the accommodation of their depositional
settings, those laying laterally side by side change their lateral position as the sedimentary facies of
adjacent depositional settings succeed one another as a vertical sequence (Fig. 2).

Stacking Patterns and Geometries

Sequence stratigraphy methodology establishes the depositional setting of a sedimentary section by
analyzing the geometric arrangement of sedimentary fill or stacking patterns. These patterns are
represented by the vertical succession of sedimentary facies geometries and their enveloping
surfaces. The geometries and stacking patterns of uncemented carbonates and clastics are similar,

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 hierarchy of carbonate and fluvial architectural elements
tidal flat
& turbidite
bed grains bed bedset
tidal flat
& turbidite
grains bedset
Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences

Key
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_178-1

shoaling bar
shoaling channel – fill bar
cycle
cycle
bed levee
bedsets
crevasse splay amalgamated
overbank & bar set floodplain
tidal channel – fill crevasse splays overbank
build ups (overbank &
patch crevasse splays)
reef levee
reef
flank inter-reef
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

amalgamated
channel – fill
incised tidal channel - perpindicular to margin

channel

shingled, top-truncated grain carbonates - ribbons parralel to margin non- amalgamated

reef core channel
lagoon/platform reef channel channel – fill sequence
complex
flank complex
offset submarine multistoried amalgamated set
channels & levees channel – fill

amalgamated submarine incised

alluvial
channels & levees valley alluvial
valley
valley

carbonate sequence
set channel
platform channel
complex
complex complex composite
systems
system sequence system sequence
set set alluvial set
valley

physical accommodation only

shallow-water, fine-dominated production
deeper-water. mud to gravel production shallow-water, fine-dominated production shallow-water, grain-dominated production

wave base wave base wave base

low-angle ramp homoclinal ramp distally steepened ramp

Christopher Kendall after Sprague et al., 2002, and Catuneanu, et al, 2011
ecological accommodation
moderate shallow-water ecological accommodation highest shallow-water ecological accommodation maximum shallow-water ecological accommodation

flat-topped open shelves wave base reef-rimmed platform wave base massive steep to cliffed margins wave base

Fig. 3 Hierarchical differences between carbonate and clastic architectural elements. Comparison of grains to cycles and bed sets to channels to reefs, carbonate
platform, and channel complex system sets that respond to physical and/or ecological accommodation and are used to define depositional sequence boundaries,
transgressive surfaces (TS), and maximum flooding surfaces (mfs)

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Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_178-1
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

as both respond to changes in base level in the same way, both can be subdivided by similar surfaces
and both respond to wave and current movement similarly.
However major differences in the sequence stratigraphy of the sediments exist. All clastics are
transported to their depositional resting place while carbonates are produced and accumulate “in
situ.” Rates of carbonate production, and so accumulation, are linked to photosynthesis and are
depth dependent. Their rates of accumulation are greatest close to the air/sea interface. Thus
carbonate facies and their fabrics are often used as indicators of sea level position. Similarly
siliciclastic coastal sediments, especially tidal sediments, can also be used as sea level indicators.
Additionally rates of carbonate accumulation often have a biochemical and physicochemical origin
influenced by the chemistry of the water from which they are precipitated. Stacking patterns of both
sediments are expressed by geometric bodies that may be (Fig. 3):

• Unconfined by topography
• Confined within eroded topography

Stacking patterns for both clastics and carbonates that are the product of physical accommodation
vary between:

• Unconfined sheets that:

• Prograde (step seaward)
• Retrograde (step landward)
• Aggrade (built vertically)
• Unconfined prograding carbonate sheets that are the product of physical accommodation are
further subdivided below into:
• Low-angle ramps of fine shallow-water carbonate that in deeper water pass to gravels
• Homoclinal ramps of fine shallow-water carbonate
• Distally steepened ramps of shallow-water grain-dominated carbonate
• Unconfined carbonate platform sheet geometries influenced by organisms or ecological accom-
modation form
• Flat-topped open shelves with moderate shallow-water ecological accommodation
• Reef-rimmed platform with highest shallow-water ecological accommodation
• Massive steep to cliffed margins with maximum shallow-water ecological accommodation

Confined bodies represented by fill of incised topography include:

• Subaerial incised valleys

• Submarine incised valleys

Channel fill and stacking of confining valleys and unconfined lobes and sheets may be expressed
as:

• Organized bodies
• Randomly organized bodies
• Multistoried
• Amalgamated

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Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_178-1
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Other Stratigraphic Tools Utilized with Sequence Stratigraphy

Prediction and interpretation improves not only when sequence stratigraphy is coupled to the laws of
Steno and Walther but when tied to indicators of deposition and time. Indicators of depositional
setting include:

• Ichnofacies and fossils

• Sedimentary structures
• Volcanics
• Storm layers or tempestites
• Sequence stratigraphic boundaries

Chronostratigraphic markers include:

• Fossils
• Magnetostratigraphic
• Radioactive markers or gamma ray log signal markers
• Radiometric markers

Terminology
Though the linkage between the sequence stratigraphy and the other subdisciplines of stratigraphy
can be “fuzzy,” these links are important to prediction and interpretation. The links are strengthened
when sequence stratigraphic terminology carries connotations related to the interpretation of the
surfaces used to interpret the stratigraphic section but also a consideration of sedimentology and
chronostratigraphy. How the terminology is defined and used and/or fits preconceived classifications
is tied to the character of the data and stratigraphic techniques used. In the end it is up to the users to
consider their data and the goals of their interpretations. They should be able to explain their choice
of terms and then make their interpretation!

Use of the “Over Simplification” of Time as It Relates to Sequence

Stratigraphy
The sedimentary layering of a stratigraphic section has a vast array of dimensional hierarchies.
These range from units millimeters thick that may have accumulated over seconds to thousands of
meters thick and collected over millions of years. As much of the literature related to surfaces and the
layers they enclose indicate, whatever the dimension of a layer is and the time involved in its
deposition, each layer is bounded by surfaces that transgress time (Wheeler, 1958; Middleton, 1973;
Vail et al., 1977; Galloway, 1989; Catuneanu et al., 1998; Schwarzacher, 2000; Catuneanu, 2002;
Embry, 2002). All sedimentary sections are subdivided by these diachronous surfaces. If most
sedimentary sections are cut by diachronous surfaces, then their depositional setting cannot be
interpreted using Walther’s law, since this would be contravened. However most interpreters accept
that the layered units bounded by these surfaces formed at different times, and believe that the
subdividing surfaces are of a higher order frequency than the time envelope of the section being
considered. In other words, the setting and problem are oversimplified and the surfaces are ignored

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Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_178-1
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

and it is assumed that the sediments accumulated continuously. So despite the surfaces and the
sedimentary layers transgressing time for the sake of interpretation, these are assumed to have filled
continuously.
Thus it should be recognized that in sedimentary interpretation the application of Steno’s
principles and Walther’s law assumes the simplification that the sediments packaged by surfaces
accumulated within length of time of the accumulation. These simplifications do not contravene
logic (which is literally fuzzy) but aid in the interpretation of the sedimentary section. For a more
complete and thorough discussion of this topic, one should read Catuneanu et al. (2012).

Summary and Conclusions

The flow of sequence stratigraphic interpretations of sedimentary sections involves:

• Data sources
• 2-D and 3-D seismic sections
• Well log data
• Outcrops
• Subdivision of sections into sequences, parasequences, and/or their associated systems tracts
• Identification and correlation of the following surfaces
• Erosion and nondeposition (sequence boundaries [SB])
• Transgressive surfaces [TS]
• Maximum flooding surfaces [mfs]
• These surfaces provide:
• A relative time framework for the sedimentary succession
• The interrelationship of the depositional settings and their lateral correlation
• A compartmentalization of hydrocarbon reservoirs
• Results include:
• Depositional setting is determined.
• Extent of their lithofacies is characterized.
• Predict the above into unknown areas, particularly when associated with hydrocarbon reser-
voirs and aquifers.

In summary this section explains how “sequence stratigraphy” can be used to study sedimentary
rock relationships within a time-stratigraphic framework of repetitive, genetically related strata
bounded by surfaces of erosion or nondeposition or their correlative conformity (Posamentier et al.,
1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1988).

Cross-References
▶ Convergence Texture of Seismic Reflectors
▶ Sedimentary Sequence, System Tracts, and Parasequence

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# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

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