Catuneanu Et Al 2011-Sequence

Newsletters on Stratigraphy, Vol.
44/3, 173245 Article

Stuttgart, November 2011
Sequence Stratigraphy:
Methodology and Nomenclature
Octavian Catuneanu
1
, William E. Galloway
2
, Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
3
,
Andrew D. Miall
4
, Henry W. Posamentier
5
, Andr Strasser
6
,
and Maurice E. Tucker
7
With 50 figures and 1 table
Abstract. The recurrence of the same types of sequence stratigraphic surface through geologic time defines
cycles of change in accommodation or sediment supply, which correspond to sequences in the rock record.
These cycles may be symmetrical or asymmetrical, and may or may not include all types of systems tracts
that may be expected within a fully developed sequence. Depending on the scale of observation, sequences
and their bounding surfaces may be ascribed to different hierarchical orders.
Stratal stacking patterns combine to define trends in geometric character that include upstepping, forestep-
ping, backstepping and downstepping, expressing three types of shoreline shift: forced regression (forestep-
ping and downstepping at the shoreline), normal regression (forestepping and upstepping at the shoreline)
and transgression (backstepping at the shoreline). Stacking patterns that are independent of shoreline trajec-
tories may also be defined on the basis of changes in depositional style that can be correlated regionally. All
stratal stacking patterns reflect the interplay of the same two fundamental variables, namely accommodation
(the space available for potential sediment accumulation) and sediment supply. Deposits defined by specific
stratal stacking patterns form the basic constituents of any sequence stratigraphic unit, from sequence to
systems tract and parasequence. Changes in stratal stacking patterns define the position and timing of key
sequence stratigraphic surfaces.
Precisely which surfaces are selected as sequence boundaries varies as a function of which surfaces are best
expressed within the context of the depositional setting and the preservation of facies relationships and stratal
stacking patterns in that succession. The high degree of variability in the expression of sequence stratigraphic
units and bounding surfaces in the rock record means ideally that the methodology used to analyze their de-
positional setting should be flexible from one sequence stratigraphic approach to another. Construction of this
framework ensures the success of the method in terms of its objectives to provide a process-based under-
standing of the stratigraphic architecture. The purpose of this paper is to emphasize a standard but flexible
methodology that remains objective.
Key words. sequence stratigraphy, stratal stacking patterns, accommodation, sediment supply, shoreline
trajectories
2011 Gebrder Borntraeger, Stuttgart, Germany
DOI: 10.1127/0078-0421/2011/0011
www.borntraeger-cramer.de
0078-0421/2011/0011 $ 18.25
Authors addresses:
1
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, 126 Earth Sciences Building, Edmonton, Alberta,
T6G 2E3, Canada.
2
Institute for Geophysics, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78758-4445, USA.
3
Department of Geological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, USA.
4
Department of Geology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3B1, Canada.
5
Chevron Energy Technology Company, 1500 Lousiana Street, Houston, Texas 77382, USA.
6
Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
7
Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, UK.
Contents
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Part one Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
1. Definition of sequence stratigraphy . . . . . . . 175
2. Rationale: the need for formalization . . . . . 175
Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
1. Accommodation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
2. Stratal stacking patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3. Allogenic versus autogenic controls . . . . . . 182
Sequence stratigraphic units: Sequences . . . 183
1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
2. Types of sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Sequence stratigraphic units: Systems tracts 184
1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2. Shoreline-related systems tracts . . . . . . . . . . 185
3. Shoreline-independent systems tracts . . . . . 186
Sequence stratigraphic units: Parasequences 186
1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2. Scale and stacking patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Sequence stratigraphic surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 189
1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2. Subaerial unconformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3. Correlative conformities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4. Maximum flooding surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5. Maximum regressive surface . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6. Transgressive ravinement surfaces . . . . . . . 190
7. Regressive surface of marine erosion . . . . . 191
Hierarchy in sequence stratigraphy . . . . . . . . 191
Model-independent methodology . . . . . . . . . . 192
Part two Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Nonmarine settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2. Case study: The Castlegate Sandstone
(Upper Cretaceous), Book Cliffs, Utah . . . . 196
Coastal and shallow-water siliciclastic
settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
2. Case study: The Yegua Formation (Eocene),
Gulf of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Deep-water siliciclastic settings . . . . . . . . . . . 204
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
2. Case study: The Vischkuil Formation
(Permian), Karoo Basin, South Africa . . . . . 208
Carbonate settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
2. Case study: Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian)
platform-to-basin correlation, Jura
Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3. Case study: Mid-Cretaceous carbonate
platform of the Maestrat Basin, Iberian
Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Mixed carbonate-evaporite settings . . . . . . . . 220
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2. Case study: The Upper Permian carbonate-
evaporite succession (Zechstein)
of NW Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic settings . . . . . . 228
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
2. Case study: Mixed carbonate-clastic
sequences, Mid-Carboniferous, northern
England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Part three
Discussion and conclusions . . . . . . . . . 232
Links to other stratigraphic disciplines . . . . . 232
Sequence stratigraphic methodology . . . . . . . 232
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
O. Catuneanu et al. 174
Part one Concepts
Introduction
1. Definition of sequence stratigraphy
Sequence stratigraphy is a methodology that provides
a framework for the elements of any depositional set-
ting, facilitating paleogeographic reconstructions and
the prediction of facies and lithologies away from
control points. This framework ties changes in stratal
stacking patterns to the responses to varying accom-
modation and sediment supply through time. Stratal
stacking patterns enable determination of the order in
which strata were laid down, and explain the geomet-
ric relationships and the architecture of sedimentary
strata. The sequence stratigraphic framework also pro-
vides the context within which to interpret the evolu-
tion of depositional systems through space and time.
This analysis is improved by integration of process
sedimentology with an understanding of the geome-
tries and scales of the component depositional ele-
ments (e. g., Sprague et al. 2002).
The main tool used in sequence stratigraphic analy-
sis is the stacking pattern of strata and the key surfaces
that bound successions defined by different stratal
stacking patterns. Trends in geometric character, which
combine to define stratal stacking patterns, include
upstepping, forestepping, backstepping, and downstep-
ping. A sequence stratigraphic framework may consist
of three different types of sequence stratigraphic unit,
namely sequences, systems tracts, and parasequences.
Each type of unit is defined by specific stratal stacking
patterns and bounding surfaces. The definition of these
units is independent of temporal and spatial scales, and
of the mechanism of formation.
Concepts that are precursors to modern sequence
stratigraphy arose originally as an approach to the map-
ping of the North American continental interior, when
some generalizations about regional unconformities
became apparent (e. g., Sloss et al. 1949; Sloss 1963).
Subsequently, this method of stratigraphic analysis has
developed into the fundamental approach for interpret-
ing and predicting the distribution of sediment bodies.
Unlike the analytical stratigraphic methods of litho -
stratigraphy and biostratigraphy that involve subdivi-
sions as objectively free of interpretation as possible,
sequence stratigraphy is a genetic, process-based ana-
lytical approach to stratigraphic interpretation that of
necessity involves conceptual depositional models.
2. Rationale: the need for formalization
In spite of its popularity among geoscientists in acade-
mia, industry and government organizations, sequence
stratigraphy remains a method that has no formalized
definitions in stratigraphic guides or codes. This reflects
Sequence Stratigraphy: Methodology and Nomenclature 175
Sequences
Sloss et al. (1949)
Sloss (1963)
Depositional Sequence I
(Seismic Stratigraphy)
Mitchum et al. (1977)
Depositional Sequence II
Haq et al. (1987)
Posamentier et al. (1988)
Depositional Sequence III
Van Wagoner et al. (1988, 1990)
Christie-Blick (1991)
Depositional Sequence IV
Hunt & Tucker (1992, 1995)
Helland-Hansen & Gjelberg (1994)
Genetic Sequences
Frazier (1974)
Galloway (1989)
T-R Sequences
Johnson & Murphy (1984)
Embry & Johannessen (1992)
Fig. 1. Evolution of sequence stratigraphic approaches (from Catuneanu et al. 2010).
the existence of a variety of alternative approaches
(Figs. 1, 2). Researchers usually choose the conceptual
model that is best adapted to the depositional system
they are studying, which naturally has led to a multitude
of different definitions of the sequence stratigraphic
units and surfaces. Such differences revolve largely
around nomenclatural preferences and arguments with
respect to which stratigraphic surfaces hold the greatest
utility to be elevated in importance to the rank of
sequence boundary. Otherwise, all approaches share a
common ground that justifies the formalization of se-
quence stratigraphy (Catuneanu et al. 2009, 2010).
Formalization is necessary if the present state of
methodological and nomenclatural confusion is to be
eliminated along with the uncoordinated effort in the
development of the method. Sequence stratigraphy re-
quires the definition of a model-independent method-
ology that honors the various approaches but tran-
scends their differences. A single set of terms is re-
quired so as to facilitate communication, but in no way
is formalization meant to be an obstacle that limits
further conceptual development or prevents certain
approaches to specific situations. The definition of the
common ground in sequence stratigraphy should pro-
mote flexibility with respect to the choice of approach
that is best suited to a specific set of conditions as
defined by tectonic setting, depositional setting, data
available, and scale of observation.
Depositional
Sequence II
Depositional
Sequence I
Depositional
Sequence III
Depositional
Sequence IV
Genetic
Sequence
T-R
Sequence
end of RSL fall
end of R
end of T
onset of RSL fall
Events
and stages
Sequence
model
early HST
early HST
early LST
(fan)
early LST
(fan)
late LST
(wedge)
late LST
(wedge)
late HST
HST HST
HST HST
TST TST
LST
TST TST TST
RST
RST
FSST
HST
HST
LST
sequence boundary
systems tract boundary
within-sequence surface
within-systems tract surface
time
t
i
m
e
onset of
RSL fall
end of
RSL fall
end of
regression
end of
transgression
CC* CC*
CC**
MFS
MRS
S
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
FR
T
LNR
HNR
HNR
Fig. 2. Nomenclature of systems tracts, and timing of sequence boundaries for the various sequence stratigraphic ap-
proaches (modified from Catuneanu et al. 2010). Abbreviations: RSL relative sea level; T transgression; R regression;
FR forced regression; LNR lowstand normal regression; HNR highstand normal regression; LST lowstand systems
tract; TST transgressive systems tract; HST highstand systems tract; FSST falling-stage systems tract; RST regres-
sive systems tract; T-R transgressive-regressive; CC* correlative conformity in the sense of Posamentier and Allen
(1999); CC** correlative conformity in the sense of Hunt and Tucker (1992); MFS maximum flooding surface; MRS
maximum regressive surface. References for the proponents of the various sequence models are provided in Figure 1.
Basic concepts
1. Accommodation
The concept of accommodation defines the space
available for sediments to fill (Jervey 1988). Accom-
modation may be modified by the interplay between
various independent controls which may operate over
a wide range of temporal scales. Marine accommoda-
tion is controlled primarily by basin tectonism and
global eustasy, and, over much shorter time scales, by
fluctuations in the energy flux of waves and currents.
Changes in marine accommodation are referred to as
relative sea-level changes, when emphasis is placed on
the interplay of tectonism and eustasy, or as base-lev-
el changes, when the energy flux of the depositional
setting is also considered. Fluvial accommodation re-
sponds to changes in marine accommodation within
the downstream portion of fluvial systems, and to
changes in discharge, gradient and sediment supply
that may be controlled by climate and/or source area
tectonism within the upstream portion of fluvial sys-
tems. As they respond to independent controls, coastal
(marine) and inland accommodation in fluvial systems
may be out of phase (e. g., Blum and Tornqvist 2000).
Depositional trends of aggradation, erosion, progra-
dation and retrogradation may be explained by changes
in accommodation or by the interplay between accom-
modation and sediment supply. Positive accommoda-
tion promotes sediment aggradation, whereas negative
accommodation results in downcutting. During stages
of positive accommodation, sediment supply in excess
Normal regression
shoreline trajectory
subaerial unconformity
transgressive ravinement surface
Forced regression
RSL
RSL
RSL
Transgression
Stacking pattern
Interpretation
: retrogradation.
: retrogradation (backstepping) driven by
relative sea-level rise. Accommodation outpaces the
sedimentation rates at the coastline.
Stacking pattern
Interpretation
: progradation with downstepping
: progradation driven by relative sea-
level fall (negative accommodation). The coastline
is forced to regress, irrespective of sediment supply.
Stacking pattern
Interpretation
: progradation with aggradation
: progradation driven by sediment supply.
Sedimentation rates outpace the rates of relative sea-
level rise (positive accommodation) at the coastline.
Topset
Offlap
Basinward
Fig. 3. Stratal stacking patterns related to shoreline trajectories (from Catuneanu et al. 2010): forced regression, normal
regression, transgression. Zigzag lines indicate lateral changes of facies within individual sedimentary bodies. The diagram
shows the possible types of shoreline trajectory during changes (rise or fall) in relative sea level. During a stillstand of
relative sea level (not shown), the shoreline may undergo sediment-driven progradation (normal regression, where the topset
is replaced by toplap), erosional transgression, or no movement at all. However, due to the complexity of independent
variables that interplay to control relative sea-level change, it is unlikely to maintain stillstand conditions for any extended
period of time. Abbreviation: RSL relative sea level.
of available accommodation results in progradation,
whereas underfilled accommodation results in retro -
gradation. During stages of negative accommodation,
processes of subaerial exposure and erosion are typi-
cally accompanied by progradation in the basinward
parts of the depositional profile.
2. Stratal stacking patterns
Stratal stacking patterns may be defined either in rela-
tion to or independently of shoreline trajectories. Cri-
teria involved in the definition of stratal stacking pat-
terns include geometries and facies relationships that
arose from the interplay of available accommodation
and sediment supply at syn-depositional time.
Shoreline-related stacking patterns are defined by
combinations of depositional trends that can be tied to
specific types of shoreline trajectory: forced regression
(forestepping and downstepping at the shoreline, inter-
preted as the result of negative accommodation); nor-
mal regression (forestepping and upstepping at the
shoreline, interpreted as the result of positive and over-
filled accommodation); and transgression (backstep-
ping at the shoreline, interpreted as the result of posi-
tive and underfilled accommodation) (Fig. 3). In the
case of stratigraphic cycles that include a stage of
forced regression as well as a stage of transgression,
normal regressions can occur during both lowstands
and highstands of relative sea level and, consequently,
the products may be classified as lowstand and high-
stand deposits (Fig. 4). Forced regressions, normal re-
gressions and transgressions can be observed in mod-
ern depositional settings (Fig. 5), as well as in outcrop
(Fig. 6) and subsurface (Figs. 7, 8). In addition to re-
gressive or transgressive shorelines, stable shorelines
may also develop where accommodation and sediment
supply are in balance. However, as accommodation and
sediment supply are controlled independently by dif-
ferent mechanisms, stable shorelines are unlikely to
be maintained for any significant periods of time. The
importance of shoreline trajectories, whether or not
within a sequence stratigraphic context, was reiterated
by Helland-Hansen and Hampson (2009).
Shoreline-independent stacking patterns may devel-
op in areas remote from coeval shorelines where sedi-
mentation processes are unaffected by shoreline shifts.
Such stratal stacking patterns may be defined based on
changes in depositional style that can be correlated re-
Lowstand normal regression (accelerating RSL rise)
Highstand normal regression (decelerating RSL rise)
shoreline trajectory (concave up)
shoreline trajectory (convex up)
The rates of progradation decrease with time,
the rates of aggradation increase with time.
The rates of progradation increase with time,
the rates of aggradation decrease with time.
RSL
RSL
Topset
Topset
Fig. 4. Stratal stacking patterns of lowstand and highstand normal regressions (modified from Catuneanu 2006). In both
cases progradation is driven by sediment supply (overfilled accommodation at the shoreline). Lowstand normal regressions
record a change in depositional trends from dominantly progradational to dominantly aggradational (concave up shoreline
trajectory). In contrast, highstand normal regressions record a change from aggradation to progradation (convex up shore-
line trajectory). Abbreviation: RSL relative sea level.
Arabian Sea
Highlands
Delta Plain
Indus River
Alluvial Plain
Mainland Florida
Gulf of Mexico
Lagoon
Barrier
island
A
B
C
Delta Plain
Fluvial Incision
FC
Delta plain to fluvial topset
Prodelta to delta front foreset
A
B
Forced regressive delta front
Transgressive
estuary-mouth
complex
WRS/SU
TRS/SU
C
Fig. 5. Types of shoreline trajectory: present-day environ-
ment. A forced regression (Svalbard; photograph courtesy
of Jean-Loup Rubino); B normal regression (Indus delta);
C transgression (Florida). See Figure 3 for stratal stacking
patterns associated with these types of shoreline trajectory.
Fig. 6. Types of shoreline trajectory: outcrop examples.
A forced regression (Panther Tongue, Upper Cretaceous,
Utah); B normal regression (Ferron delta, Upper Creta-
ceous, Utah); C transgression (Muddy Formation, Upper
Cretaceous, Colorado). Abbreviations: WRS wave-ravine-
ment surface; FC facies contact; SU subaerial unconfor-
mity; TRS tidal-ravinement surface.
WRS
FC
20 m
20 m
NR
FR
NR
NR
NR
NR
T
T
T
T
T
GR GR GR R R R
10 m
Estuary
mouth
complex
Shelf
Shelf Shelf
Shelf
Fluvial
Shelf
Shoreface Shoreface
Shelf
MFS
TRS/SU
SU
RSME
WRS
WRS
A B C
one km
100 msec
MRS
MFS
CC**
CC*
SU
FR
FR
NR
T
Fig. 7. Types of shoreline trajectory: well log examples. A forced regression (sharp-based shoreface; Cardium Formation,
Upper Cretaceous, Alberta); B normal regression (gradationally based shoreface; Cardium Formation, Upper Cretaceous,
Alberta); C transgression (Colorado Group, Lower Cretaceous, Alberta). Abbreviations: GR gamma ray log; R resis-
tivity log; FR forced regressive; NR normal regressive; T transgressive; WRS wave-ravinement surface; SU sub-
aerial unconformity; RSME regressive surface of marine erosion; FC facies contact; TRS tidal-ravinement surface;
MFS maximum flooding surface.
Fig. 8. Types of shoreline trajectory: seismic example (Plio-Pleistocene to Holocene, Gulf of Mexico; modified from Posa-
mentier and Kolla 2003). Stratal terminations: green arrows offlap; yellow arrows downlap; blue arrows onlap. Ab-
breviations: FR forced regression; NR normal regression; T transgression; SU subaerial unconformity; CC* cor-
relative conformity in the sense of Posamentier and Allen (1999) (= basal surface of forced regression); CC** correlative
conformity in the sense of Hunt and Tucker (1992); MRS maximum regressive surface; MFS maximum flooding sur-
face.
gionally. Distinct depositional styles are characterized
by specific types or combinations of depositional ele-
ments. In upstream-controlled fluvial settings, styles
may be defined by the degree of amalgamation of
channel deposits, which may reflect syn-depositional
conditions of available fluvial accommodation (i. e.,
low- versus high-accommodation settings; e. g., Shan-
ley and McCabe 1994; Boyd et al. 2000; Figs. 9, 10). In
deep-water settings, depositional styles may be defined
by the degree of channel confinement, which may re-
flect changes in accommodation on the shelf and/or
variations in sediment supply in the staging area (e. g.,
Posamentier and Kolla 2003; Catuneanu et al. 2009;
Figs. 11, 12). Some of these deep-water stacking pat-
terns may be genetically related to shoreline trajecto-
ries, but there are also cases where offshore sub-basin
tectonism may generate stacking patterns in a manner
that is independent of changes in accommodation at the
shoreline (e. g., Fiduk et al. 1999). The pattern of sub-
marine fan sedimentation is also strongly dependent on
the width of the continental shelf, the configuration of
the continental margin, and their influence on sediment
supply to the deep-water setting (e. g., Steel and Olsen
2002; Porebski and Steel 2006).
A
B
1000
800
600
400
200
90 150
GR
(API)
LLD
2 100
(ohm.m)
D
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

S
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
L
A
S
T
H
A
S
T
LAST
HAST
LAST
amalgamated
channel fills
dominantly
overbank facies
subaerial
unconformity
(m)
Fig. 9. Stratal stacking patterns in upstream-controlled fluvial systems. A channel-dominated succession (low-accom-
modation setting: Katberg Formation, Early Triassic, Karoo Basin); B overbank-dominated succession (high-accommo-
dation setting: Burgersdorp Formation, Early-Middle Triassic, Karoo Basin).
Fig. 10. Stratal stacking patterns of a fully fluvial succes-
sion in an overfilled foreland basin (Miocene, Assam Basin,
India; from Catuneanu et al. 2009; well logs courtesy of the
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, India). The fluvial succes-
sion consists of depositional sequences bounded by subaer-
ial unconformities, which may be subdivided into low- and
high-accommodation systems tracts based on changes in
depositional style that can be correlated regionally.
On carbonate platforms and ramps, sediment supply
is to a large part controlled by the ecology of the car-
bonate-producing organisms, the contribution of no-
directly biogenic particles such as lime mud and ooids,
and by currents and waves that distribute the sediment.
