Applied Chemistry (DAS 103)

Unit – 1
Electron (-1e0)
(i) Electron is a fundamental universal component of matter.
(ii) It is component particle of cathode rays.

(iii) The magnitude of negative charge on electron e- was first determined by Milliken
through oil drop method.
(iv) The magnitude of charge on electron = 1.6x10-19 C In c.z.s – (1C = 3x109 esu)
(v) The mass of electron = 9.1x10-31 kg
(vi) The physical and chemical properties of an element depend upon the distribution of
electron in outer shell.

Proton [P, 1H1, H+]

(i) Like electron, proton is also a fundamental particle and is universal component of
matter.
(ii) Represented by 1H1, P & H+
(iii) The magnitude of +ve charge of proton is 1.6x10-19 C or 4.8x10-10 esu.
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(iv) 1H H+ +e-
Proton

(v) Proton is protium nucleus.

(vi) Removal of one electron from hydrogen atom give proton
H e- + H+
Hydrogen atom electron proton
-27
(vii) 1.61x10 kg

Neutron [0n1, N]
(i) James Chadwick discovered neutron.
2He+ + 4Be9 12
6C + 0n
1

(ii) The mass of the neutron is 1.62x10-27 kg

(iii) Neutron > Proton > Electron
Decreasing order of mass
(iv) Out of the 3 types of fundamental particle neutron is most unstable. It decay follows
1 1
0n 1H + -1e0 + 0V
0

Neutron Proton Electron Antineutrino

Note:
Name Absolute charge Relative charge
Electron -1.6x10-19C -1
Proton +1.6x10-19C +1
Neutron zero zero

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Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom

Fig.