The stacking patterns are defined by deepening-up,
aggrading, and shallowing-up facies trends that may
correlate with the shoreline shifts or develop inde-
pendently (e. g., give-up, keep-up, catch-up situations
of Kendall and Schlager 1981).
Whether or not their origin can be linked to shoreline
trajectories, all types of stratal stacking patterns reflect
the interplay of the same two fundamental variables,
namely accommodation and sediment supply. Deposits
defined by specific stratal stacking patterns form the
basic constituents of any sequence stratigraphic unit,
from sequence to systems tract and parasequence. Se-
quences, systems tracts, and parasequences may in-
clude both shoreline-related and shoreline-independent
deposits and associated stacking patterns.
3. Allogenic versus autogenic controls
The sequence stratigraphic framework records the re-
sponse to both allogenic and autogenic controls on
sedimentation. Allogenic processes are external to the
sedimentary unit, and typically record the effects of
eustatic fluctuations, tectonism, and climate change.
These processes represent the main control on accom-
modation.
Within individual depositional environments, auto-
genic processes of self organization towards the most
energy-efficient state of equilibrium may generate strati-
graphic signatures similar to those produced by allogenic
mechanisms. Such processes may include channel avul-
sion, delta lobe switching without changes in the rates of
sediment supply or accommodation, the generation of
stepped surfaces during transgression, and the generation
of multiple incisions during constant rates of negative
accommodation (Muto and Steel 2001a, b, 2004).
Autogenic mechanisms may modulate the internal
architecture of facies successions and depositional
elements within the larger scale allogenic-controlled
frameworks. The relevance of allogenic controls to the
sequence stratigraphic architecture increases with the
vertical and/or lateral scale of observation, whereas
the importance of autogenic processes becomes more
evident at smaller scales of observation. Sequences
and systems tracts are commonly attributed to allo-
genic controls, whereas parasequences may be gener-
ated by either allogenic or autogenic mechanisms.
A
A
B
B
B
CC**
CC**
Fig. 11. Stratal stacking patterns in a deep-water setting
(Triassic, The Dolomites, Italian Alps). A splay-dominat-
ed succession of weakly confined and amalgamated channel
deposits; B overbank deposits of a leveed channel-domi-
nated succession; CC** correlative conformity sensu Hunt
and Tucker (1992), marking the change from siliciclastic
sediment (relative sea-level fall: carbonate factory switched
off) to carbonate sediment (relative sea-level rise: carbonate
factory switched on).
Sequence stratigraphic units:
Sequences
1. Definition
A sequence was originally defined as an unconformi-
ty-bounded stratigraphic unit (Sloss et al., 1949; Sloss
1963). The concept of sequence was subsequently re-
vised to include a relatively conformable succession
of genetically related strata bounded by unconformities
or their correlative conformities (Mitchum 1977).
The continued development of the sequence strati-
graphic paradigm in the 1980s and 1990s resulted in
a diversification of approaches and the definition of
several types of sequence (Figs. 1, 2): depositional
sequences, bounded by subaerial unconformities and
their marine correlative conformities (e. g., Vail 1987;
Posamentier et al. 1988; Van Wagoner et al. 1988,
1990; Vail et al. 1991; Hunt and Tucker 1992); genet-
ic stratigraphic sequences, bounded by maximum
flooding surfaces (Galloway 1989); and transgressive-
regressive (T-R) sequences, also referred to as T-R cy-
cles, bounded by maximum regressive surfaces (John-
son and Murphy 1984; Johnson et al. 1985). The T-R
sequence was subsequently redefined by Embry and
Johannessen (1992) as a unit bounded by composite
surfaces that include the subaerial unconformity and
the marine portion of the maximum regressive surface.
The existence of several types of sequence requires
a definition that is broad enough to accommodate
all choices of approach. Every type of sequence may
include unconformities within the sequence (Fig. 2):
depositional sequences and transgressive-regressive
(T-R) sequences can include marine surfaces of non-
deposition or erosion that can form during times of
maximum shoreline transgression (i. e., unconformable
maximum flooding surfaces); genetic stratigraphic se-
quences can contain surfaces that record stages of sub-
aerial hiatus and erosion (i. e., subaerial unconformi-
ties). The potential presence of unconformities within a
sequence indicates that the succession of strata com-
prising a sequence cannot always be described as rela-
tively conformable or genetically related. For this
reason, the concept of sequence was redefined as a suc-
cession of strata deposited during a full cycle of change
in accommodation or sediment supply (Catuneanu et
al. 2009). This definition is generic, model-indepen-
dent, and embraces all types of sequence that may de-
velop at any spatial or temporal scale.
The specification that a sequence corresponds to a
full stratigraphic cycle is required to separate a se-
quence from component systems tracts. All existing
sequence stratigraphic schemes (Figs. 1, 2) incorporate
a full cycle of change in accommodation or sediment
supply in the definition of a sequence, because the be-
ginning and the end of one cycle is marked by the same
Sediment waves Leveed channel
Frontal splay Mudflow deposits
50 ms 1 km
CC*
CC**
Fig. 12. Stratal stacking patterns in a deep-water setting (Plio-Pleistocene to Holocene, Gulf of Mexico; from Posamentier
and Kolla 2003). CC* correlative conformity sensu Posamentier and Allen (1999); CC** correlative conformity sensu
Hunt and Tucker (1992).
type of event: the onset of relative sea-level fall; the
end of relative sea-level fall; the end of regression; or
the end of transgression (Fig. 2). In contrast, the bound-
aries of any systems tract correspond to different
events of the relative sea-level cycle (Fig. 2).
2. Types of sequence
Depositional sequences
A depositional sequence forms during a full cycle of
change in accommodation, which involves both an in-
crease (positive) and decrease (negative) in the space
available for sediments to fill. The formation of depo-
sitional sequence boundaries requires periods of nega-
tive accommodation. The dependency of depositional
sequences on negative accommodation (whether in
continental or marine settings), in addition to the na-
ture of bounding surfaces, separates depositional se-
quences from other types of sequence stratigraphic
unit, the formation of which may not require negative
accommodation (i. e., parasequences, genetic strati-
graphic sequences, T-R sequences in the sense of John-
son and Murphy (1984), and systems tracts that form
during positive accommodation).
Genetic stratigraphic sequences
The formation of genetic stratigraphic sequences de-
pends on the development of maximum flooding sur-
faces, which form during times of positive accommoda-
tion. A genetic stratigraphic sequence may form during
a full cycle of change in accommodation, as in the case
of a depositional sequence, but it may also form during
periods of positive accommodation in response to fluc-
tuations in the rates of accommodation creation and/or
sediment supply. Consequently, a genetic stratigraphic
sequence may or may not include an internal subaerial
unconformity, depending on whether or not the corre-
sponding cycle includes a stage of negative accommo-
dation. Maximum flooding surfaces may include un-
conformable portions expressed as hiatal surfaces pre-
served as marine unconformities (Galloway 1989).
Such unconformities may develop on the shelf and slope
because of sediment starvation, shelf-edge instability
and erosion during transgression. Where present, un-
conformable maximum flooding surfaces are included
within but do not constitute the bounding surfaces defin-
ing depositional sequences and T-R sequences.
Transgressive-regressive (T-R) sequences
The original T-R sequence of Johnson and Murphy
(1984) depends on the development of maximum re-
gressive surfaces, which form during times of positive
accommodation. As in the case of genetic stratigraph-
ic sequences, this type of sequence may form during a
full cycle of change in accommodation, but it may also
form during periods of positive accommodation as a
result of fluctuations in the rates of accommodation
and/or sediment supply. By contrast, the T-R sequence
of Embry and Johannessen (1992) is dependent on
negative accommodation, as it requires a subaerial
unconformity at the sequence boundary. As the maxi-
mum regressive surface is younger than the subaerial
unconformity, the marine portion of the maximum re-
gressive surface may or may not meet with the basin-
ward termination of the subaerial unconformity (Em-
bry and Johannessen 1992). The temporal and spatial
offset between the two portions of the sequence
boundary is increasingly evident at larger scales of
observation (Catuneanu et al. 2009).
Systems tracts
1. Definition
A systems tract is a linkage of contemporaneous
depositional systems, forming the subdivision of a se-
quence (Brown and Fisher 1977). The definition of a
systems tract is independent of spatial and temporal
scales. The internal architecture of a systems tract may
vary greatly with the scale of observation, from a suc-
cession of facies (e. g., in the case of high-frequency
sequences driven by orbital forcing) to a parasequence
set or a set of higher frequency sequences.
A systems tract consists of a relatively conformable
succession of genetically related strata bounded by
conformable or unconformable sequence stratigraphic
surfaces. As discussed by Catuneanu et al. (2009), the
original definition of a sequence provided by Mitchum
(1977) is more applicable to the concept of systems
tracts than it is to the concept of sequence. This is
because sequences may include internal unconformi-
ties, whereas such unconformities, where present, are
always placed at the boundary between systems tracts.
This discussion considers sequences, systems tracts
and bounding surfaces that develop at the same hierar-
chical level: discontinuities of a higher frequency (i. e.,
lower hierarchical rank) can occur within a sequence
or systems tract without violating the above definitions.
Systems tracts are interpreted on the basis of stratal
stacking patterns, position within the sequence, and
types of bounding surface (Van Wagoner et al. 1987,
1988, 1990; Posamentier et al. 1988; Van Wagoner
1995; Posamentier and Allen 1999). Systems tracts
may be either shoreline-related, where their origin can
be linked to particular types of shoreline trajectory, or
shoreline-independent, where a genetic link to coeval
shorelines cannot be determined.
2. Shoreline-related systems tracts
Shoreline-related systems tracts consist of correlatable
depositional systems that are genetically related to spe-
cific types of shoreline trajectory (i. e., forced regres-
sion, normal regression, transgression). These systems
tracts may be observed at different scales, and are de-
fined by distinct stratal stacking patterns (Figs. 3, 58).
The systems tract nomenclature applied to forced re-
gressive deposits includes early lowstand, late high-
stand, forced-regressive wedge, and falling-stage.
The systems tract nomenclature applied to lowstand
normal regressive deposits includes late lowstand and
lowstand, whereas highstand normal regressive de-
posits are designated as highstand or early highstand
systems tracts. In all sequence stratigraphic schemes,
the transgressive deposits comprise the transgressive
systems tract (Fig. 2).
Shoreline-related systems tracts are commonly in-
terpreted to form during specific phases of the relative
sea-level cycle (Posamentier et al. 1988; Hunt and
Tucker 1992; Posamentier and Allen 1999; Catuneanu
2006; Catuneanu et al. 2009; Fig. 2). Five of these
systems tracts are presented below.
Falling-Stage Systems Tract (FSST)
The FSST includes all the regressive deposits that ac-
cumulate after the onset of a relative sea-level fall and
before the start of the next relative sea-level rise. The
FSST is the product of a forced regression. The FSST
lies directly on the sequence boundary sensu Posamen-
tier and Allen (1999) and is capped by the overlying
Lowstand Systems Tract (LST) sediments. However,
Hunt and Tucker (1992) placed the sequence boundary
above the FSST, since in their view the boundary here
marked the termination of one cycle of deposition and
the start of another. A variety of parasequence stacking
patterns can be produced, with attached or detached
architecture, depending on the gradient of the deposi-
tional profile, the rate of sediment supply, and the rate
of relative sea-level fall (Posamentier and Morris
2000). The characteristics of the FSST were set out by
Hunt and Tucker (1992), Nummedal (1992) and Ains -
worth (1994). The terminology applied to this systems
tract varied from forced regressive wedge (Hunt and
Tucker 1992) to falling sea-level (Nummedal 1992)
and falling-stage (Ainsworth 1994). The simpler
falling-stage has been generally adopted by more re-
cent work (e. g., Plint and Nummedal 2000; Catuneanu
2006). This systems tract has also been termed the Ear-
ly Lowstand Systems Tract (Posamentier et al. 1988;
Posamentier and Allen 1999).
The fall in relative sea level is evidenced by the
erosion of the subaerially exposed sediment surface
updip of the coastline at the end of forced regression,
and the formation of a diachronous subaerial uncon-
formity that caps the Highstand Systems Tract (HST).
The subaerial unconformity may be onlapped by flu-
vial deposits that belong to the lowstand or the trans-
gressive systems tracts. The subaerial unconformity
may also be reworked by a time-transgressive marine
ravinement surface overlain by a sediment lag.
Lowstand Systems Tract (LST)
The LST includes deposits that accumulate after the
onset of relative sea-level rise, during normal regres-
sion, on top of the FSST and the corresponding up-
dip subaerial unconformity. Stacking patterns exhibit
forestepping, aggrading clinoforms that (in siliciclas-
tic systems) thicken downdip, and a topset of fluvial,
coastal plain and/or delta plain deposits. LST sedi-
ments often fill or partially infill incised valleys that
were cut into the HST, and other earlier deposits,
during forced regression. This systems tract has also
been termed the Late Lowstand Systems Tract (Posa-
mentier et al. 1988; Posamentier and Allen 1999) or
the Lowstand Prograding Wedge Systems Tract (Hunt
and Tucker 1992).
In earlier papers the Shelf-margin Systems Tract
was recognized as the lowermost systems tract associ-
ated with a type 2 sequence boundary (Posamentier
et al. 1988). With the abandonment of the distinction
between types 1 and 2 sequence boundaries, this term
is now redundant (Posamentier and Allen 1999; Catu -
neanu 2006); these deposits are now considered to be
part of the LST.
Transgressive Systems Tract (TST)
The TST comprises the deposits that accumulated
from the onset of transgression until the time of max-
imum transgression of the coast, just prior to the re-
newed regression of the HST. The TST lies directly on
the maximum regressive surface formed at the end of
regression (also termed a transgressive surface) and
is overlain by the maximum flooding surface (MFS)
formed when marine sediments reach their most land-
ward position. Stacking patterns exhibit backstepping,
onlapping, retrogradational clinoforms that (in silici-
clastic systems) thicken landward. In cases where
there is a high sediment supply the parasequences may
be aggradational.
Highstand Systems Tract (HST)
The HST includes the progradational deposits that
form when sediment accumulation rates exceed the
rate of increase in accommodation during the late
stages of relative sea-level rise (Fig. 2). The HST lies
directly on the MFS formed when marine sediments
reached their most landward position. This systems
tract is capped by the subaerial unconformity and its
correlative conformity sensu Posamentier and Allen
(1999). Stacking patterns exhibit prograding and ag-
grading clinoforms that commonly thin downdip,
capped by a topset of fluvial, coastal plain and/or delta
plain deposits.
Regressive System Tract (RST)
The RST lies above a TST and is overlain by the ini-
tial transgressive surface of the overlying TST. The
complete sequence is known as a Transgressive-Re-
gressive (T-R) Sequence (Johnson and Murphy 1984;
Embry and Johannessen 1992). The sediments of this
systems tract include the HST, FSST and LST systems
tracts defined above.
There are cases where the data available are insuffi-
cient to differentiate between HST, FSST an HST sys-
tems tracts. In such cases the usage of the Regressive
Systems Tract is justified. However, where permitted
by data, the differentiation between the three types of
regressive deposits (highstand, falling-stage, lowstand)
is recommended because they refer to different stratal
stacking patterns; are characterized by different sedi-
ment dispersal patterns within the basin; and conse-
quently are associated with different petroleum plays.
The last aspect relates to one of the most significant ap-
plications of sequence stratigraphy, which is to increase
the resolution of stratigraphic frameworks that can op-
timize petroleum exploration and production develop-
ment.
3. Shoreline-independent systems tracts
Shoreline-independent systems tracts are stratigraphic
units that form the subdivisions of sequences in areas
where sedimentation processes are unrelated to shore-
line shifts. These systems tracts are defined by specif-
ic stratal stacking patterns that can be recognized and
correlated regionally, without reference to shoreline
trajectories (Figs. 912). In upstream-controlled flu-
vial settings, fluvial accommodation may change in-
dependently of changes in accommodation at the near-
est shoreline and create sequences and component
low- and high-accommodation systems tracts (e. g.,
Shanley and McCabe 1994; Boyd et al. 2000). Shore-
line-independent systems tracts may also be mapped in
deep-water settings controlled by sub-basin tectonism
(e. g., Fiduk et al. 1999), but no nomenclature has been
proposed for these situations. The timing of shoreline-
independent sequences and systems tracts is common-
ly offset relative to that of shoreline-controlled se-
quence stratigraphic units and bounding surfaces (e. g.,
Blum and Tornqvist 2000).
Parasequences
1. Definition
A parasequence in its original definition (Van Wagoner
et al. 1988, 1990) is an upward-shallowing succession
of facies bounded by marine flooding surfaces. A ma-
rine flooding surface is a lithological discontinuity
across which there is an abrupt shift of facies that com-
monly indicates an abrupt increase in water depth.
The concept was originally defined, and is com-
monly applied, within the context of siliciclastic
coastal to shallow-water settings, where parasequen -
ces correspond to individual prograding sediment bod-
ies (Fig. 13). In carbonate settings, a parasequence cor-
responds to a succession of facies commonly contain-
ing a lag deposit or thin deepening interval followed
by a thicker shallowing-upward part, as for example in
peritidal cycles (Fig. 14).
In contrast to sequences and systems tracts, which
may potentially be mapped across an entire sedimen-
tary basin from fluvial into the deep-water setting,
parasequences are geographically restricted to the
coastal to shallow-water areas where marine flooding
surfaces may form (Posamentier and Allen 1999). In
the case of carbonate settings, peritidal cycles can in
some cases be correlated into slope and basinal facies
(e. g., Chen and Tucker 2003). For this reason, it has
been proposed that parasequence be expanded to in-
clude all regional meter-scale cycles, whether or not
they are bounded by flooding surfaces (Spence and
FS
FS
FS
c-u
c-u
c-u
SU
LNR
HNR
Fig. 14. Peritidal cycles in a platform top setting (Triassic, The Dolomites, Italy). Note the trend of upwards decrease in the
thickness of peritidal cycles, which is typical of highstand topsets. This trend is caused by the gradual decrease in the rates of
creation of accommodation during highstand normal regression (see Fig. 4 for comparison). The highstand deposits are over-
lain unconformably by the lowstand topset, which displays a more pronounced continental influence (e. g., red mudstones,
calcareous paleosols with caliches, calcareous sandstones, vadose pisoliths, teepee structures; P. Gianolla, pers. comm.).
Abbreviations: SU subaerial unconformity; HNR highstand normal regression; LNR lowstand normal regression.
Fig. 13. Upstepping parasequences (Late Permian Water-
ford Formation, Ecca Group, Karoo Basin). The parase-
quence boundaries are marked by flooding surfaces. Each
parasequence consists of normal regressive and transgres-
sive deposits. Abbreviations: FS flooding surface; c-u
coarsening-upward trend.
Tucker 2007; Tucker and Garland 2010). However,
following the principle that a sequence stratigraphic
unit is defined by specific bounding surfaces, most
practitioners favor restricting the concept of parase-
quence to a unit bounded by marine flooding surfaces,
in agreement with the original definition of Van Wag-
oner et al. (1988, 1990).
2. Scale and stacking patterns
Parasequences are commonly nested within larger
scale (higher rank) sequences and systems tracts.
However, scale is not sufficient to differentiate parase-
quences from sequences. For example, high-frequen-
cy sequences controlled by orbital forcing may devel-
op at scales comparable to, or even smaller than, those
of many parasequences (e. g., Strasser et al. 1999;
Fielding et al. 2008; Tucker et al. 2009). As such, even
cycles as thin as a meter can sometimes be referred to
as sequences and be described and interpreted in terms
of sequence stratigraphic surfaces and systems tracts
(e. g., Posamentier et al. 1992a; Strasser et al. 1999;
Tucker et al. 2009). We recommend the use of the
sequence stratigraphic methodology to the analysis of
any small, meter-scale cycles, as long as they display
depositional trends that afford the recognition of sys-
tems tracts and diagnostic bounding surfaces.
Parasequences consist of normal regressive, trans-
gressive and forced regressive types of deposit, and
display various stacking patterns. Parasequences may
be stacked in an upstepping succession, in which case
they consist of normal regressive and transgressive
deposits that accumulate during a period of positive
accommodation in response to variations in the rates
of accommodation and/or sediment supply (Fig. 13).
Upstepping parasequences may either be forestepping
(Fig. 15) or backstepping (Fig. 16). Parasequences
may also be stacked in a downstepping succession, in
which case they consist primarily of forced regressive
deposits that accumulate during a period of overall
negative accommodation (Fig. 17). However, negative
accommodation does not occur during the time of for-
mation of the parasequence boundary. The pattern of
stacking of parasequences defines longer term normal
regressions (Fig. 15), forced regressions (Fig. 17) or
transgressions (Fig. 16), which correspond to shore-
line-related systems tracts of higher hierarchical rank
(Fig. 3).
SE NW
Surfaces
3rd order MFS
4th order MRS
3rd order WRS
facies contact
coal
coal
25 m
Facies
regressive marine
4th order MFS
transgressive marine
fluvial
Fig. 15. Dip-oriented cross-section through the marine facies of Bearpaw Formation, based on gamma-ray well logs (Up-
per Cretaceous, Alberta; modified from Catuneanu 2006). The section is approximately 30 km long. The internal architec-
ture of the marine unit shows upstepping and prograding lobes (parasequences), which downlap the main maximum flood-
ing surface of the Bearpaw seaway. Each prograding lobe consists of normal regressive and transgressive deposits. The pat-
tern of stacking of parasequences defines a long-term normal regression. Abbreviations: MFS maximum flooding surface;
MRS maximum regressive surface; WRS wave ravinement surface.
Sequence stratigraphic surfaces
1. Definition
Sequence stratigraphic surfaces mark changes in stratal
stacking pattern. They are surfaces that can serve, at
least in part, as systems tract boundaries.
Sequence stratigraphic surfaces may correspond to
conceptual horizons (i. e., without a lithologic con-
trast) or physical surfaces, depending on their outcrop
expression (e. g., Carter et al. 1998). Unconformable
sequence stratigraphic surfaces typically have a phys-
ical expression. Any conformable sequence strati-
graphic surface may be a conceptual horizon or an
observable surface with physical attributes, depending
on local conditions of deposition or preservation.
A set of seven sequence stratigraphic surfaces, in-
cluding two types of correlative conformities, is in
30 m
West East
Datum
(MFS)
fluvial facies (main Almond) marine sandstone (upper Almond) marine shale (Lewis)
GR RES GR RES GR RES GR RES GR RES GR RES
1 km
1 km
40 m
40 m
3. Present-day sea level
2
2
1. Pleistocene highstand
2 = Pleistocene lowstand
Highstand prism
Detached forced regressive wedge
Fig. 16. Regional well-log cross-section of the Almond Formation in the Washakie Basin, Wyoming. The backstepping
stacking pattern of parasequences records the overall transgression of the Western Interior Seaway during the Campanian.
Each individual parasequence consists of normal regressive and transgressive deposits. The cross-section is approximately
65 km long. Well logs shown: gamma ray (GR) and resistivity (RES). Modified from Weimer (1966), Martinsen and Chris-
tensen (1992) and C. Bartberger (pers. comm.).
Fig. 17. Cross-section through the Pleistocene deposits of the Rhne shelf (offshore southeastern France), based on a re-
gional seismic line. The three unconformity-bounded depositional sequences correspond to high-frequency glacial-inter-
glacial cycles. Each sequence consists primarily of forced regressive deposits, which show a lateral stacking of downstep-
ping parasequences. Modified from Posamentier et al. (1992b).
widespread use. Criteria for mapping each type of se-
quence stratigraphic surface are summarized in Catu -
neanu (2006).
2. Subaerial unconformity
The subaerial unconformity (Sloss et al. 1949) is an
unconformity that forms under subaerial conditions as
a result of fluvial erosion or bypass, pedogenesis, wind
degradation, or dissolution and karstification. Alterna-
tive terms include: lowstand unconformity (Schlager
1992), regressive surface of fluvial erosion (Plint and
Nummedal 2000), and fluvial entrenchment/incision
surface (Galloway 2004).
Subaerial unconformities may form during forced
regression, within the downstream-controlled portion
of fluvial systems (e. g., Posamentier et al. 1988);
during transgression accompanied by coastal erosion
(e. g., Leckie 1994); during periods of negative fluvial
accommodation within the upstream-controlled por-
tion of fluvial systems (e. g., Blum 1994); or during
relative sea-level fall exposing carbonate platforms
and reefs to karstification.
3. Correlative conformities
The correlative conformity in the sense of Posamentier
et al. (1988) is a marine stratigraphic surface that
marks the change in stratal stacking patterns from
highstand normal regression to forced regression. It is
the paleo-seafloor at the onset of forced regression. An
alternative term is basal surface of forced regression
(Hunt and Tucker 1992).
The correlative conformity in the sense of Hunt and
Tucker (1992) is a marine stratigraphic surface that
marks the change in stratal stacking patterns from
forced regression to lowstand normal regression. It
therefore records the paleo-seafloor at the end of
forced regression.
4. Maximum flooding surface
The maximum flooding surface (Frazier 1974; Posa-
mentier et al. 1988; Van Wagoner et al. 1988; Gal-
loway 1989) is a stratigraphic surface that marks a
change in stratal stacking patterns from transgression
to highstand normal regression. It is the paleo-seafloor
at the end of transgression, and its correlative surface
within the nonmarine setting. Alternative terms in-
clude: final transgressive surface (Nummedal et al.
1993), surface of maximum transgression (Helland-
Hansen and Gjelberg 1994), and maximum transgres-
sive surface (Helland-Hansen and Martinsen 1996).
Sometimes the switch in depositional trend from ret-
rogradation to progradation is marked by a zone of
(commonly condensed) deep-water facies rather than
a unique surface and this can lend itself to ambiguity
in the placing of this surface in the rock succession
(Carter et al. 1998). The maximum flooding surface is
often expressed as a downlap surface in seismic strati-
graphic terms, as it is typically downlapped by the
overlying highstand clinoforms which record progra-
dation.
5. Maximum regressive surface
The maximum regressive surface (Helland-Hansen and
Martinsen 1996) is a stratigraphic surface that marks a
change in stratal stacking patterns from lowstand nor-
mal regression to transgression. It is the paleo-seafloor
at the end of lowstand normal regression, and its cor-
relative surface within the nonmarine setting. Alterna-
tive terms include: transgressive surface (Posamen-
tier and Vail 1988), top of lowstand surface (Vail et al.
1991), initial transgressive surface (Nummedal et al.
1993), surface of maximum regression (Helland-
Hansen and Gjelberg 1994; Mellere and Steel 1995),
conformable transgressive surface (Embry 1995), and
maximum progradation surface (Emery and Myers
1996). The term maximum regressive surface is rec-
ommended where emphasis is placed on the end of
regression, and the term transgressive surface is rec-
ommended where emphasis is placed on the onset of
transgression.
6. Transgressive ravinement surfaces
The transgressive ravinement surfaces (Nummedal
and Swift 1987) are erosional surfaces that form by
means of wave scouring (i. e., wave-ravinement sur-
faces; Swift 1975) or tidal scouring (i. e., tidal-ravine-
ment surfaces; Allen and Posamentier 1993) during
transgression in coastal to shallow-water environ-
ments. Both types of transgressive ravinement sur-
faces are diachronous, younging towards the basin
margin (Numme dal and Swift 1987). Their basinward
termination merges into the maximum regressive sur-
face; their landward termination merges into the max-
imum flooding surface. An alternative term for either
type of transgressive ravinement surface is the trans-
gressive surface of erosion (Posamentier and Vail
1988).
7. Regressive surface of marine erosion
The regressive surface of marine erosion (Plint 1988)
is an erosional surface that forms typically by means
of wave scouring during forced regression in wave-
dominated shallow-water settings due to the lowering
of the wave base relative to the seafloor. However, this
scour may also form under conditions of high-energy
normal regression, where the shoreline trajectory is
horizontal (i. e., progradation during a stillstand of rel-
ative sea level) or rising at a low angle (i. e., prograda-
tion during low rates of relative sea-level rise; Hel-
land-Hansen and Martinsen 1996). The regressive sur-
face of marine erosion is diachronous, younging bas-
inward with the rate of shoreline regression. Alterna-
tive terms include: regressive ravinement surface
(Galloway 2001), and regressive wave ravinement
(Galloway 2004).
Hierarchy in sequence stratigraphy
The concept of hierarchy refers to the classification of
sequences based on their relative scale and strati-
graphic significance (Fig. 18).
Sequence-forming processes have natural periodic-
ities. This led to the definition of hierarchy of se-
quences based on the duration of cycles (e. g., Vail et
al. 1977, 1991; Van Wagoner et al. 1990; Mitchum and
Van Wagoner 1991). However, the rates and periodic-
ity of specific processes changed over geologic time,
and the time spans of different process-related cycles
overlap (Miall 2010). These facts raise questions with
respect to the utility of a hierarchical system that is
based on the duration of stratigraphic cycles (e. g.,
Carter et al. 1991; Drummond and Wilkinson 1996;
Schlager 2010).
The temporal and spatial scales of sequences do not
define mutually exclusive ranges (Carter et al. 1991).
The quantitative study of the duration and thickness
of stratigraphic sequences made by Drummond and
Wilkinson (1996) confirmed that the discrimination of
stratigraphic hierarchies and their rank designation
represent rather arbitrary subdivisions of an uninter-
rupted stratigraphic continuum. Schlager (2004) pro-
posed that at least at time scales of 10
3
10
6
yr, se-
quences and systems tracts are scale-invariant fractal
features, even though different hierarchical orders may
involve different levels of stratigraphic complexity.
The scale-independent, fractal-like nature of strati-
graphic cycles has also been demonstrated by means
of laboratory experiments and modelling (e. g., Martin
et al. 2009).
These conclusions question whether a universal and
reproducible system of hierarchy exists at all in the
stratigraphic rock record, and seem particularly true
for tectonically generated sequences. However, Mi-
lankovitch-band cycles may give discrete modes in the
frequency distribution of sequence durations, albeit
with slight change over geologic time, if they are not
overprinted by other sequence-forming mechanisms
that may operate within similar temporal scales. If it
can be demonstrated that the hierarchy in the stacking
of sequences was induced by orbital cycles, then the
potential for the creation of a high-resolution time
scale is presented (e. g., DArgenio et al. 1997; Stras -
ser et al. 2006).
In the absence of precise geochronological control,
it is recommended to refer to sequences in a relative
sense, such as lower versus higher frequency, or low-
er versus higher rank, and interpret their relative strati-
graphic significance based on criteria that can be ob-
served in the rock record. Such criteria may include the
geographic extent of unconformities, the magnitude of
downstepping associated with offlap, the depth of flu-
vial-incised valleys, or the magnitude of facies change
across sequence stratigraphic surfaces (e. g., Embry
1995; Catuneanu 2006). The applicability of these
field criteria may vary with the case study, so any ap-
proach to hierarchy that is independent of the duration
h
i
g
h
r
a
n
k
(
l
o
w
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
)
l
o
w
r
a
n
k
(
h
i
g
h
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
)
fifth
order
first
order
second
order
third
order
fourth
order
Fig. 18. Diagrammatic representation of the concept of
hierarchy. The use of low versus high orders is inconsis-
tent: some refer to first-order cycles as high order, making
reference to the high position of those cycles within the
hierarchy pyramid; others refer to first-order cycles as low
order, making reference to the numbers attributed to each
order. For this reason, we recommend the less ambiguous
terms of high rank versus low rank.
of cycles may be basin specific. This approach pro-
vides an empirical solution to a problem for which
there is no universally applicable and accepted
methodology for the definition of a hierarchy.
Model-independent methodology
The sequence stratigraphic approach relies on the ob-
servation of stratal stacking patterns and the key sur-
faces that bound successions defined by different
stacking patterns. Construction of this framework en-
sures the success of the method in terms of its objec-
tives to provide a process-based understanding of the
stratigraphic architecture. This defines a model-inde-
pendent methodology that honors all existing models
but transcends their differences. Beyond the model-in-
dependent workflow, the interpreter may make model-
dependent choices with respect to the selection of sur-
faces that should be elevated to the rank of sequence
boundary (Fig. 19).
The surfaces that are selected as sequence bound-
aries vary from one sequence stratigraphic approach to
another. In practice, the selection is typically a func-
tion of which surfaces are best expressed within the
context of each situation, depending upon tectonic set-
ting, depositional setting, types of available data and
the scale of observation. The high degree of variabili-
ty in the expression of sequence stratigraphic units and
bounding surfaces requires the adoption of a method-
ology that is sufficiently flexible to accommodate the
wide range of possible scenarios.
Part two Case studies
Nonmarine settings
1. Introduction
Rivers are affected by controls directed from both up-
stream and downstream directions (Fig. 20). Sedimen-
tation at any given time takes place within a buffer
zone that encompasses the maximum ability of the
river to aggrade its floodplain (the upper limit of the
buffer zone) and to scour the deepest part of its chan-
nel system (the lower limit), under prevailing condi-
tions (Holbrook et al. 2006). The downstream end of
this buffer zone is fixed by the presence of a buttress,
which represents sedimentary base level. In the case of
coastal rivers this is sea level. Channel-scale fining-
upward cycles (Fig. 21) represent sedimentation with-
in the buffer zone. Sheet-scale and regional-scale cy-
cles represent long-term shifts in the buffer zone.
Downstream controls include changes in sea level
(in the case of a coastal river) or, in the case of an in-
land river within an entirely nonmarine basin, changes
in elevation of the ridge over which the river flows to
leave the basin. Changes in sea level affect only the
lower few tens of kilometers of the system (Blum and
Trnqvist 2000). Upstream controls include tectonism
and climate change. Tectonic uplift may or may not
counter the effect of the erosional lowering of the
source area. Climate change affects discharge, sedi-
ment yield and seasonality. Upstream and downstream
controls are typically unrelated and may be out of
phase, and it is therefore not to be expected that the se-
quence boundaries and systems tracts of a nonmarine
1. :
(feasible to formalize)
Model-independent methodology 2. :
(not feasible to formalize)
Model-dependent choices
Choice of surface(s) that should be
selected as sequence boundaries
Observations: facies, contacts, stratal
terminations, stratal stacking patterns
Delineation of specific types of
sequences
Framework of sequence stratigraphic
units and bounding surfaces
Fig. 19. Model-independent methodology versus model-dependent choices in sequence stratigraphy (modified from Catu -
neanu et al. 2009, 2010). The model-independent methodology starts with basic observations and leads to the construction
of a sequence stratigraphic framework defined by specific stratal stacking patterns and bounding surfaces. The model-de-
pendent choices refer to the selection of surfaces that should be elevated to the status of sequence boundary. This selection
is commonly guided by how well the various surfaces are expressed with the available data in a given succession.
M
axim
u
m
h
e
ig
h
t
o
f
flo
o
d
p
la
in
a
g
g
ra
d
a
tio
n
Maximum
depth
of chan
n
e
l
s
c
o
u
r
buttress
basin subsidence
source-area uplift
climate
BUTTRESS
(sea level, lake level,
outflow ridge)
BUFFER ZONE
(instantaneous
preservation
space)
Relative role of major controls
downstream controls upstream controls
Movement of
buffer zone by
tectonism
graded profile
HO
LA
DA
DA
SB
LA
SB
SB
Sheet-scale fining-upward cycle (typically ~5-50 m)
Channel/scour-scale fining-upward cycle (approx. = depth of channel)
Element-scale fining-upward cycle (< channel depth)
Regional-scale fining-upward cycle (10s to 100s m)
Fig. 20. The controls on accommodation in nonmarine environments. The concepts of the buttress and the buffer are adapt-
ed from Holbrook et al. (2006). The relative roles of the major controls on sedimentation were suggested by Shanley and
McCabe (1994).
Fig. 21. Types of cycle in fluvial deposits. Cycle thickness is the first clue regarding the origin of the cycle, but is not
definitive, given the wide range of scales of fluvial channels and depositional systems. Sheet-scale and regional-scale cycles
may be capable of regional subsurface correlation based on well-log or seismic data, but the smaller-scale cycles have later-
al extents of only a few tens to hundreds of metres, and may therefore not be traceable from well to well. Numbers refer to
the classification of nonmarine bounding surfaces by Miall (1996): 4 = surface bounding major bar deposit, 5 = channel-scour
surface, 6 = regional stratigraphic surface, including sequence boundary. Two-letter architectural-element codes include LA=
lateral-accretion deposit, DA= downstream-accretion deposit, SB = sand bedform element, HO = hollow element.
system may be readily correlated to those of contem-
poraneous marine systems.
A rise in sea level elevates the downstream end of the
buffer zone, creating new accommodation. This may
cause transgression and flooding of a river, turning it
into an estuary. With a high sediment load, however, a
rise in sea level may be accompanied by an increase in
aggradation. A lowering of sea level usually leads to a
simple extension of the fluvial profile out across a gen-
tly dipping continental shelf, with little effect on inland
reaches of the river, except possibly a change in chan-
nel style (Miall 1991; Schumm 1993). In the case of a
narrow shelf, or where extreme sea-level fall takes
place, lowering of the river mouth causes incision and
the development, over time, of a broad coastal valley.
Many basins are bounded by tectonically active
source areas. Episodic uplift of the source area results
in a rejuvenation of river systems, and uplift of the
buffer zone, and may also be accompanied by an in-
crease in the calibre and quantity of the sediment load
of the river. The ancient record contains many examples
of fluvial profiles that coarsen upward over thicknesses
of tens of metres as a result of a progressive increase
in stream power and sediment load accompanying tec-
tonic uplift (Miall 1996). Cyclic deposits of this type
have been termed tectonic cyclothems by Blair and
Bilo deau (1988). Cessation of tectonic activity results
in gradual erosional reduction of source-area relief and
reduction in the quantity and calibre of the sediment
load, yielding regional-scale fining upward cycles.
Cyclic successions are ubiquitous in fluvial de-
posits. Their presence reflects the fact that the fluvial
environment is characterized by processes that tend to
reproduce the same depositional results repeatedly.
These repeated processes occur over a wide range of
physical scales and time scales, but many are charac-
terized by an initial pulse of high fluvial transport
energy, which may be recorded as an erosion surface,
followed by deposition of increasingly fine-grained
sediment, with associated hydrodynamic sedimentary
structures that decrease in scale (e. g., dune cross-bed-
ding that becomes smaller in amplitude and passes up-
ward into ripple cross-lamination). Successions that
show an upward decrease in grain size, so called fin-
ing-upward cycles are therefore common, and are
commonly identified by bell-shaped or blocky
wireline-log profiles (Fig. 21).
The basic relationship between base-level change
and the cycle of aggradation and sedimentation in flu-
vial systems was first explored by Allen (1974). Mod-
ern sequence models have been proposed by Wright
and Marriott (1993) and Shanley and McCabe (1994).
Figure 22 is based on these studies. The paragraphs be-
low discuss the development of the sedimentary facies
and surfaces illustrated in this diagram, commencing
with the basal sequence boundary.
Forced regression
Rivers in humid regions typically are characterized by
an increase in discharge and a decrease in the caliber
of the sediment load in a downstream direction. The
work required to balance these changes leads to the de-
velopment of a smooth longitudinal profile, termed a
graded profile, which decreases in slope toward base
level (the buttress in Fig. 20). Valleys several kilo-
metres wide and tens of metres deep may develop dur-
ing a fall in base level. Pauses in this fall (e. g., periods
of stable sea level) may allow the valley to widen, and
the evidence of such episodes may be preserved in the
form of terrace remnants along the valley walls. A
widespread erosion surface develops across the coastal
plain. On the interfluves (the elevated areas between
major river valleys) the rate of erosion may be slow,
allowing for the development of widespread soils. In
arid to semi-arid settings, calcrete is commonly devel-
oped at such surfaces.
In nonmarine systems, the subaerial unconformity
developed during forced regression is commonly taken
as the sequence boundary. This surface represents the
final position of the erosion surface immediately prior
to the commencement of a new phase of base-level rise.
The deep scour that occurs at the base of major rivers
may cause this to form a prominent surface within a
fluvial succession (Best and Ashworth 1997). The sur-
face may cut down into a different facies succession,
such as the transgressive or highstand shallow-marine
or deltaic deposits of the preceding cycle, and the sur-
face itself may be marked by a coarse lag deposit or
evidence of extensive pedogenesis. How ever, in many
systems deep scour is not in evidence. Miall and Arush
(2001a) suggested the term cryptic sequence bound-
ary for the erosion surfaces that develop on low-relief
alluvial plains where, in outcrop, the subaerial uncon-
formity appears identical to any other channel-scour
surface. Such cryptic sequence boundaries in fluvial
successions might be identified by sudden changes in
detrital composition, major shifts in fluvial dispersal
directions, and evidence of early cementation in the de-
posits immediately below the subaerial unconformity,
all of which are indications of the extended period of
time represented by this surface, during which the flu-
vial system continued to evolve.
Lowstand normal regression
A rise in base level generates increased accommodation
and aggradation is likely to occur in the lower course
of the river. The fill of an incised valley may commence
with a complex of amalgamated channel-fill deposits,
regardless of the fluvial style, reflecting an extended
phase of channel reworking during a period when little
new accommodation is being added to the fluvial pro-
file. The rate of accommodation generation typically is
less than the rate of sediment supply. Bar-top and flood-
plain deposits have a low probability of preservation
during this phase. A sheet-scale topset with a blocky
vertical profile may be the result (Kerr et al. 1999).
The maximum regressive surface is typically placed
at the contact between the amalgamated channel fills of
the lowstand topset (low-accommodation conditions)
and the overlying floodplain-dominated transgressive
fluvial deposits (high-accommodation conditions; Kerr
et al. 1999). Basinward, the maximum regressive sur-
face may be traced along the base of the oldest central
estuary facies. Upstream, the maximum regressive sur-
face may onlap the subaerial unconformity.
Transgression
In the case of rivers draining into the sea, as the rates
of base-level rise increase following the initial stage of
creation of new accommodation, incised valleys be-
come estuaries, with a range of depositional conditions
ranging from fully marine at the mouth to fully non-
marine at the inland end of the estuary (Dalrymple et
al. 1994). There will be a decrease in slope of the low-
er course of the river, leading to a reduction in compe-
tency and, consequently, in the grain size of the sedi-
ment transported and deposited. The rate of accom-
modation generation typically is greater than the rate
of sediment supply. Rapid generation of accommoda-
tion may be reflected by high sedimentation rates, and
provides ideal conditions for floodplain accumulation.
The limit of transgression is reached during the pe-
riod when the rate of accommodation generation by
rise in base level no longer outpaces the sedimentation
rate at the shoreline. In predominantly nonmarine flu-
vial systems this may be indicated by the appearance
of marine influence in otherwise typical fluvial de-
posits (Fig. 22). Marine ichnofacies may be present,
Incised
valley-fill
(LST)
Rs > Ra
Rs = Ra
Rs < Ra
SB
SB
HST
TST
interfluve with roots
soil with calcrete
hydromorphic soil fluvial channel sand
tidally-influenced channel sand
floodplain deposits
Fig. 22. Sequence model for nonmarine systems (adapted from Wright and Marriott 1993). Rs = rate of sedimentation, Ra =
rate of accommodation generation. Conventional systems-tract acronyms are shown in quotes, because it may be questioned
whether it is appropriate to use a terminology based on sea-level change for depositional systems that have no connection
to the sea. For falling-stage and lowstand deposits, Currie (1997) suggested the term degradational systems tract, for trans-
gressive deposits, transitional systems tract, and for highstand deposits, aggradational systems tract. These terms provide
analogous ideas regarding changes in accommodation and sediment supply and their consequences for depositional style.
and tidal influence may occur in the form of tidal bed-
ding, reversing cross-bedding, sigmoidal bedding, and
inclined heterolithic strata (Thomas et al. 1987). The
widespread marine shales that commonly mark the
maximum flooding surface in the marine realm may
extend landward into the previously purely nonmarine
succession. The thickest and most laterally extensive
coals typically occur during this phase of the base-lev-
el cycle (Bohacs and Suter 1997). Channel complexes
may be encased in thick floodplain fines and exhibit
little lateral interconnectedness. Soils are likely to be
immature. Hydromorphic soils, commonly character-
ized by siderites, are also typical of this phase of sed-
imentation (Wright and Marriott 1993).
Highstand normal regression
At the end of the phase of base-level rise, the rate of
accommodation generation slows, leading to a reduc-
tion in the ability of fluvial systems to aggrade. Chan-
nel complexes become more laterally interconnected,
developing broad sandstone sheets and, at the same
time, channel scour reduces the preservation potential
of floodplain deposits, resulting in increased sand-
stone/shale ratios relative to the underlying systems
tract. Soils have more time to develop and become
more mature. Those that develop on interfluves, well
away from areas of active fluvial erosion, may survive
to become the subaerial unconformity during the next
phase of base-level fall.
2. Case study: The Castlegate Sandstone
(Upper Cretaceous), Book Cliffs, Utah
The Castlegate Sandstone is part of the clastic wedge
derived from the growing Cordilleran orogen, which
prograded eastward into the Western Interior Seaway
between the Late Jurassic and the Eocene (Miall et
al. 2008). It is particularly well exposed in the Book
Cliffs of central Utah, between Price and Green River
(Figs. 23, 24).
There are two scales of sequences in this succession,
long-term sequences, such as that comprising the
Castlegate Sandstone, with durations of about 5 Myr
(sequences 1 to 3 of Fig. 23; Olsen et al. 1995), and
high-frequency sequences in the Neslen Formation
(not shown in Fig. 23), each representing less than
Joes Valley
Reservoir
Castle Gate
Sunnyside
Horse
Canyon Trail
Canyon
Tuscher
Canyon
?
?
Bluecastle
Sandstone
Upper
Castlegate
Sandstone
Lower Castlegate Ss Sego Ss
Neslen Fm
L. C
astlegate
Ss
Buck
Tongue
S
E
Q
U
E
N
C
E

2
S
E
Q
U
E
N
C
E

1
S
E
Q

3
30 m
50 km
B
lackhaw
k Form
ation
Interbedded sandstone, siltstone, shale,
fluvial-deltaic, in part tidally influenced
Marine shale
Braided fluvial sandstone, tidal influence in
upper part of Lower Castlegate Sandstone
Deltaic sandstone, siltstone,
shale, coal
Fig. 23. Stratigraphy of the Castlegate Sandstone. From Miall and Arush (2001b), as modified from Olsen et al. (1995) and
Yoshida et al. (1996).
1 Myr. Willis (2000) and Yoshida (2000) demonstrat-
ed the unconformable truncation of the Buck Tongue,
a unit of marine shale extending westward from the
centre of the Western Interior Basin in Colorado. The
Buck Tongue represents approximately a million years
of sedimentation. Its westward truncation implies the
presence of a significant unconformity within the up-
dip portion of the Lower Castlegate Sandstone. Nu-
merous erosion surfaces are present within the braided
sheet sandstones that comprise most of the Castlegate
Sandstone, but most of these are channel scour sur-
faces (bounding surface type 5 of Fig. 21). Miall and
Arush (2001b) correlated the unconformity with sur-
face D at the type section of the Castlegate Sandstone
(Fig. 24) on petrographic grounds.
Surface D is a good example of a cryptic sequence
boundary which, although representing several million
years of missing time, is indistinguishable in outcrop
Fig. 25.
The sequence
boundary at the
base of the Castle-
gate Sandstone,
At the Castle Gate
type section.
Fig. 24. The type section of the Castlegate Sandstone, at
the Castle Gate, near Price, Utah. The boundary between the
upper and lower Castlegate Sandstone is interpreted to be at
surface D (Miall and Arush 2001b).
from other channel scour surfaces. The type of deep
scour hollows that Best and Ashworth (1997) suggest-
ed would characterize many nonmarine sequence
boundaries is not present in this system. The Castlegate
rivers probably combed continuously across the allu-
vial plain, resulting in a widespread erosion surface that
can be traced down-dip for more than 150 km.
The base of the Castlegate Sandstone (lower right
corner of the type section: Fig. 24, and in a closer view
in Fig. 25) is marked by a distinct change in facies from
the coal-bearing, heterolithic, meandering-stream de-
posits of the underlying Blackhawk Formation to the
coarser-grained, braided sheet sandstones of the Castle-
gate. The sequence boundary is clearly a surface of
erosion, with erosional relief of a few centimeters, fol-
lowed by a lag deposit of wood fragments, and scat-
tered dinosaur bone fragments.
Olsen et al. (1995) and Yoshida (2000) showed that
the Upper Castlegate Sandstone contains abundant
evidence of tidal influence, in the form of tidal bed-
ding and inclined heterolithic stratification (Thomas et
al. 1987) (Fig. 26). This part of the succession there-
fore corresponds to the TST of Shanley and McCabe
(1994) or transitional systems tract of Currie (1997).
Coastal and shallow-water
siliciclastic settings
1. Introduction
Sequence stratigraphy is arguably easiest to apply in
coastal to shallow-water siliciclastic settings, where
the relationship between stratal stacking patterns and
shoreline trajectories is most evident (Fig. 3). All se-
quence stratigraphic surfaces and systems tracts may
form in these settings, although they may not necessar-
ily occur together within the same stratigraphic section.
Forced regression
The deposits of forced regression (i. e., the FSST) dis-
play a stacking pattern characterized by forestepping
and downstepping at the shoreline, interpreted as the
result of relative sea-level fall (Figs. 3, 27). Criteria for
the recognition of forced regressive deposits include:
separation (detachment) between successive paleo-
coastlines; presence of sharp-based shoreface/delta
front deposits; presence of progressively shallower cli-
noforms in a distal direction; occurrence of long-dis-
tance regression; absence of fluvial and coastal plain/
Fig. 26. Outcrop of the Castlegate Sandstone 10 km east of the type section. Recessive-weathering beds just below the
centre of the field of view consist of interbedded sandstones and shales displaying inclined heterolithic stratification, inter-
preted as indicating tidal influence. The beds above and below are typical braided sheet sandstones.
DATUM
TRS
7-10-62-7W6
(1)
7-18-62-6W6
(2)
7-10-62-6W6
(3)
6-8-62-5W6
(4)
10-3-62-4W6
(5)
4.8 km 4.8 km 6.2 km 12.8 km
20 m
DATUM
7-10-62-7W6
(1)
7-18-62-6W6
(2)
7-10-62-6W6
(3)
6-8-62-5W6
(4)
10-3-62-4W6
(5)
Basinward
4.8 km 4.8 km 6.2 km 12.8 km
correlative conformity Hunt and Tucker (1992)
correlative conformity Posamentier and Allen (1999)
regressive surface of marine erosion
facies contact within lowstand normal regressive strata
transgressive ravinement surface (TRS)
sensu
sensu
HNR
HNR
HNR
HNR
HNR
FR
FR
FR LNR
LNR
LNR
LNR
LNR
T
T
T
T
T
?
fluvial facies (Musreau Member)
swaley cross-stratified sandstone
marine shelf facies
A.
B.
Gradationally
based
Sharp
based
Sharp
based
Sharp
based
Gradationally
based
Fig. 27. Sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the swaley cross-stratified sandstone of the Kakwa Member (Cardium For-
mation), and adjacent units (from Catuneanu et al. 2010; modified after Plint 1988). The datum is represented by a flooding
surface within the Muskiki marine shale. A. Sedimentary facies. B. Sequence stratigraphic interpretation. The interpretation
is based on the following observations: 1. the shoreface displays coarsening-upward trends in all five wells; 2. the shoreface
is gradationally based in wells (1) and (5), and it is sharp-based in wells (2), (3) and (4); 3. the top of the shoreface down-
steps from well (1) to well (4), and upsteps from well (4) to well (5); 4. the sharp-based shoreface thins out toward the basin
margin; and 5. the shoreface is overlain by nonmarine facies in all five wells. The gradationally-based shoreface indicates
normal regression (highstand to the left; lowstand to the right), whereas sharp-based shoreface is diagnostic for forced
regression. These criteria afford the separation of normal from forced regressive deposits in the absence of seismic data.
FR forced regressive; HNR highstand normal regressive; LNR lowstand normal regressive; T transgressive.
delta plain topsets at the top of forced regressive fore-
sets; truncation of forced regressive foresets by a sea-
ward-dipping unconformity; increase in average sedi-
ment grain size in forced regressive foresets in a basin-
ward direction; and presence of foreshortened strati-
graphic successions (Posamentier and Morris 2000).
Forced regressive deposits typically build the domi-
nant systems tract of sequences that form on conti-
nental shelves during periods of profound icehouse
climatic and eustatic forcing (Fig. 17). This is because
glacioeustatic changes in sea level are strongly asym-
metrical, with brief stages of fast sea-level rise and pro-
longed stages of slower sea-level fall (Bard et al. 1990).
At the same time, both the magnitudes and the rates
of sea-level change are higher in an icehouse world
as compared to a greenhouse regime. Sequences of an
icehouse affinity are typically less than 50 m thick and
often organized in stacks of several in succession, sug-
gesting a relation to orbital forcing (e. g., Naish et al.
2001; Fielding et al. 2008; Fig. 17). Examples of such
icehouse sequences have been documented in studies of
Neogene continental margin successions around Ant -
arctica (Bartek et al. 1991, 1997; Fielding et al. 2001;
Naish et al. 2001), from Plio-Pleistocene successions in
New Zealand (Naish and Kamp 1997; Saul et al. 1999),
the Miocene Chesapeake Group of eastern USA (Kid-
well 1997), the Miocene of western Chile and Ecuador
(Di Celma and Cantalamessa 2007; Cantalamessa et al.
2007), and from Lower Permian strata in the Sydney
Basin of eastern Australia (Fielding et al. 2006).
Normal regression
The deposits of normal regression display a stacking
pattern characterized by forestepping and upstepping
at the shoreline, interpreted as the result of positive and
overfilled accommodation. Normal regressions are
driven by sediment supply and occur during relative
sea-level rise, either before or after transgressions; the
two types of normal regression are designated as low-
stand (i. e., the LST) and highstand (i. e., the HST)
respectively. Shoreline trajectories are different during
lowstand versus highstand normal regressions (Fig. 4),
reflecting accelerating or decelerating rates of creation
of accommodation (e. g., fig. 19 in Catuneanu et al.
2009). During normal regressions, fluvial and coastal
plain/delta plain topsets aggrade and prograde at the
top of shallow-water foresets (Figs. 68 and 27).
Transgression
The deposits of transgression (i. e., the TST) display a
stacking pattern characterized by backstepping at the
shoreline, interpreted as the result of positive and un-
derfilled accommodation. During transgression, most
riverborne sediment is trapped within rapidly aggrad-
ing and backstepping fluvial and coastal systems, while
the shallow marine environment is often starved of
sediment (Loutit et al. 1988; Van Wagoner et al. 1990).
The decrease of sediment supply to the marine envi-
ronment during transgression may result in the forma-
tion of subaqueous unconformities, expressed as hiatal
surfaces in the rock record (Galloway 1989). Such un-
conformities may be accompanied by the formation of
hardgrounds or firmgrounds marked by substrate-con-
trolled ichnofacies (e. g., Pemberton and MacEachern
1995). Transgressive deposits are recognizable on seis-
mic sections where condensed sections and/or marine
or coastal onlap are observed (Fig. 8), but also in out-
crop or well-log data sets (Figs. 6, 7, 15, 16).
2. Case study: The Yegua Formation
(Eocene), Gulf of Mexico
The Yegua Formation records a significant terrigenous
clastic depositional episode along the entire northern
and northwestern continental margin of the Gulf of
Mexico Basin (Galloway et al. 2011). The episode is
recorded by a sand-bearing genetic stratigraphic se-
quence bounded by maximum-flooding surfaces with-
in the regional marine Crockett (Texas) and Cook
Mountain (Louisiana) Shales and the Moodys Branch
Marl (Fig. 28). The depositional episode extended
from about 38 to 36.1 Ma (Paleo-Data 2009) within
late Middle to Late Eocene Standard Foraminiferal
Zone P15. The Yegua section reflects, in stratal stack-
ing pattern and consequent log response, a typical
Gulf Coast Cenozoic succession of progradational
and aggradational facies, capped by relatively thin
back-stepping/transgressive deposits (Fig. 28) (Frazier
1974). Sedimentation rates were high; the northern
Gulf of Mexico depocentre contains 0.5 to 1 km of
sediment deposited within about 2 years. This is one of
the highest rates of sediment accumulation recorded in
the Gulf Cenozoic section (Galloway et al. 2011). The
Yegua coastal plain prograded onto a deep, foundered
continental shelf/ramp that was constructed by progra-
dation of the Early Eocene Upper Wilcox sequence.
Regional studies (Edwards 1991; Meckel and Gallo -
way 1996; Galloway et al. 2000) delineate a large, flu-
vial-dominated delta system that constructed the upper
Texas coastal plain depocentre.
Fang (2000), in a sub-regional study area lying in the
southeast Texas depocenter, recognized 15 physical
stratigraphic markers, labeled Y00Y14, that could
be correlated within the study area (Fig. 28). Markers
Y00 and Y14 are the maximum-flooding surfaces that
bound the Yegua genetic stratigraphic (Fig. 28). Graph-
ic correlation displays chronostratigraphic terraces,
recording condensation, non-deposition, and/or mild
erosion, at each of these horizons (Fang 2000). These
constitute two of only three demonstrable chronostra -
tigraphic discontinuities (excluding fault and slump
planes) found within the Yegua interval. Most of the
markers, including Y02, Y04, Y05, Y06, Y08, Y10,
Y11, and Y13, are flooding surfaces bounding parase-
quences and parasequence sets that range from several
metres to around a hundred metres in thickness. Y01
corresponds to the Last Appearance Datum (LAD) of
benthic foraminifer Ceratobulimina eximia and is the
traditional base of the Yegua Formation. It is charac-
terized by the appearance of the first sand or siltstone
interval, which is commonly sharp-based in updip and
outcrop sections. It is interpreted as a possible regres-
sive surface of marine erosion. Surfaces Y00 through
Y03 coalescence into a condensed section downdip
Meckel
(1993)
Markers
Depth
feet
SP SFLA
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
Intervals
Log
Markers
Paleo
Markers
Humble,
#1 Hines
A NC Y14
B
C
D
E
F
G
DY
EY
NM
AU
CE
CG
TT
GS
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Y13
Y12
Y11
Y10
Y09
Y08
Y07
Y06
Y05
Y04
Y03
Y02
Y01
Y00
MFS
FS
RSME
TRS/SU
-10+ ohm.m 4 0
Fig. 28. Representative electrical
log of fully developed mid-dip
Yegua genetic sequence.
Log markers divide the sequence
into 14 genetic packages. Inter-
preted origin of each log marker
is shown in the right column.
Modified from Fang (2000).
N
1
2
3
4
5
9
10
14
8
6
7
11
12
13
0
50 km
C.I. 10, 20, or 50 ft
EXPLANATION
0 net sand
>_ 50 ft (15m) net sand
Shelf margin
Incised channel or valley
Slump
Sand input axis
Delta lobe outline
Fig. 29. Net sand isopach maps for each of the 14 Yegua genetic packages showing interpreted delta lobes, inferred fluvial
input axes, and shelf edge position. Note contour interval varies from map to map. Compiled from Fang (2000).
toward the paleo-shelf edge. Three offlapping parase-
quence sets compose the basal Yegua regression onto
the Y00 maximum-flooding surface. This succession
records normal regression within the highstand systems
tract. The regressive succession culminates in marker
Y04, which records a mildly erosional event up dip,
where it is overlain by sharp-based sand bodies of dis-
tributary and fluvial channel fills. Down dip, the basal
Yegua sand body lies above the marker, which is inter-
preted to be a possible regressive surface of marine ero-
sion. Two aggradational parasequence sets, bounded
by flooding surfaces Y04, Y05, and Y06, form the bulk
of the remaining lower Yegua succession and record a
resumption of normal regression. Marker Y06 records
a prominent and regionally correlative surface of trans-
gression of the Yegua coastal plain. A third possible
chronostratigraphic break as demonstrated by graphi-
cal correlation lies at or near Y06.
Y07 evidences rejuvenation of Yegua sediment sup-
ply and coastal regression. The overlying sand facies
display either blocky, upward-fining or sharp-based,
serrate log patterns; the shaley interval between flood-
ing surface Y06 and Y07 is typically replaced updip by
thick, upward-fining sand bodies. Consequently, the
interval between Y06 and Y07 pinches out. Biofacies
show abrupt shoaling across Y07, which is interpreted
to be a well-developed regressive surface of marine
erosion. Neither widespread subaerial exposure nor
valley incision is demonstrated by the data. Regression
was, however, forced by relative sea-level fall. Y08
records a marine flooding surface and increase in wa-
ter depth within what is the thickest shale tongue in
the Yegua Formation. Y09 records a second forced re-
gression with prominent biofacies shoaling and wide-
spread presence of sharp-based sand bodies above the
shaley interval. Y10 and Y11 are both flooding sur-
faces, associated with neritic faunas, widespread thin
shale beds, and inter-regional markers.
Marker Y12 is unique. Abrupt shoaling occurs
across the demonstrably erosional surface. Thick, up-
ward-fining sand bodies cut several tens of metres from
this surface into underlying strata. These highly ero-
sional channels or small valleys extend across the
muddy shelf to the paleo-shelf edge. In most mid- and
up-dip wells, the marker is capped by a thin, laterally
continuous, sharp-based sand unit. The surface is inter-
preted to be a combined subaerial unconformity and su-
perimposed transgressive ravinement surface. Marker
Y13 is a regionally correlative marine flooding surface
that caps Yegua sand bodies in mid- and down-dip sec-
tions. It is chronostratigraphically significant, demark-
ing the LAD of Eponides yeguaensis. The LAD of
Discorbis yeguaensis occurs just above the surface.
Overlying marker Y14, characterized by the LAD of
Nonionella cockfieldensis, is the regional maximum-
flooding surface that caps the Yegua episode.
The upper Yegua, extending from Y06 to Y13,
records a robust phase of normal depositional regres-
sion, punctuated by at least three forced regressive
events, followed by backstepping transgression, and
terminated by flooding and sediment starvation across
the northern GOM continental margin. At the level of
chronostratigraphic resolution possible, both the upper
and lower bounding maximum flooding surfaces are
documented disconformities that can be accurately
dated. In contrast, internal forced regressive surfaces
and the fluvial erosion surface do not create measura-
ble temporal discontinuities (Fang 2000).
The 15 marker surfaces provide a high-resolution
stratigraphic framework of 14 genetic units for map-
ping and interpreting the depositional history of the
Yegua. Given the ca. 2 Myr duration of the episode,
each records on the order of 125,000 years. Figure 29
shows mapped sand distribution in the 14 defined in-
tervals. Mid to deep shelfal shale-dominated intervals
1 and 2 display thin, linear sand bodies that extend
NE-SW along depositional strike. The next ten inter-
vals display digitate sand patterns that record a suc-
cession of stacked delta lobes that repeatedly prograd-
ed from NW to SE across the study area, showing
ongoing lateral shifts in sand input axes, lobes, and de-
pocentres. Interval 13, bounded below by the compos-
ite subaerial unconformity and transgressive ravine-
ment surface, is distinct. Two narrow valleys extend
across the shelf and connect downdip to locally thick
(up to 50 m), pod-shaped, paleo-shelf edge sand suc-
cessions. These are small, growth-faulted shelf-edge
deltas and their upper slope turbidite aprons were de-
posited during the temporary lowstand and comprise
the lowstand systems tract. Above the transgressive
ravinement surface, neritic shales contain thin, strike-
elongate, transgressive shelf sands. Interval 14, the
last gasp of back-stepping deposition, is shale domi-
nated, but contains strike-elongate belts and pods of
inner shelf, shoreface, and strandplain sand.
The composite record of the Yegua episode can be
summarized as (1) initial muddy shelf and shore-zone
progradation, (2) and extended period of repeated
delta lobe progradations (sometimes normal, some-
times forced), abandonment, and transgression, (3) a
terminal pulse of lowering base level resulting in deep
fluvial channel incision across about 50 km of exposed
shallow shelf accompanied by accumulation of small
shelf margin delta lobes, and (4) terminal backstepping
transgression. The northern Gulf margin was a broad
sediment-starved continental shelf both before and af-
ter Yegua deposition.
Deep-water siliciclastic settings
1. Introduction
Acquisition of 3D volumes of seismic data compensates
for the difficulty of observing deep-water processes and
products in modern environments (e. g., Posamentier
and Walker 2006; Weimer and Slatt 2007). Most depo-
sitional elements that form in the deep-water setting
develop over km-size scales in plan view, which is
why few outcrop-based studies can replace or rival the
imaging generated by the high-resolution 3D seismic
data. This, together with the lack of accessibility of the
deep-water present-day environment, renders the seis-
mic data a unique role into the understanding of the
deep-water setting, arguably more important than in the
case of any other depositional setting.
The application of sequence stratigraphy to the
deep-water setting is challenging because: (1) there is
potential for physical disconnection between the deep-
water portion of sequences and their fluvial to shallow-
water equivalents, commonly as a result of nondeposi-
tion or sediment instability and erosion in the shelf
edge to upper slope areas; (2) the time control to corre-
late the deep-water and the shallow-water portions of
sequences is typically inadequate; (3) deposition in the
deep-water setting is controlled primarily by gravity
flows and mass transport processes, which may result
in lateral rather than vertical stacking of depositional
elements and systems tracts; and (4) the evidence of
relative sea-level change is only indirect in the deep-
water setting. In spite of these challenges, significant
progress has been made in the definition of sequence
stratigraphic models that describe the relationship be-
tween the cyclic change in the type of deep-water de-
positional elements and the corresponding changes in
accommodation and shoreline trajectories on the shelf
(e. g., Posamentier and Kolla 2003; Catuneanu 2006;
Fig. 30).
The cyclic nature of siliciclastic deposition in deep
water has been emphasized in numerous case studies
and syntheses (e. g., Weimer 1991; Winker and Booth
2000; Posamentier and Kolla 2003; van der Merwe et
al. 2010). A cycle of sedimentation in the deep water
starts with the activation of shelf-edge repositories
during relative sea-level fall, when a decrease in ac-
commodation on the shelf results in an increase in
sediment supply to the deep-water environment. The
cycle ends with the gradual deactivation of the shelf-
edge staging areas during relative sea-level rise, when
renewed accommodation on the shelf is able to trap
the majority of terrigenous sediment within fluvial to
shallow-water systems.
Changes in accommodation on the shelf, as well as
in the location of the coastline, control both the vol-
ume and the grain size of the riverborne sediment
delivered to the deep-water setting. Sediment supply
may also be modified by climate and tectonism in the
source areas, the size and the energy of the rivers that
bring sediment to the coastline, as well as by the width
of the continental shelf. In the case of narrow shelves,
sediment supply to the deep-water environment may
be higher during all stages of the relative sea-level cy-
cle; however, the general trends are maintained in the
sense that the lowest volume and the finest sediment
will still accumulate during times of highest accom-
modation on the shelf, whereas the largest volume and
the coarsest sediment will still be delivered during
times of lowest accommodation on the shelf.
Typically, three sequence stratigraphic surfaces are
mappable regionally within the deep-water setting:
the two types of correlative conformity and the maxi-
mum flooding surface (Posamentier and Kolla 2003;
Catuneanu 2006; Figs. 31, 32). These surfaces relate to
important phases in the evolution of the deep-water
system. The correlative conformity of Posamentier
and Allen (1999) marks the onset of high sediment
supply to the deep basin, which typically starts with
mud-dominated gravity flow and mass transport de-
posits. The correlative conformity of Hunt and Tucker
(1992) corresponds to the top of the coarsest sediment
in the deep-water basin, which typically forms the best
petroleum reservoirs. The maximum flooding surface
marks the timing of the minimum sediment delivery to
the deep basin, and it is typically placed at the heart of
regionally extensive condensed sections.
A deep-water sequence includes the equivalents of
forced regressive, lowstand normal regressive, trans-
gressive and highstand normal regressive deposits on
the shelf (Fig. 30). The following are generalized
trends that describe a cycle of deep-water sedimenta-
tion. Departures from this model may occur as a func-
tion of shelf width, sediment supply, and patterns of
sediment transport (e. g., Porebski and Steel 2006; Co-
vault et al. 2007).
Forced regression
Sediment supply to the deep-water environment is
highest during stages of relative sea-level fall and
negative accommodation on the shelf. Consequently,
forced regressive deposits (i. e., the FSST) tend to
form the bulk of the submarine fan complex; however,
actual thicknesses, as well as the ratio between the
thicknesses of the different systems tracts may vary
greatly with location and the place of accumulation of
the various depositional elements of the fan complex.
Deposition in deep water during forced regression
typically starts with muddy facies of mudflow and
mass transport deposits sourced from offshore sedi-
ment that becomes unstable as a result of lowering of
the wave base during relative sea-level fall. The fine-
grained nature of the early forced regressive sediment
also reflects the fact that coastlines on the shelf are typ-
ically remote from the shelf edge during early stages
of relative fall, preventing the delivery of riverborne
sediment beyond the shelf edge. As forced regression
continues and coastlines prograde closer to the shelf
edge, sand becomes available in the staging areas,
giving rise to high-density turbidites during late stages
of relative sea-level fall. The depositional elements of
these high-density turbidites are dominated by exten-
sive frontal splays on the basin floor, which may be
connected to aggrading feeder channels on the conti-
nental slope. Besides episodic turbidity currents, cata-
strophic collapse of shelf-edge deltas during stages of
late forced regression may also give rise to sandy de-
bris flows that consist of large accumulations of mas-
sive sand.
The onset of relative sea-level rise marks a decrease in
the volume, as well as the grain size, of the riverborne
T
i
m
e
HNR
HNR
Early
Late
LNR
Early
Late
(-) RSL (+) (-) sand / mud (+)
(-) grain size (+)
Condensed
section
(hemipelagic)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Sequence
stratigraphic
surfaces
Genetic
units
FR
T
CC*
CC**
MRS
MFS
(mappable)
(mappable)
(mappable)
(cryptic)
Fig. 30. Dominant types of
gravity-flow deposits that form
the submarine fan complex in a
deep-water setting (modified
from Posamentier and Kolla
2003; Catuneanu 2006).
(1) mudflow deposits; (2) high-
density turbidites and/or grain-
flow deposits; (3) low-density
turbidites. The relative contri-
bution of hemipelagic sediment
to the rock record is inversely
proportional to the volume of
terrigenous sediment delivered
to the deep-water setting.
Abbreviations: RSL relative
sea level; HNR highstand
normal regressive deposits;
FR forced regressive deposits;
LNR lowstand normal regres-
sive deposits; T transgressive
deposits; CC* correlative con-
formity sensu Posamentier and
Allen (1999); CC** correlative
conformity sensu Hunt and
Tucker (1992); MRS maxi-
mum regressive surface; MFS
maximum flooding surface.
25 m
Lithofacies Interpretation
sandstone,
thick beds
sandstone,
thin beds
alternating
mudstone
and siltstone
muddy chaotic,
folded and
faulted facies
mudstone
siltstone
Laingsburg
Formation
V
i
s
c
h
k
u
i
l

F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
Collingham
Formation
high-density
turbidites
low-density
turbidites
low-density
turbidites
low-density
turbidites
mudflows,
slumps
and slides
Sequence stratigraphic surfaces:
maximum flooding surface
correlative conformity **
correlative conformity *
Systems tracts:
highstand normal regression
lowstand normal regression
- transgression
forced regression
condensed
section
KEY:
1
2
3
4
5
Fig. 31. Composite profile of the Vischkuil Formation, Karoo Basin, South Africa (modified from van der Merwe et al.
2010).
sediment delivered to the deep-water environment, as
fluvial topsets trap the coarser sediment fractions on
the shelf (Catuneanu 2006). As a result, the dominant
type of gravity flow that carries sediment into the
deep-water setting changes from the high-density tur-
bidity currents of late forced regression to low-densi-
ty turbidity flows characterized by lower sediment-to-
water and sand-to-mud ratios. The lower-density tur-
bidites of the lowstand normal regression (i. e., the
LST) are dominated by aggrading leveed-channel sys-
tems on the basin floor, which typically become en-
trenched updip on the continental slope (Posamentier
and Kolla 2003).
Transgression
With the rapid creation of accommodation and con-
comitant trapping of riverborne sediment in backstep-
ping fluvial and coastal systems, sediment entry points
into the marine environment shift back from the shelf
edge and the supply of sand to the deep water gradu-
ally decreases during transgression. The manifestation
of low-density turbidity flows continues from the low-
stand normal regression into early transgression, when
coastlines are still close to the shelf-edge staging areas.
However, these turbidity flows become progressively
more diluted, finer grained and infrequent during
transgression, to the point when sedimentation from
suspension becomes the dominant process in the deep-
water environment at the time of maximum flooding.
In such cases, condensed sections characterize the late
stages of transgression. Instability at the shelf edge
during rapid increase in water depth, coupled with sed-
iment starvation, may also result in upper slope failure
and the manifestation of mass transport processes and
mudflows during late transgression (Posamentier and
Kolla 2003). The transgressive deposits form the TST.
The highstand is a time of slow increase in accommo-
dation, renewed progradation of coastlines following
the maximum flooding, and relative stability at the
shelf edge. In the case of wide continental shelves,
riverborne sediment may also not reach the shelf edge.
Consequently, gravity flows or mass transport process-
es are unlikely and infrequent in the deep-water envi-
ronment, and condensed sections are typical for the
deep-water portion of this (HST) systems tract. In the
case of narrow continental shelves, coastal prograda-
tion may gradually bring the sediment entry points
close enough to the shelf edge for the delivery of
riverborne sediment into the deep-water environment
(Porebski and Steel 2006; van der Merwe et al. 2010).
In such cases, low-density turbidites may be recorded
above the condensed section (Figs. 30, 31).
Collingham Formation
Laingsburg Formation
Laingsburg
0 10
10 km
20 30 40 50 km
highstand normal regression
lowstand normal regression - transgression
forced regression
50 m
W E
N
Cape Fold Belt
Karoo Basin
CAPE
TOWN
PORT ELIZABETH
100 km
Vischkuil Formation
maximum flooding surface
correlative conformity **
correlative conformity *
1
2
3
4
5
Fig. 32. Sequence stratigraphy of the Vischkuil Formation, Karoo Basin, South Africa (modified from van der Merwe et
al. 2010). The Vischkuil Formation consists of five submarine fan complexes, corresponding to five depositional sequences
(15), which include forced regressive, lowstand normal regressive, transgressive and highstand normal regressive systems
tracts (see text for details). See Fig. 31 for a lithofacies description of the five sequences and component systems tracts. Ver-
tical bars represent measured outcrop sections.
2. Case study: The Vischkuil Formation
(Permian), Karoo Basin, South Africa
The Ecca Group of the Karoo Supergroup includes
depositional systems that exemplify both distal and
proximal basin-floor settings, as well as overlying and
prograding slope and shelf facies. The overall shal-
lowing-upward succession from distal basin floor to
shelf settings marks the transition from the underfilled
to the filled phases in the evolution of the basin
(Catuneanu et al. 2002). This case study presents the
distal basin-floor succession of the Permian Vischkuil
Formation in the Karoo Basin (Figs. 31, 32).
The Vischkuil Formation is a 280380 m thick
mudstone- and siltstone-dominated succession, which
includes five sequences interpreted to have accumu-
lated in relation to cyclic changes in accommodation
on the shelf (van der Merwe et al. 2010; Figs. 31, 32).
The bulk of the succession consists of gravity-flow
and mass-transport deposits related to mudflows,
slumps, high-density turbidity currents and/or grain-
flows, and low-density turbidity currents. Each cycle
of sedimentation comprises a relatively thin (i. e., me-
tre-scale) but regionally extensive condensed section
of hemipelagic mudstone that represents a starved
basin floor, likely corresponding to a stage of maxi-
mum flooding on the shelf (Figs. 30, 31). These con-
densed sections are markers for regional correlation,
and help to delineate sequences.
Each condensed section is overlain by a succession
of silty turbidites interpreted as an HST (Fig. 31).
Highstand systems tracts represent stages of renewed
progradation and delivery of riverborne sediment into
the deep basin, albeit in a relatively distal setting. The
deposition is terminated by an abrupt shift in deposi-
tional regime marked by a sharp increase in sediment
supply interpreted to mark the onset of relative sea-
level fall, and hence the change from highstand nor-
mal regression to forced regression on the shelf. The
boundary separating these two systems tracts is a sur-
face of regional extent that is referred to as either the
correlative conformity or the basal surface of forced
regression.
The forced-regressive portions of sequences may in-
clude muddy chaotic facies associated with mudflows
and slumps, as well as sandy facies related to high-den-
sity turbidity currents (Figs. 30, 31). The two older se-
quences include sandy deposits, whereas the overlying
three sequences comprise muddy facies. This trend
reflects the gradual progradation of the shelf edge
through time.
The onset of lowstand normal regression is marked
by a sharp decrease in sediment supply to the deep-
water setting as sediment starts being trapped in ag-
grading fluvial topsets on the shelf. The boundary
between forced regressive and lowstand normal re-
gressive systems tracts is a type of correlative con-
formity (i. e., in the sense of Hunt and Tucker 1992).
This surface can be traced regionally at the contact be-
tween forced regressive mudflow and/or high-density
turbidity flow deposits and the overlying low-density
turbidites that accumulate dominantly within leveed-
channel systems (Figs. 30, 31, 32). The correlative
conformity has lithological expression as it corre-
sponds to an allogenic event that changes sediment
supply to the basin within a short time interval (e. g.,
Fig. 11).
The lowstand low-density turbidity flows continued
to dominate sedimentation during the transgressive
stage as well, or at least during the early part of trans-
gression (Posamentier and Kolla 2003; Catuneanu
2006). For this reason, the maximum regressive sur-
face is cryptic in the deep-water system, within an
undifferentiated succession of low-density turbidites.
The turbidite succession of lowstand normal-regres-
sive to transgressive deposits becomes finer through
time, as progressively less frequent turbidity currents
give way to dominantly condensed sections during late
stages of transgression.
Carbonate settings
1. Introduction
A sequence stratigraphic framework applied to car-
bonates provides a major tool for the interpretation of
the complex and diverse spectrum of the depositional
systems, and the geometric architecture of their facies
(Figs. 33, 34). The subdividing sequence stratigraphic
surfaces identified in carbonates, just as with silici-
clastic sediments, are erosional and flooding surfaces
produced by base-level change (Handford and Loucks
1993). This framework of surfaces is regional in ori-
gin, and provides chronology to the order of deposition
of the carbonate facies geometries defined by the hier-
archy of the bounding surfaces and enables the inter-
pretation and prediction of their extent and character.
The methodology of this interpretive process is appli-
cable no matter the response of the carbonates to the
geotectonic setting and the physical, chemical and bi-
ological conditions of the specific depositional setting,
be it a basin with a steep margin, a homoclinal ramp or
an epeiric sea (Figs. 35, 36).
Though carbonate depositional settings and their as-
sociated sediments have some similarities to clastics,
major differences exist. Clastics are transported to their
depositional setting, while carbonate sediments are the
products of in situ generation linked to carbonate-pro-
ducing organisms, many of which are products of
depth-dependent photosynthetic activity and so have
their greatest rates of generation close to the air/sea in-
terface of the depositional setting. The depth-depen-
dent character of most carbonate facies (with the ex-
ception of mass transport down slope) means they are
often tied directly to sea-level position whereas clastics
are not. This often causes the character of carbonate
sediment to change predictably during lowstands, rap-
id transgression, and/or highstands of sea level, where-
as clastics do not provide such clear indicators of sea-
level position. Additionally carbonate sediments nor-
mally have a biochemical origin and so are influenced
by the chemistry of the water from which they precip-
itated. This means that carbonate facies can also be
used to determine changes in paleogeography, includ-
ing the development of isolation or access to the open
sea (Fig. 37) providing a better understanding of their
depositional setting and relationship to plate-tectonic
configuration, and changes in paleoclimate. In addition
the evolution of the organisms, whose skeletal remains
form many carbonates, can provide better time controls
on the sedimentary succession. Thus carbonates, as in-
dicators of depositional setting, when combined with
the sequence stratigraphic framework often form more
Fig. 33. Composite sequence stratigraphic framework of a carbonate platform with (right-hand side) and without (left-hand
side) buildups. The lower portion of the diagram captures a carbonate margin where the falling-stage system tract (FSST) is
expressed as a forced regression that progrades and downsteps seaward in response to the loss of accommodation as rela-
tive sea level falls. The three downstepping wedges of sediment build out over the basal surface of forced regression (BSFR)
and terminate seaward in a basin-floor fan. Above the fan is a correlative conformity while up-dip the subaerial unconfor-
mity forming the sequence boundary (SB) overlies the downstepping sediment wedges of the forced regression. Over the
unconformity is the lowstand systems tract (LST) expressed by a shoreline whose trajectory rises seaward. This is followed
by three onlapping retrograding carbonate units of the transgressive systems tract (TST) that overlie a transgressive surface
(TS) and are topped by a maximum flooding surface (MFS). This in turn is overlain by a highstand systems tract (HST) car-
bonate margin expressed as three shoaling-upward cycles which lie below the next depositional sequence boundary (SB).
The designation of sequence boundary in this diagram conforms with Hunt and Tucker (1992). According to Posamentier
and Allen (1999), the BSFR is the sequence boundary.
The vertical section on the left-hand side is a schematic column of the stacked sediments that accumulated within each
systems tract. The approximate position of the sedimentary column is indicated by white strips on the sections; no one
locality provides a complete section through all the systems tracts and parasequences; the FSST is represented by a section
that is basinward; the LST has a section even farther basinward, and the section for the TST and HST parasequences is better
expressed further onto the platform.
Fig. 34. Hierarchy of carbonate architectural elements from carbonate grains to cycles, bedsets, incised tidal channel fill
(single units to complexes that extend perpendicular to the basin margin), shingled carbonate ribbons (complexes of inter-
tidal beaches and or shoals that parallel the basin margin), build-ups (patch reef), reef flat, climbing sigmoids, offset sub-
marine channels and levees, amalgamated submarine channels and levees, platform sheet geometries in response physical
and ecological accommodation, and carbonate platform complex system set. Note relationship to depositional sequence
boundaries, transgressive surfaces (TS) and maximum flooding surfaces (MFS).
powerful interpretive indicators than clastics. Carbon-
ates can therefore enhance the prediction of both the
lithofacies and the hierarchies that develop within this
framework away from data-rich areas.
Framework of carbonate sequence stratigraphic
geometries
The hierarchy of carbonate sequence stratigraphic
geometries includes those associated with normal and
forced regressions of highstand, falling stage and low-
stand systems tracts; and onlapping retrogradation
transgressive geometries (Figs. 33, 3840). As with
clastics, the geometries of carbonate strata are products
of the morphology of the depositional surface, and rates
of change of base level and sediment accumulation. For
instance when rates of change are rapid, as on Figures
4 and 33, during lowstand normal regression it is not
uncommon for carbonates to prograde through time
while rates of aggradation increase with a resulting
coastal trajectory that is concave upwards; conversely
with highstand normal regressions it is not uncommon
that progradation increases with time while aggrada-
tion decreases, leading to a coastal trajectory that is
convex up. During forced regressions, downstepping
occurs. As with clastics too, these geometries are de-
fined by the bounding surfaces that include those
formed during and following transgressions (TS and
MFS) and those that formed during falls in sea level as
regressive surfaces (SBs). Physical erosion, burrowing,
boring, dissolution (Clari et al. 1995; Lukasik and
clastic
sediment input
controls on carbonate accumulation
evolution
mineralogy
climate belts
change with
plate tectonics
biological factors
temperature
salinity
sea level position
rise fall
HMC LMC ARAG.
age
drowned
bank ramp
isolated
bank
open shelf
rimmed shelf
epeiric shelf
karst
a
g
e
d
e
p
t
h
d
e
p
t
h
t
u
r
b
i
d
i
t
y
photic
zone
production
foramol/bryomol
chloralgal
salinity
increase
water depth
turbidity
chlorozoan
s
u
b
m
e
r
g
e
n
c
e
e
m
e
r
g
e
n
c
e
subsidence
light
water movement controls
wind
waves
tides
storms
ocean
currents
wave
base
-sea level-
antecedent topography
platform morphology
no influx
siliciclastic influence
influx
controls on
accommodation
d
e
p
t
h
rate
accumulation
Fig. 35. Main factors that control the formation of carbonate successions on platforms (after Jones and Desrochers 1992).
James 2003), and/or cementation may have modified
these surfaces. Whatever their origin, these surfaces
mark changes in the depositional regime, particularly
base level, and provide a convenient means to subdi-
vide the carbonate section. From the perspective of se-
quence stratigraphy, these surfaces are used to deter-
mine the order in which strata are laid down and to de-
fine the geometries that they enclose, and so interpret
their depositional setting. Biostratigraphic data (both
skeletal remains and ichnology) when tied to the stratal
units, enable the direct comparison between shallow-
marine and deeper-marine carbonate sequences, their
related units and the potential correlation of the car-
bonate cycles to relative sea-level rise and fall.
Carbonate strata can be expressed (Fig. 34) as un-
confined sheets, unconfined but localized buildups
give up
time
back step
down step
catch up
keep up
prograde
spill out s
e
a

l
e
v
e
l
d
e
p
t
h
accumulation
rate
Carbonate response to sea-level rise
give up
back step
catch up
keep up
prograde
down step
fll up and spill out
new sea level
new sea level
old sea levels
new sea level
old sea levels
old sea level
new sea level
old sea level
new sea level
old sea level
new sea level
old sea level
give up
back step
down step
catch up
keep up
prograde
relative
sea level
low high
t
i
m
e
prograde
{
Fig. 36. The carbonate response to relative sea-level change (after Scaturo et al. 1989).
(reefs, banks and islands), unconfined but localized
sigmoids (reef cores; Pomar 1991) and bank margins,
and confined incised channels (tidal channels and the
product of flood events). Just as with clastics, what -
ever the final carbonate geometry formed, this geom-
etry is the product of both accumulation (aggradation,
retrogradation and progradation) and erosion.
As with clastics, sequence stratigraphy of carbonate
successions is commonly determined from a combina-
tion of the comparatively low-frequency resolution of
2D and 3D seismic data, the high-frequency resolution
of well logs, the very high-frequency resolution of
cores and a combination of high-frequency resolution
and low-frequency resolution from outcrops. How -
ever, unlike clastics, marine carbonate successions are
the products of base-level change that generates ac-
commodation expressed in two forms (Pomar and
Kendall 2008) (Fig. 34): physical accommodation
(controlled by hydrodynamic conditions) and ecologi-
cal accommodation (controlled by organisms and their
productivity).
Carbonate sequence stratigraphy and depositional
setting
A carbonate sequence stratigraphic framework pro-
vides a useful explanation of carbonate depositional
setting and predictions of potential carbonate plays
and reservoir models. It links depositional settings,
facies, geometries, fauna, and systems tracts (see Figs.
3840 and Table 1).
In conclusion, a sequence stratigraphic framework
for carbonate rocks can be used to predict the extent
and character of facies geometries, whether these
carbonate sediments accumulated in updip platforms,
platform margins, margin slopes and/or downslope
basins. The literature is replete with examples of the
effective use of sequence stratigraphic methodology
including many on the Permian Basin of west Texas
Fig. 37. Relationship of carbonate grains to cementation, and waves and currents, based on the Holocene carbonate ramp
of the United Arab Emirates and analogous to epeiric sea settings too.
Fig. 38. Lowstand carbonate stacking including progradational trajectory and keep up response to stillstand of relative sea
level at a low sea level position within the basin and the downslope deeper basinal settings.
Fig. 39. Transgressive carbonate stacking including retrogradational trajectory and keep-up response to rapid rising of
relative sea level during a transgression across a carbonate shelf.
and New Mexico (Tinker 1998; French and Kerans
2004); Carboniferous of the Sacramento Basin (Bach-
tel and Dorobek 1994; Bachtel et al. 2000a, b); Creta-
ceous carbonate platforms of central Texas (Kerans
et al. 1997a, b; Kerans 2002); Mississippian Paradox
Basin carbonates (Eberli et al. 2005; Grammer and
Ritter 2008); Mississippian Mission Canyon Forma-
tion (Read and Dorobek 1993; and Smith et al. 2003);
Mesozoic of the Middle East (Sharland et al. 2001; van
Buchem et al. 2002, 2003); Miocene carbonates of the
Balearic Islands (Pomar 1993; Pomar and Ward 1995,
1999); the platform to basin transition of the Maiella
platform, Italy (Eberli et al. 2004); and Cretaceous
(Aptian) of the Maestrat Basin, eastern Spain (Bover-
Arnal et al. 2009).
2. Case study: Late Jurassic
(Kimmeridgian) platform-to-basin
correlation, Jura Mountains
In the Swiss and French Jura Mountains, the massive
carbonate beds of the Kimmeridgian form prominent
cliffs in the landscape. These carbonates originated in
the shallow, subtropical waters of the platform that
separated the Vocontian Basin (a branch of the Tethys
ocean) to the south from the Paris Basin to the north
(Dercourt et al. 2000). Detailed sections have been
logged and high-resolution sequence- and cyclostrati-
graphic interpretations have been performed by Co -
lombi (2002), Colombi and Strasser (2005), and
Colombi and Rameil (2006). Ammonites in these plat-
form sediments are rare but nevertheless they do fur-
nish a biostratigraphic framework (Gygi 2000). A more
refined ammonite biostratigraphy has been established
in time-equivalent hemipelagic sections in the Vocon-
tian Basin (Atrops 1982). Consequently, the platform-
to-basin correlation allows the placing of recognized
sequence-stratigraphic elements into a biostratigraphic
framework. This further permits a comparison of the
studied interval with the sequence-chronostratigraphic
chart that Hardenbol et al. (1998) prepared for the Eu-
ropean basins. For the present case study, five outcrop
sections are presented, focusing on the interval cover-
ing the Ataxioceras hypselocyclum and Crussoliceras
divisum ammonite biozones (Figs. 41, 42).
In the platform sections, a prominent break in verti-
cal facies evolution occurs where birdseyes indicate
that lagoonal lime mudstones shallowed up into a tidal
flat (Court) and where birdseyes, charophytes, and
dolomitization suggest intertidal to supratidal condi-
Fig. 40. Highstand carbonate stacking including progradational trajectory and keep-up response to stillstand of relative sea
level at a high sea level position.
Table 1 Carbonate sequence stratigraphy and depositional setting. Carbonate sequence stratigraphy links depositional set-
tings and fauna to a predictable framework of facies, geometries, systems tracts and bounding surfaces. The facies,
geometries, fauna and the framework of systems tracts recorded by epeiric seas are similar to those of shelf settings.
Setting Inner Shelf Outer Shelf Margin Slope Basin
Facies
Geometry
Fauna
LST
(Fig. 41)
TST
(Fig. 42)
HST
(Fig. 43)
Sediment homogeneous
Micrites, peloids to
bioclastic packstone to
wackestone; local evapor-
ites
Shallowing upward cycles
common, predictable and
correlatable finer carbon-
ate capped by tidal-flat
dominated by cyanobacte-
ria and/or evaporites
Sediment heterogeneous:
ooids, grapestones and
hardened peloids to
bioclastic grain shoals to
patch reef and shoal build
ups
common, predictable and
correlatable
Sediments heterogeneous
to homogenous, reefal
boundstones, bioclastic
packstone to grainstone
accumulations
common
Upslope: Heterogeneous
wackestones to packstones
to grainstone and rudstone
offbank transport
Lime mudstone-wacke-
stone from fine-grained
periplatform shedding and
quiescent foreslope
Local presence of well-
sorted grain-rich tem-
pestites
Brittle reef failure and de-
bris of breccias and blocks
(olistoliths) common
Down slope homogenous
dispersed bioclastic pack-
stone to mudstone from
upslope, often bioturbated
Fining-upward cycles
common
Homogenous cycles of mud-
stone, marl to shale, from
relative sea-level changes
Fining-upward cycles
common
Unconfined sheets of
homogeneous sediment
Local storm-driven
confined channel fills
Unconfined heterogeneous
sediment sheets
Local confined channel
fills
Local confined lens-
shaped buildups
Unconfined thick to mas-
sive homogeneous sheets
to linear bodies parallel
(barrier shoals) or perpen-
dicular (tidal channels) to
margin
Interfingering unconfined
aggraded and retrograded
foreslope clinoform sheets;
thicken upslope/thin
downslope
Local confined sheets and
channel fill can be com-
mon
Unconfined thin widespread
sheets
Fauna often high numbers
and restricted
Fauna commonly shallow
water, heterogeneous and
moderately cosmopolitan
Fauna high numbers and
cosmopolitan
Downslope ecological
accommodation common
with massive boundstones
and heterogeneous open-
marine reef-building
skeletal materials often
grain-prone in distal por-
tions; upper bounding
surfaces often SB and less
visible MFS
Fauna high numbers
upslope but sparser and
restricted downslope
Bioturbation cosmopolitan
in shallows protected from
heavy wave action;
in deeper upper slope
burrowing often intense
Fauna low numbers and
sparse away from margin
Bioturbation common on
surfaces with low supply
rates
FSST and subsequent LST
exposure SBs, potential
karstification and/or no
accumulation
FSST and LST common
exposure surfaces and dis-
continuous mudstone to
wackestone fill of incised
tidal channels perpendicu-
lar to margin overlain by
discontinuous to continu-
ous microbial flat sheets
FSST and LST include ex-
posure surfaces, or, where
sea-level fall less, forced
regressions of packstone
and wackestone facies of
shoreline bodies of upper
slope area (perched
parasequences) parallel to
margin
FSST and lowstand LST
erosional surfaces from
sediment bypass from
upslope, downslope from
forced regressive shore-
lines with wackestone and
packstone facies extending
downslope from the basin
margin
FSST/LST collapse
margin megabreccias at
sea-level falls
LST and TST (and early
HST) when platforms ag-
grade rapidly they, and slope,
supply debris and mud flows
TST often missing or
reworked earlier sediments
TST onlapping linear
sheets parallel to margin
with local aggradation of
TST lenses
TST onlapping sheets of
open-marine facies of
mudstones, wackestones
and packstone sheets
TST onlapping sheets of
open-marine facies of
argillaceous lime mud-
stone and wackestone;
local buildups, especially
over topographic highs
LST and TST (and early
HST) when platforms ag-
grade rapidly they, and slope,
supply debris and mud flows
HST base of organic-rich
argillaceous carbonate or
shale
HST elevated aggradation-
al, linear, ribbons of lime-
sand barriers and shoals
parallel to margin capped
by subaerial SBs
HST base of finer lime
mudstones and wacke-
stones, and overlain by
aggrading shallowing-up
cycles of grainstone rib-
bons parallel to the plat-
form margin and massive
merging boundstone paral-
lel to margin capped by
subaerial SB
HST lime mudstone to
wackestone sheets from
margin, SB erosional to
caps
HST platform shedding,
grain-flow, density-flow
and turbidite sands and less
lime mud. Lower slope
thinning-thickening upward
calciturbidites metre-scale
and upwards beds, product of
millennial eustatic or climatic
change
tions with local freshwater lakes (Pry-Reuchenette;
Fig. 41). At Pichoux, black pebbles and a restricted-la-
goonal mudstone point to very shallow conditions. In
the basin, at Chteauneuf-dOze, a slump in the Atax-
ioceras hippolytense subzone implies slope instability.
At Crussol, thick limestone beds suggest low sea lev-
el that forced export of carbonate mud from the plat-
form (Colombi and Strasser 2003). Hardenbol et al.
(1998) placed a sequence boundary Kim2 at the base
of the A. hippolytense subzone. It is therefore suggest-
ed that the observed features (indicating a fall in rela-
tive sea level) correspond to this sequence boundary.
Facies in the platform sections occur in beds and
bedsets that can be interpreted as small-scale deposi-
tional sequences (Strasser et al. 1999). While the indi-
vidual beds do not necessarily display a facies evolu-
tion indicating a relative sea-level fluctuation, the
bedsets can in several cases be interpreted in terms of
sequence stratigraphy: they commonly have an erosive
base, display a deepening-up part composed of la-
goonal packstones to grainstones with reworked mate-
rial, and have a maximum-flooding to early highstand
part with low-energy wacke- to mudstones. Towards
the top of these sequences, higher energy deposits in-
dicate shallowing towards the following bounding
surface (e. g., small-scale sequences 3 and 4 at Pry-
Reuchenette). Through their stacking pattern and with-
in the given bio-chronostratigraphic framework it can
be shown that these small-scale sequences formed in
tune with the orbital short eccentricity cycle of 100 kyr
(Colombi 2002; Strasser 2007). The basinal sections
of Crussol and Chteauneuf-dOze are dominated by
limestone-marl alternations. Each couplet is thought to
correspond to the orbital precession cycle of 20 kyr.
The 100-kyr cycles are visually less well expressed
than in the platform sections. However, Boulila et al.
(2008) performed a cyclostratigraphic analysis includ-
ing the Chteauneuf-dOze section and confirmed the
presence of the 100-kyr as well as the 400-kyr eccen-
tricity cycles.
The maximum flooding of the large-scale (Kim2-
Kim3) sequence is indicated by a change from gener-
ally high-energy deposits to low-energy mudstones at
Pichoux and Court (uppermost part of small-scale se-
quence 5). Even during maximum-flooding conditions
water depth was very shallow to intertidal, as indicat-
ed by birdseyes and microbial mats. At Pry-Reuch-
enette, an equivalent facies change occurs 100 kyr lat-
er and coincides with the maximum-flooding surface
of small-scale sequence 6. In the basinal section of
Crussol (and in several other sections of the Vocontian
Basin; Atrops 1982), the Ataxioceras lothari subzone
comprises 16 limestone-marl couplets, corresponding
to 320 kyr (Hardenbol et al. 1998, indicated 300 kyr).
At Chteauneuf-dOze, only 5 couplets are counted.
At the base of the A. lothari subzone, the marly inter-
val and a peak in manganese suggest condensation
related to maximum flooding (De Raflis et al. 2001).
A second marly and thin-bedded interval with a man-
ganese peak appears in the C. divisum zone. It corre-
sponds to the condensed interval of the Kim2-Kim3
sequence identified by Hardenbol et al. (1998) in many
other European basins. Correlating this interval up to
the platform, it is seen to correspond to the maximum
flooding identified at Pry-Reucenette (Fig. 41). The
equivalent of sequence boundary Kim3 of Hardenbol
et al. (1998) is indicated by charophytes, black peb-
bles, dolomite, and birdseyes in the platform sections,
and by thick limestone beds in the basin. It is situated
in the C. divisum ammonite zone.
In the absence of laterally continuous outcrop in the
vegetated Jura Mountains and in the absence of seismic
lines, it is not possible to reconstruct the geometries of
the sequence-stratigraphic elements. In the platform
sections, the general facies trends within the large-scale
Kim2-Kim3 sequence do not imply deepening or shal-
lowing that would indicate retrogradation or prograda-
tion. However, many bedsets (small-scale sequences
of Strasser et al. 1999) exhibit deepening-shallowing
trends. It is therefore suggested that the Jura platform
was in a general aggradational mode during this time
but that high-frequency (orbitally controlled) sea-level
fluctuations were superimposed on this long-term trend
and controlled the facies evolution.
Across the whole platform, carbonate production
was high enough to constantly fill in the available
space, even during the transgressive part and the max-
imum flooding of the large-scale sequence. Tidal flats
were common and islands with fresh-water lakes (as in-
dicated by the charophytes) formed sporadically. The
absence of karst or soils indicates that sea level never
dropped below the platform edge and that the high-fre-
quency sea-level fluctuations were of low amplitude.
The fact that the studied large-scale sequence is signif-
icantly thicker at Pry-Reuchenette implies differential
subsidence. The Jura platform was part of the northern
passive margin of the Tethys Ocean where extensional
block-faulting was common (Wildi et al. 1989).
The slump at Chteauneuf-dOze represents a low-
stand deposit. The thick limestone beds at Crussol
formed during lowstand but also during transgressive
conditions when carbonate mud was exported from the
F
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.
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platform. During transgression, the energy on the plat-
form was generally higher, which resulted in the re-
curring pack- and grainstones there. In the basin, a first
condensed interval formed while on the platform no
change in stacking pattern or facies is observed. The
second condensed interval, however, corresponds to
the shift from rather high-energy deposits to low-ener-
gy facies on the outer platform (Pry-Reuchenette).
This shift, however, happened earlier in the platform
interior (Pichoux and Court). Due to the high-frequen-
cy sea-level fluctuations that were superimposed on
the long-term trend and due to the irregular platform
morphology, the threshold apparently was not passed
at the same time all over the platform. The highstand
deposits are quite thin in the basin while they are well
developed on the platform. According to the time-lines
given by the cyclostratigraphic interpretation, the late
highstand is much reduced in the platform interior
while at Pry-Reuchenette subsidence was sufficient
to accommodate thick peritidal deposits.
This case study demonstrates that the combination of
sequence stratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy allows the
reconstruction of systems tracts with a high time reso-
lution. It is seen that the physical expression of se-
quence-stratigraphic surfaces (as defined by facies
changes in the outcrop) can be shifted in time due to
varying basin morphology and due to superposition of
high-frequency sea-level fluctuations on a longer-term
trend of sea-level change (Strasser et al. 2000). If a spe-
cific surface cannot be physically followed from one
section to the other, it may therefore be of advantage to
define sequence-boundary zones or maximum-flood-
ing intervals (Montaez and Osleger 1993; Carter et al.
1998). This study emphasizes the complexity of car-
bonate systems where organic sediment production,
sea-level changes, and subsidence patterns interact.
3. Case study: Mid-Cretaceous
carbonate platform of the Maestrat
Basin, Iberian Chain
The mid-Cretaceous carbonate system of the western
Maestrat Basin in the Iberian Chain shows clear facies
patterns and distinct key surfaces which enable sedi-
ment-body geometries to be defined and interpreted in
terms of the 4-systems tract model of Hunt and Tuck-
er (1992, 1995). Deposition during the late Early
Middle Aptian was controlled primarily by two orders
of relative sea-level change, and the higher-frequency
sea-level rhythms created four types of meter-scale
cycle (Bover-Arnal et al. 2009). The lower-frequency
cyclicity resulted in five well-differentiated systems
tracts within two depositional sequences: a highstand
systems tract (HST) and falling-stage systems tract
(FSST) of depositional sequence A; and a lowstand
systems tract (LST), transgressive systems tract (TST)
and highstand systems tract (HST) of depositional se-
quence B (Fig. 43). The systems tracks could be sepa-
rated and identified on the basis of well-developed key
bounding surfaces, namely a basal surface of forced
regression, a subaerial unconformity and its marine
correlative conformity, a transgressive surface and a
maximum flooding surface. These are all broadly iden-
tifiable and correlatable throughout the platform-to-
basin transition.
The first HST of depositional sequence A consists
of prograding rudist-coral framestones-rudstones-
floatstones. The succeeding FSST consists of a de-
tached, slightly cross-bedded bioclastic pack/grain-
stone unit situated at the toe of the slope in a basinal
position. The LST is characterized by a small carbon-
ate platform dominated by rudists and corals, and this
downlaps over the FSST and onlaps landwards over
the sequence boundary. The TST exhibits platform
backstepping and is composed of more marly, locally
bioclastic wackestones. The second HST is character-
ized by prograding units of bioclastic, rudist-coral
pack/grainstones as high rates of carbonate produc-
tion resumed on the platform and skeletal debris was
supplied to the slope. Bover-Arnal et al. (2009) took
the view that the sequence boundary should be placed
above the forced regressive wedge, below the low-
Texture
marls
mudstone
wackestone
packstone
grainstone
m
M
W
P
G
Sequence stratigraphy
sequence boundary
maximum flooding
condensed section
Kim2
MF
CS
Facies
limestone with quartz
limestone with dolomite
peloids
oncoids
ooids
lithoclasts
black pebbles
brachiopods
echinoderms
foraminifera
corals
green algae
bivalves
gastropods
charophytes
Sedimentary structures
birdseyes
bioturbation
microbial mat
lamination
Fig. 42. Legend for Fig. 41.
stand prograding wedge. On a more regional, even
global scale, these systems tracts occur within two
larger-scale Aptian T-R sequences.
On a smaller scale, the Maestrat succession is made
up of four types of meter-scale cycle resulting from
higher-frequency sea-level fluctuations. These basi-
cally accretional units are composed of ten lithofacies
associations, which are interpreted in terms of ba-
thymetry, hydrodynamic conditions and trophic level
of the various depositional environments. This Maes-
trat Basin carbonate platform had a flat-topped non-
rimmed depositional profile with well-developed rud-
ist-bivalve floatstones containing corals, interpreted as
largely formed below wave-influence. For the most
part, deposition of all these Aptian carbonates took
place in low energy hydrodynamic conditions.
One feature of particular interest is that the major
sea-level fall recorded in this succession at the end
of the first HST during the uppermost early Aptian
(Dufrenoyia furcata biozone) was likely on the order
of tens of meters and appears to have been a global
event. This fall that subaerially exposed the carbonate
platform, led to the deposition of the FSST. Of the
various mechanisms that could trigger a significant
sea-level drop in less than 1 Myr, glacioeustasy was in-
voked and this event could correlate with the cooling
episode proposed for this time slice (Hochuli et al.
1999; Steuber et al. 2005).
Mixed carbonate-evaporite settings
1. Introduction
In evaporite systems, precipitation takes place in a
range of shallow- to deep-water environments at times
of increased aridity (see review in Warren 2006). The
majority of the worlds thickest and most extensive
evaporite successions were precipitated in intracraton-
ic basins, which were separated from the world ocean
by some barrier. Examples include the Zechstein,
Williston-Elk Point, Michigan, Paradox, Delaware,
HST
HST
N
TST
Platform backstepping
MFS
FSST
BSFR
LST
TS
CC
TRS/SU
15 m
Fig. 43. Sequence stratigraphic framework of an Aptian platform-to-basin carbonate succession in the western Maestrat
Basin (from Bover-Arnal et al. 2009). See Bover-Arnal et al. (2009) for full facies descriptions and interpretations. Abbre-
viations: HST highstand systems tract; FSST falling-stage systems tract; LST lowstand systems tract; TST trans-
gressive systems tract; BSFR basal surface of forced regression (= correlative conformity sensu Posamentier and Allen,
1999); CC correlative conformity sensu Hunt and Tucker (1992); TS transgressive surface (in this case, a transgressive
ravinement surface reworking a maximum regressive surface); TRS transgressive ravinement surface; SU subaerial un-
conformity; MFS maximum flooding surface.
Moscow and Siberian basins. In most of these, carbon-
ate platforms developed around the basin margins
when there was free circulation within the basins and
open connection with the ocean. Evaporites were com-
monly precipitated in sabkhas and hypersaline lagoons,
often extremely extensive, behind the carbonate rims.
The evaporites within the basin centers, where the
thickest successions occur (the saline giants), were
precipitated at times of reduced connection with, or
complete isolation from, the open ocean, through the
operation of a sill or barrier. Once sea level has dropped
below the height of the barrier to cut the basin off
totally, then the basin may draw down very quickly
through evaporation. Some water will seep into the
basin through marginal permeable rocks, and there may
be some reflux of hypersaline brines out of the basin.
In a similar way, global sea level may only need to rise
a few meters to overtop the barrier and flood the basin.
Much greater and more rapid water-level changes can
thus be expected within such silled basins compared
with those normally considered for siliciclastics and
carbonates deposited on passive margins and in other
completely open basins. In addition, sea-water and
brine levels within an isolated saline basin may vary in-
dependently of global sea level, responding especially
to climate changes and tectonic effects.
In terms of sequence stratigraphic models for car-
bonate-evaporite basins, two principal types were dis-
tinguished by Tucker (1991), depending on the degree
of drawdown: model 1, incomplete drawdown, giving
marginal gypsum wedges and basinal laminated gyp-
sum, and model 2, complete drawdown, giving halite
basin-fills (Figs. 44, 45). More recent discussions of
these and other aspects of evaporite sequence stratig-
raphy have been presented by Sarg (2001) and Warren
(2006). The origin of sequences is generally assumed
to be related to cycles of salinity change, but other
ecological factors such as temperature may be equally
important in controlling facies and faunal cyclicity in
carbonate-evaporite settings (Pratt and Haidl 2008).
Prior to the onset of evaporite precipitation, an in-
tracratonic basin is typically fully connected to the
world ocean, with the sea level above sill height. Car-
bonate platforms will occur around the basin and ex-
tensive shallow-water biogenic and abiotic carbonate
sedimentation will take place under the generally ideal
hot and dry climate, where there is limited siliciclastic
input. Retrogradational (TST) carbonates followed by
aggradational-progradational (HST) shallow-water
carbonates would be developed, with thin (condensed)
pelagic carbonates and hemipelagic mudrocks within
the basin center (Figs. 44.1, 45.1).
v
v v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v v v v
v
v
v v v v v v
1. highstand open basin, carbonate rim
2. falling stage & lowstand marginal gypsum wedge
3. early TST retrogradational sabkha/evaporitic lagoons 6. late HST sabkha/evaporitic lagoons
5. highstand rimmed shelf
4. TST retrogradational carbonate
open
ocean
sill/barrier
basinal laminites:
carb/gyps/org C
reworked, slumped gypsum
shelf selenite
sabkha sulphate
basinal carbonates
condensed
section
pinnacle reefs/mud
mounds formed
during TST
LSW
LSW
LSW
LSW
HST
HST
HST
HST
HST
HST
HST
TST
TST
TST
TST
TST
TST
TST
TST
sb
SL
Fig. 44. Carbonate evaporite intracratonic basins: sequence stratigraphic model for a basin with incomplete drawdown,
leading to basin-margin gypsum wedges (from Tucker 1991).
v
v
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v
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v
v
v
v
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v
v
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vv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v
v
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v
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v
vv v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v
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v
v
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v
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v
v
v
v
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v
v
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v
v
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v
v
v v
v v v
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v v v v v v
v v v v v v
v v vv v v
v
v
v
v
v v v v v
v
v v v v v v
1. highstand open basin, carbonate rim
2. falling stage & lowstand gypsum wedge during slow sea-level fall
3. lowstand halite pans and lakes
6. highstand rimmed shelf/ramp through basin-centre subsidence
open
ocean
sill/barrier
seapage
if fast fall no
gypsum wedge
pinnacle reefs/mud
mounds formed
during TST
LSW LSW
HST
HST
HST
HST
HST
TST
TST
TST
TST
sb
SL
4. basin-fll halite (BFH), early TST gypsum
LSW
LSW
HST
HST
TST
TST
5. highstand aggraded platform
LSW LS-BFH
LSW
HST
HST
TST
TST
LSW
LS-BFH
LSW
HST
HST
TST
TST
Fig. 45. Carbonate evaporite intracratonic basins: sequence stratigraphic model for a basin with complete drawdown lead-
ing to basin-fill halite (from Tucker 1991).
Forced regression
With a forced regression and sea-level falling close
to or just below the sill height, the water level within
the basin will quickly fall below the shelf break of
the marginal carbonate platforms through evaporative
drawdown. Water within the basin will rapidly become
hypersaline, although some seawater replenishment
may occur as a result of seepage through permeable
carbonates near the barrier. Gypsum will precipitate in
abundance around the basin margins during this FSST,
below the carbonate platform rims, to initiate wedges
(Figs. 44.2, 45.2). On the basin floor, carbonate will
continue to be deposited in the early stages of draw-
down until the basinal waters themselves are saturated
for calcium sulphate.
During the falling stage and subsequent lowstand,
the marginal carbonate platforms will be exposed and
may be subjected to subaerial erosion, karstification
and, potentially, massive dolomitization. Fluvial inci-
sion and siliciclastic influx may occur if there is hin-
terland topography, but under an arid climate the
amount of sand supplied may be limited.
In the situation of incomplete drawdown, where the
basin always contains some water through partial to
near-complete isolation from the world ocean, extensive
marginal gypsum wedges will prograde into the basin.
Gypsum precipitation during this time of more stable
sea level within the basin may take place in shallow, la-
goonal hypersaline waters as selenitic gypsum. Gypsum
platforms may form within the basin on local topo-
graphic highs, as occurred in Poland during the upper
Permian (Slowakiewicz and Mikolajewski 2009). Me-
ter-scale sedimentary cycles (parasequences) may be
developed within the wedge if there are higher frequen-
cy relative water-level changes within the basin. Resed-
imentation of gypsum into deeper water by storms,
slope failure, debris flows and turbidity currents will
give graded beds, slumps and breccias, and contribute
towards the progradation of the gypsum platforms.
Within the basin center, fine-grained gypsum will be
precipitated from surface waters on to the basin floor,
and this may be interlaminated with carbonate and/or
organic matter, reflecting seasonal variations in precip-
itation and plankton blooms. Salinity stratification of
the water mass can be expected, and a pycnocline is
likely to form too, through the weak circulation of wa-
ter within the basin. This will enhance organic matter
preservation. Selenitic gypsum may be precipitated on
the basin floor if the water depth is below about 25 m.
If the conditions for subaqueous gypsum precipitation
within the basin center are maintained for a long period
of time, a thick succession of sulphate laminites will
form, perhaps with selenitic beds, and this could fill the
basin. Such was the case in the Permian Castile Forma-
tion of Texas (Anderson et al. 1972). Reflux of brines
out of the basin and/or a relative humidity control may
be required to prevent halite precipitation.
A basin may endure complete drawdown during the
lowstand, if there is a major drop in sea level well below
sill-height or there is complete blockage of the basin
entrance (Fig. 45). If the climate is arid enough (atmos-
pheric relative humidity below 76%) and there is virtu-
ally no replenishment from the adjacent ocean or from
surface run-off, then halite will be precipitated on the
basin floor, with deposition taking place in salt pans
and salt lakes (Fig. 45.3). If the lowstand follows a very
rapid forced-regressive drawdown, there may be little
gypsum precipitated in basin-margin wedges. If there is
sufficient water seeping into the basin through perme-
able rocks at the sill, then enough halite may be precip-
itated to completely fill the basin (Fig. 45.4). Potash
salts may form in instances of extreme desiccation.
Transgression
When the basin is reconnected to the open ocean, the
formerly exposed carbonate platforms will be re-flood-
ed and carbonate deposition may resume there in trans-
gressive, retrogradational (TST) geometries (Figs. 44.3,
44.4). The early deposits of the TST along the shelf mar-
gin could still be evaporitic if hypersaline shallow wa-
ters were maintained long enough to establish sabkhas
and salterns (Fig. 44.3).
In a lowstand halite-filled basin, initial deposits of
the TST would likely still be hypersaline (Fig. 45.4).
Dissolution of salts by the incoming seawater would
maintain hypersalinity for a time. Gypsum sabkhas and
lagoons could be established and extend back over the
former marginal carbonate platforms. Where lowstand
halite has completely filled the basin, all original to-
pography will have been removed and, in the absence
of any differential subsidence, succeeding transgres-
sive carbonates will be deposited in an extensive shal-
low sea, and highstand carbonates could well show a
restricted fauna with further evaporites (Fig. 45.5).
Once a basin has been completely re-flooded and fully
connected to the open ocean then normal shallow-ma-
rine carbonates can be expected again on the marginal
platforms with highstand progradation (Figs. 44.5,
45.5). The area of shallow-water carbonate deposition
could now be much more extensive in view of the for-
mation of the gypsum wedges and platforms during the
preceding forced regression and lowstand. The new
carbonate shelf margin will be located along the outer
(basinward) edge of the gypsum wedge. Around the in-
ner margins of the platforms, sabkhas and hypersaline
lagoons could be very extensive during the highstand,
although not necessarily creating thick successions
(Figs. 44.6, 45.5).
Discussion
Thick and relatively rapidly-precipitated evaporites
can have a significant loading effect on the crust (Van
der Belt and de Boer 2007). This may well lead to in-
creased subsidence of basin margins and basin floors,
thereby creating further accommodation for more
evaporites (Fig. 45.6).
In terms of key surfaces, the depositional sequence
boundary will occur on the upper surface of the plat-
form carbonates, where it could be represented by a pa-
leokarst, or evaporite residue from later dissolution of
inner platform sabkha-lagoonal evaporites. Dolomites
may occur and be related to the sequence boundary as
a result of seepage reflux. The correlative conformity
of this surface in the basin would be best taken at
the base of the evaporites, as a major facies change but
also marking the beginning of forced regression. This
would also be at the base of gypsum-carbonate/car-
bonaceous laminites in the central part of the basin.
In a basin of incomplete drawdown, the sequence
would consist of an evaporitic lower part (the forced
regressive-lowstand gypsum wedge and succeeding
early TST sabkha/lagoonal gypsum) passing up and lat-
erally into platform carbonates of the TST and HST. In
a basin of complete drawdown, forced regressive gyp-
sum could be succeeded by extremely thick lowstand
halite, before transgressive evaporites and then carbon-
ates as the basin reflooded. Evaporites may also be
present in the uppermost part of the sequence from
deposition in late HST-early FSST sabkhas and hyper-
saline lagoons on the inner part of the carbonate plat-
form. Thus, in addition to the controls of climate on
evaporite occurrence, evaporite precipitation is much
controlled by base-level change and accommodation.
Evaporites occur in thick successions at basin margins
and in basin centers predominantly during lowstands of
sea level (global or regional). However, they may also
v v
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v v v v
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v v v v v v v v
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vv
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v v v v
v v v
v v v
v v v
basinward
landward
sabkha
siliciclastic-rich
alluvial-fll
carbonate
margin
key
carbonate
platform
carbonate
slope
halite
subaqueous
gypsum/anhydrite
HST
HST
HST
HST
HST
FSST
LST
LST
LST
ts
sb
TST
TST
TST
mfs
mfs
mfs
TST
sb>
sb>
<sb
<sb
high
low
LS evaporites
relative
sea level
FSST
sb
Fig. 46. Summary diagram of evaporite-carbonate lithofacies distribution in a sequence stratigraphic framework. Evapor-
ites can occur within all systems tracts but are preferentially developed within the basin during falling-stage and lowstand
systems tracts, and on the platform itself during early transgressive and late highstand to falling-stage systems tracts (after
Sarg 2001). The designation of sequence boundary in this diagram conforms with Posamentier and Allen (1999).
be precipitated in quite thick sections on platforms and
shelves around basins during transgressive times when
accommodation is being created. During highstands,
evaporites may continue to be formed inboard of car-
bonate platforms, generating sabkha and other arid-
zone type cycles/parasequences, but these evaporites
will generally be relatively thin. Figure 46 summarizes
the sequence stratigraphic context of evaporites.
2. Case study: The Upper Permian
carbonate-evaporite succession
(Zechstein) of NWEurope
The Upper Permian Zechstein strata of NW Europe
were deposited in the Southern Permian Basin, which
stretched for 1500 km from eastern Britain to eastern
Poland. The Zechstein succession has traditionally been
described as a series of carbonate-evaporite cycles, five
in total, which can be correlated across the whole basin
with some local variations (Taylor 1990; Menning et al.
2006). Applying sequence stratigraphic concepts to the
Zechstein (Tucker 1991) has some advantages since the
stratigraphy of whole basin is considered rather that just
the basin center as in the cycle concept. In addition,
sequence stratigraphy extends the degree of prediction
to the basin-margin platform carbonates and their dia-
genesis, that is not evident in a cycle approach.
In NE England, the first-cycle platform carbonates
(Z1Ca = Zechstein First-cycle carbonates) are the
Raisby and Ford formations (equivalent to the Zech-
steinkalk of continental Europe), with the first being
a distally-steepened ramp deposit and the second a
rimmed shelf (Figs. 47 and 48). Each of these plat-
forms is one sequence (ZS1 and ZS2 = Zechstein Se-
quence 1 and 2), each dominated by transgressive and
highstand carbonates, and the SB between the two is a
karstic surface. A major slide deposit (megabreccia)
was generated during the forced regression that termi-
nated Raisby deposition.
Subsequently, the Zechstein basin was subjected to
a partial drawdown and during forced regression and
lowstand, the Hartlepool Anhydrite (= Werra) was pre-
cipitated as a 180 m thick and 30 km wide gypsum
wedge, against the former shelf-margin carbonate
slope. Much of the anhydrite is nodular, but this could
well be a replacement of selenitic gypsum, precipitat-
ed in shallow water. Slumps, debrites and turbidites
have been described from the Werra Anhydrite of Ger-
many and the Netherlands. In the southern North Sea
and Poland, halite units occurring within the anhydrite
were precipitated in salt lakes.
The succeeding carbonates (Roker Formation, equiv-
alent to the Main Dolomite of Poland, second Zechstein
cycle carbonates, Z2Ca), are transgressive and high-
stand systems tracts, and with the underlying evaporites
form Zechstein sequence 3 (ZS3). The Roker mostly
consists of shelf-margin oolite (60 m thick) with micro-
bial bioherms. The shelf margin was now more basin-
ward than the earlier carbonate margin as a result of
the development of the gypsum wedge. The foreslope
facies (110 m thick) consists of graded beds, slumps
and laminites, with well-developed cycles controlled by
millennial-scale and Milankovitch rhythms (Mawson
and Tucker 2009). To landward, marls and evaporites
were deposited in shelf lagoons and sabkhas, mainly
during the highstand.
Another forced regression and lowstand led to the
precipitation of further evaporites: the Fordon Evapor-
ites (= Stassfurt in continental Europe). Marginal gyp-
sum wedges were formed but in contrast to the earlier
Hartlepool-Werra evaporites, the basin was subjected to
complete drawdown and so was completely filled with
halite (thickness exceeding 300 m). Late-stage poly-
halite attests to extreme desiccation. In the basin center,
the uppermost part of the evaporite section above the
halite is a very persistent anhydrite bed (the Deck An-
hydrite); this represents the early stage of the succeed-
ing transgression. Overlying carbonates (Z3Ca, Seaham
Formation, Plattenkalk in Poland, maximum 100 m
thick) are uniform, peloidal mudstone to packstone, lo-
cally oolitic and bioclastic (restricted fauna), with cross-
lamination and local storm bedding. This aggraded shelf
deposit extended for at least 100 km before passing into
deeper-water laminated carbonates, since now much of
the basin accommodation was filled with evaporites.
The Hartlepool-Werra evaporites (FSST, LST) and suc-
ceeding Seaham-Plattenkalk carbonates (TST, HST)
comprise Zechstein sequence 4 (ZS4).
The top part of the Zechstein succession, the third to
fifth carbonate-evaporite cycles, generally has less car-
bonate, more clastics and thinner evaporites, of which
some are potash facies, especially carnallite (KCl).
With these facies, deposition took place in sabkha,
lagoonal and lacustrine environments, with clastics
from coastal plains and distal alluvial fans, the whole
succession now becoming much more continental.
These deposits could be subdivided into three se-
quences, but they are relatively thin, and so could be
regarded as higher-frequency cycles (parasequences)
of one sequence (ZS5).
Examining a carbonate-evaporite succession in terms
of its chronostratigraphy (Fig. 48) is instructive. This
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approach highlights the stratigraphic breaks, which pri-
marily occur on the platforms surrounding the basin at
times when thick units of evaporites were being precip-
itated in the basin. Platform sequences are dominantly
transgressive to highstand carbonates with increasing
evaporitic deposition towards the top of the highstand,
and with platform interior sabkha-saltern parasequenc -
es. By way of contrast, basin center sequences are
falling-stage and lowstand evaporites (laminated gyp-
sum/anhydrite and bedded halite), passing up into trans-
gressive-highstand pelagic, starved-basin, condensed
organic-calcareous rhythmites, possibly with highstand
calciturbidites derived from adjacent platforms.
In recent years, other sequence stratigraphic inter-
pretations have been published for the Zechstein of
NW Europe including Strohmenger et al. (1996) for
Germany, Peryt and Wagner (1998) and Slowakiewicz
and Mikolajewski (2009) for Poland. Differences re-
Fig. 48. Chronostratigraphy of the Permian Strata of NE England and the adjoining North Sea (from Tucker 1991).
late to decisions of where to place the sequence bound-
ary, and more data being available (from core and
well-logs) on evaporite facies, especially relating to
deposition during the late HST, and evaporite rework-
ing during the late LST-TST.
Mixed carbonate-siliciclastic
settings
1. Introduction
Terrigenous material generally has a detrimental effect
on carbonate production, affecting the carbonate-se-
creting organisms in several ways. Turbidity caused by
fine-grained material in suspension affects organisms
by reducing light penetration, driving animals and
plants to live at shallower depths, while clogging up
their feeding mechanisms. Sudden influxes of terrige-
nous mud and sand can smother and bury organisms,
and high nutrient levels which often accompany ter-
rigenous input, can lead to intense microbial activity.
This has a deleterious effect on many higher organisms
which produce carbonate skeletal material since many
are oligotrophic. Carbonate-producing organisms how-
ever have made many adaptations to clastic input and
there are also many examples today where such animals
are happily growing in areas of terrigenous sedimenta-
tion. This can lead to the formation of patch reefs on
clastic shelves for example (e. g., the inner part of the
Queensland shelf, inboard from the Great Barrier Reef;
Larcombe et al. 2001), or to reefs growing on aban-
doned delta-front bars in areas dominated by terrige-
nous mud (e. g., the Mahakan Delta, Indonesia; Wilson
and Lockier 2002). In the Red Sea, coral reefs are in
close proximity to wadi-fan delta systems which peri-
odically shed clastics over the reefs (e. g., Tucker 2003).
There are numerous examples in the geological record
of reefal carbonates associated with clastics (e. g., San-
tisteban and Taberner 1988; Braga et al. 1990).
Mixed-lithology sequences are of two broad types.
In some cases the clastics, generally fine- to coarse-
grained, occur above carbonates towards the top of a
sequence (lower carbonate upper clastic sequences),
whereas in others, the clastics, dominantly mudrocks,
occur in the lower part of the units, beneath the carbon-
ates (lower mudrock upper carbonate sequences).
These mixed-lithology packages are developed where
carbonate platforms are attached to terrigenous source
areas (deltas, coastal mudflats) or where there is an ax-
ial supply of clastic material to the basin, through long-
shore-drift and shoreline-parallel currents in shelf envi-
ronments, and contour-flowing currents, tide-induced or
wind-driven circulations dispersing micrite in slope-
basinal environments. The clastic input is mostly con-
trolled by sea-level and base-level changes, or through
fault-related uplift, advancing thrust sheets as in fore-
land basins, or climatic effects. Clastic input and distri-
bution, however, is not restricted to low stands of sea
level, as commonly supposed.
Lower carbonate upper fine-to-coarse-clastic
sequences
Following the deposition of transgressive and high-
stand platform carbonates, which may involve slope
progradation through clinoforms, clastic sediments are
commonly deposited during the late highstand-forced
regression-lowstand. Prograding clastic shorelines, flu-
vial plains and aeolian sand sheets may develop during
the late highstand along the platform interior. During
the forced regression, palaeosoils may form on the plat-
form top, and incised valleys cut into the platform.
Clastic sediment supplied to the basin during the FSST
and lowstand will lead to lowstand wedges on the low-
er foreslope of the platform and the basin floor. This is
the notion of reciprocal sedimentation: lowstand shed-
ding of clastics and highstand shedding of carbonates
(Van Siclen 1958). This occurs in the slope and basinal
deposits of the Quaternary of the Caribbean area
(Schlager et al. 1994) where clastic input to the deep
sea was much greater during glacial times and carbon-
ate production was higher during the interglacials when
platforms were flooded. Ancient examples are docu-
mented from the Cambrian of northern Greenland (In-
eson and Surlyk 2000), Devonian of the Canning Basin
(Southgate et al. 1993; Playford et al. 2009), the Per-
mian of Texas (e. g., Saller et al. 1989), and the Tertiary
of northeast Australia and Gulf of Papua (Davies et al.
1989).
A further type of lower carbonateupper clastic
sequence occurs where transgressive carbonates are
overlain by highstand clastics. In many cases, the low-
er carbonate has been initiated by rapid sea-level rise
with little time for reworking of the coastal plain clas-
tics below. This scenario requires a plentiful supply of
terrigenous material to generate the upper clastic unit,
usually a coarsening-upward deltaic or shoreline pack-
age. This type of sequence is well-known from the
mid-Carboniferous of North America (e. g., Soreghan
1997; Rankey et al. 1999; Miller and Eriksson 2000;
Smith and Read 2001) and from western Europe, and
is described below as a case study.
Lower mudrock upper carbonate sequences
Basinal-outer shelf mudrock through to shallow-water
limestone sequences, typically several 100 meters
thick, are characteristic of carbonate ramp succes-
sions. They may themselves contain an internal small-
er-scale cyclicity. Examples of these occur within
the Carboniferous strata of South Wales (Burchette
and Wright 1992), Triassic Muschelkalk of Germany
(Aigner 1984) and the Cretaceous of the central and
western Pyrenees (Simo 1989; Lenoble and Canerot
1993) and Austrian Alps (Sanders and Hofling 2000).
Broadly, the deeper-water mudrock lower parts repre-
sent transgressive facies, while the upper carbonates
were prograding shallow-water highstand facies. The
Grand Cycles of the Cambrian of the Rocky Moun-
tains (Canada), Appalachians (USA; Glumac and
Walker 2000), Canada (Aitken 1978), China (Meng et
al. 1997) and elsewhere, are of this type. The terri -
genous muds may be supplied axially into the basin,
rather than across the drowned carbonate platforms.
This is particularly true of foreland basins and narrow
extensional basins, where carbonate platforms may be
preferentially developed on one side.
Discussion
With the different types of mixed-lithology sequence,
the lithofacies succession depends on the rate of sea-
level change and availability of clastics. Slow sea-
level rises can lead to extensive reworking of coastal-
plain clastics and so well-developed clastic lower parts
to cycles representing transgressive units. More rapid
sea-level rises cause flooding of coastal plains and so
little reworking of sediment, especially if there had
been extensive pedogenesis and/or vegetative cover,
such that ravinement erosion was limited. At the other
end of the sea-level cycle, stillstands allow coarsen-
ing-upward alluvial-plain, shoreline and deltaic facies
to prograde over late transgressive-early highstand
carbonates, with accommodation space determining
thickness. A forced regression leads to platform expo-
sure, river incision and the formation of lowstand fans
and wedges on the basin-margin/toe of slope and in-
cised-valley fills on the platform-top.
Mixed carbonateclastic sequences are best devel-
oped at times of high amplitude sea-level change, and
since these are typical of icehouse conditions, they are
well-represented in the Quaternary and Permo-Car-
boniferous. During these times the high-frequency sea-
level fluctuations were on the scale of 10s of meters
and this was sufficient to bring terrigenous sediment
into the depositional environment during a sea-level
fall. The PermoCarboniferous was also a time of first-
order sea-level lowstand, when more of the continental
landmasses were exposed for weathering, erosion and
denudation than at other times. The late Paleozoic was
also a period of supercontinent assembly, when moun-
tain ranges were forming, being uplifted and eroded.
During greenhouse times, lower- and mid-Paleozoic
and Mesozoic, low amplitude sea-level changes were
the norm and extensive carbonate platforms and clas-
tic shelf seas were typical. Most shallow-marine, con-
tinental-shelf sequences of these periods are composed
of single, uniform lithofacies, all clastic or all carbon-
ate. The mixed lower carbonateupper clastic se-
quences discussed here were rarely developed.
2. Case study: Mixed carbonate-clastic
sequences, Mid-Carboniferous,
northern England
The Carboniferous period was a time of developing
glaciation in Gondwana (Wright and Vanstone 2001)
and successions of this time in most parts of the
world are markedly cyclic, which is usually attributed
to glacioeustasy, although tectonic overprinting can
mask the orbital-forcing signal (e. g. Wilkinson et al.
2003). In Europe Lower Carboniferous cycles com-
monly involve carbonates, while the Upper Carbonif-
erous cycles are more clastic, with the Coal Measure
cyclothems of the Westphalian being classic examples.
In Northern England, in the upper Visan through Ser-
pukhovian, the cycles are typically mixed lower car-
bonateupper clastic facies, referred to as Yoredale
cycles. The lower carbonate part is up to 30 meters
thick, overlain by a clastic section, locally with a thin
coal seam at the top (Tucker et al. 2009). These cycles
vary in thickness from 5 to 70 m.
The Yoredale limestones are typically well-bedded
muddy bioclastic packstoneswackestones with a di-
verse fauna. Locally there are small biostromes of
colonial corals or beds of solitary coral. The basal bed
(up to 0.5 m thick) of some limestones is a prominent
sand-rich or clay-rich bioturbated bioclastic packstone
with fish scales with the clastic material derived from
reworking of the top of the cycle below. Limestones
were deposited in water depths of 1040 meters, in a
generally quiet environment with occasional storms.
This was effectively an extensive and flat, low-energy
epeiric-type platform, probably 150 km across, cover-
ing 10,000 sq km, with a gentle slope with micrite
mounds and debrites into deeper water of the Central
Pennine Basin to the south.
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Two main types of clastic succession occur above
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tal mouth-bar then proximal mouth-bar sandstones. In
some cases a distributary channel sand-body, several
meters thick, cuts down into mouth-bar sandstone (see
Fig. 49, right-hand log); and (2) a deep- to shallow-
marine succession of mudrocks to sandstones with
tempestites and HCS from storms and a range of trace
fossils, and then shoreface foreshore cross- and flat-
bedded sandstones.
At several horizons in the succession, major len -
ticular, cross-bedded, coarse sand bodies cut down
10 meters or more into the coarsening-upward unit, in
some cases reaching the limestone at the base of the
cycle (see Fig. 49, left-hand log). These shoestring
sand-bodies show a fining-up of grain-size and a de-
crease of cross-bed set thickness, and in some cases
wave-ripples and burrows towards the top. These
sandstones are interpreted as incised-valley fills.
At the top of the Yoredale cycles, there is usually
a palaeosoil (seatearth, fireclay, underclay, ganister,
calcrete) of variable grain-size, colour, thickness and
texture, reflecting the climate of the time. A thin coal
seam may complete the cycle. One or several meter-
scale (minor) coarsening-upward cycles may also
occur at the top of a cycle. These coastal-plain facies
result from small deltas filling lakes and bays.
The Yoredale cycles show all the features of fully
developed sequences that include all systems tracts
(Tucker et al. 2009; Figs. 49, 50). The limestones con-
stituting the lower parts of the Yoredale cycles repre-
sent the transgressive systems tracts (TST). The pas-
sage up into the overlying mudrocks is equivalent to
the maximum flooding. The succeeding coarsening-
upward, shallowing-upward deltaic facies represent the
highstand systems tracts (HST), and the thin coals and
paleosoils at the top of a typical cycle are the late HST/
FSST-LST/early TST. The incised-valley fills down-
cutting into the HST facies represent the falling-stage
(FSST) and lowstand (LST) systems tracts, of fluvial
through estuarine facies, then succeeded by transgres-
sive carbonates of the next sequence. The IVFs occur
at specific stratigraphic horizons and represent times of
sharper and deeper glacioeustatic sea-level falls. The
valleys would have fed lowstand fans and wedges
located in the Central Pennine Basin to the south.
The cyclicity which so dominates Carboniferous
sedimentary successions was largely produced by
glacioeustatic changes in sea level as a result of orbital
forcing and variations in solar insolation. Notwith-
standing the dominance of orbital forcing, there were
Fig. 50. Sequence stratigraphic model for
mixed carbonate-clastic mid-Carboniferous
Yoredale cycles of northern England (from
Tucker et al. 2009).
locally tectonic and sedimentary controls on deposi-
tion too. There have been numerous papers discussing
the periodicity of Carboniferous cycles in Europe and
North America, with the consensus favouring the ec-
centricity rhythm, but arguments over whether the
short or long eccentricity was the control (e. g., Smith
and Read 2000, 2001 versus Wright and Vanstone
2001). Davydov et al. (2010) have dated major Permo-
Carboniferous oscillations as 100 kyr with 400 kyr
modulation.
The origin of the Yoredale cycles specifically has
been much discussed with tectonic, eustatic and sedi-
mentary mechanisms all put forward. Broadly similar
patterns of cycle thickness variation across the region
support the role of eustasy and/or regional tectonics
(subsidence), although there may well have still been
local tectonic (i. e., fault) or sedimentary controls.
Part three
Discussion and conclusions
Links to other stratigraphic
disciplines
Sequence stratigraphy relies on other stratigraphic dis-
ciplines to constrain the correlation of surfaces and
systems tracts and to estimate the time involved in
the formation of a sequence. Lithostratigraphy allows
short-distance correlations in aggradational intervals
where facies changes occur simultaneously over the
studied area. Allostratigraphy uses discontinuities and
surfaces that are assumed to have a time-stratigraphic
significance. Thus, it can be considered as being a part
of sequence stratigraphy.
Biostratigraphy is needed to tie the studied sequences
to the chronostratigraphic time frame. Magneto- and
chemostratigraphy help in fine-tuning the chronos-
tratigraphy by furnishing precise correlations (Langreis
et al. 2010; Weissert et al. 2008). There may also be a
genetic link between biostratigraphy and sequence
stratigraphy because sea-level changes may force bio-
logical evolution (e. g., Cecca et al. 2005; Sandoval et
al. 2008). A genetic link may also exist between sea-lev-
el changes and the chemical composition of the ocean
because they are related to the same driving forces such
as ocean-floor spreading and climate changes (e. g.,
Weissert and Mohr 1996; Weissert et al. 2008).
Cyclostratigraphy has a high potential to refine the
sequence-stratigraphic analysis. It uses astronomical
cycles of known periodicities (Berger et al. 1989) to
interpret repetitive patterns in the sedimentary record
(e. g., Strasser et al. 2006) and to establish astro chro -
no logical time scales (e. g., Hinnov and Ogg 2007). As-
tronomical cycles cause insolation changes at the top
of the atmosphere, which then translate into climate
changes and eventually into eustatic sea-level changes,
mainly through glacioeustasy and thermal expansion
and retraction of the uppermost layer of ocean water.
Eustatic sea level, together with subsidence, controls
accommodation. A sedimentary sequence created by an
orbitally controlled sea-level fluctuation thus can po-
tentially be interpreted in terms of sequence stratigra-
phy (Vail et al. 1991; Strasser et al. 1999).
In many cases, parasequences (Van Wagoner et al.
1990) or simple sequences (Vail et al. 1991) can be
shown to have formed in tune with orbital cycles. The
stacking pattern that is commonly used in sequence
stratigraphy to define retrogradational, aggradational,
or progradational trends may reflect the hierarchy of
orbital cycles. Care has to be taken in the interpreta-
tion, however, because not all cycles are recorded if no
threshold was passed to create a recognizable facies
contrast, or if there was non-deposition or erosion
(missed beats; Goldhammer et al. 1990). The effect of
orbital cycles on sedimentation may also vary with the
tectonic and depositional setting. For example, epicon-
tinental seas are particularly sensitive to climatic fluc-
tuations, and prone to changes in water temperature and
salinity that may result in the formation of regional se-
quences (Pratt and Haidl 2008). The superposition of
high-frequency sea-level fluctuations on a longer-term
trend may add another degree of complexity to the
stratigraphic record by producing intervals of repeated
sequence-stratigraphic surfaces rather than a single
surface (Montaez and Osleger 1993; Strasser et al.
2004). Furthermore, autogenic processes may produce
sequences and surfaces that are independent of accom-
modation changes (e. g., Martin et al. 2009).
Sequence stratigraphic
methodology
Perhaps the most significant progress in sequence
stratigraphy is the shift from models to methodology
(Fig. 19). The debates that punctuated the last three
decades (Figs. 1, 2) led to the realization that all ap-
proaches are correct under the specific circumstances
for which they were proposed (Catuneanu et al. 2009,
2010). A standard methodology can be defined based
on the common ground between the different ap-
proaches, with emphasis on the observation of stratal
stacking patterns in the rock record. Various data sets
can be used for this purpose, including outcrop, core,
well-log and seismic data. Each data set may be more
suitable to a particular scale of observation, and may
provide different insights toward the identification of
stratal stacking patterns and key bounding surfaces.
Mutual corroboration, wherever possible, is desirable.
A great deal of disagreement was fueled by argu-
ments regarding the selection of sequence boundaries
among the set of sequence stratigraphic surfaces. Ear-
ly models also promoted the idea that sequence strati-
graphic surfaces are time lines and correlatable world
wide, which sparked intense debates and controversy.
It is now clear that both global and local controls
may contribute to the sequence stratigraphic frame-
work of every sedimentary basin, and that no model
can replace the value of data and observation. It was
demonstrated that all sequence stratigraphic surfaces
may have physical expression in outcrop (e. g.,
MacEachern et al. 1999; MacNeil and Jones 2006;
Bover-Arnal et al. 2009), and that they all are poten-
tially diachronous (e. g., Catuneanu 2006). These de-
velopments reiterate the importance of field criteria to
the delineation of any type of sequences stratigraphic
unit and bounding surface, and the fact that all se-
quence stratigraphic approaches are data driven.
Sequence stratigraphic units (i. e., sequences, para -
sequences, systems tracts) are defined by their bound-
ing surfaces. The definition of units is independent of
temporal and thickness scales, and therefore the scales
of different types of unit may overlap. Sequences
and parasequences correspond to cycles of change in
stratal stacking patterns, which are interpreted to re-
flect cycles of change in accommodation or sediment
supply. These cycles are defined by the recurrence of
the same types of stratigraphic surface in the rock
record, whether subaerial unconformities (in the case
of depositional sequences), maximum flooding sur-
faces (in the case of genetic stratigraphic sequences),
maximum regressive surfaces (in the case of T-R se-
quences) or flooding surfaces (in the case of para -
sequences). In contrast with sequences and para -
sequences, systems tracts correspond to only portions
of full cycles, and therefore they have different types
of bounding surface at the base and at the top.
Stratal stacking patterns describing normal regres-
sions, transgressions or forced regressions can succeed
each other in any order, as a function of syn-deposi-
tional conditions and/or post-depositional preservation.
Sequences may consist of any combination of these
types of deposit, and may or may not include all three
types of deposit. However, all sequences whose timing
and origin relate to shoreline trajectories share the com-
mon element that they all consist of a combination of
the same types of (normal regressive, transgressive
and forced regressive) stacking patterns. Notably, the
same kinds of stacking patterns compose any type of
sequence stratigraphic unit, from sequence to systems
tract and parasequence. This means that a methodolo-
gy that focuses on stratal stacking patterns provides an
objective, model-independent workflow to the standard
application of sequence stratigraphy (Fig. 19).
The sequence stratigraphic method must be kept in-
dependent of assumptions regarding the controlling
mechanisms on sequence development. It has become
increasingly evident that a range of allogenic process-
es may operate over similar temporal scales to control
the development of depositional patterns and strati-
graphic cycles. Accommodation curves may be recon-
structed based on geometries preserved in the rock
record, including the thickness of topsets that form
during normal regressions, the increase in the relative
elevation of backstepping (transgressive) coastlines,
the magnitude of downstepping during forced regres-
sions, or the depth of fluvial incised valleys. However,
such quantitative curves may only have local rele-
vance due to variations in tectonic regimes and sedi-
ment supply from one sedimentary basin to another,
or between different sub-basins within the same sedi-
mentary basin.
The scale of observation is a critical aspect of se-
quence stratigraphic work; it may be selected on pur-
pose according to the scope of the study (e. g., petro -
leum exploration versus production development) or
it may be imposed by the resolution of the available
data. For example, outcrops and well-log data may
support high-resolution sequence stratigraphic studies,
suitable for understanding reservoir compartmental-
ization, whereas seismic data afford lower resolution
studies, more suitable for the purpose of petroleum ex-
ploration. The relative significance of sequence strati-
graphic units that develop at different scales of obser-
vation is resolved via the concept of hierarchy.
Different proposals on how to define a hierarchy
system (e. g., Vail et al. 1977, 1991; Mitchum and Van
Wagoner 1991; Embry 1995; Krapez 1996, 1997) have
stimulated active discussions within the stratigraphic
community (e. g., Miall 1995, 1997; Drummond and
Wilkinson 1996; Schlager 2004; see recent summaries
in Catuneanu et al. 2009, 2010). A factor that limits the
definition of a universally applicable hierarchy system
is that the interplay of competing sequence-forming
mechanisms results in the formation of stratigraphic
cycles across a continuum of temporal and spatial
scales (Drummond and Wilkinson 1996; Schlager
2004). In the absence of discrete modes within the
wide continuum of scales, hierarchical subdivisions
often remain arbitrary and may only be basin specific
(Catuneanu et al. 2009, 2010).
In this paper we aim to clarify and streamline the
sequence stratigraphic terminology and methodology
for a more user-friendly and model-independent appli-
cation in all types of academic or industry-oriented
research. This model-independent approach is meant
to release sequence stratigraphy from the straitjacket
imposed by the requirements of any specific sequence
stratigraphic model, and stimulate the flexibility that
is needed to adapt to the particularities of any case
study. The proposed streamlined methodology permits
the construction of sequence stratigraphic frameworks
that are best fitted to the available data.
Acknowledgements. This paper is the result of the con-
tinuing effort to provide a neutral platform for the inclusion
of sequence stratigraphy in international stratigraphic guides
and codes. Work started in 2006 with the premise that a large
and inclusive working group is required for this task. We ac-
knowledge the significant contributions brought by all mem-
bers of this working group, which, in addition to the authors of
this paper, includes V. Abreu, J. P. Bhattacharya, M. D. Blum,
R. W. Dalrymple, P. G. Eriksson, C. R. Fielding, W. L. Fisher,
P. Gianolla, M. R. Gibling, K. A. Giles, J. M. Holbrook, R. Jor-
dan, B. Macurda, O. J. Martinsen, J. E. Neal, D. Nummedal,
L. Pomar, B. R. Pratt, J. F. Sarg, K. W. Shanley, R. J. Steel and
C. Winker. With this paper we build upon the work published
by Catuneanu et al. (2009, 2010).
We thank Brian Pratt (Chair, ISSC) for his exceptional
support, guidance, and feedback throughout the process
leading to this publication. We also thank all members of the
International Subcommission on Stratigraphic Classifica-
tion (ISSC) of the International Commission on Stratigraphy
who provided useful and constructive comments on earlier
versions of the manuscript.
The publication of this work in full colour was made pos-
sible by the generous support provided by Chevron Energy
Technology Company.
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Manuscript received: February 8, 2011; accepted: July 21,
2011.

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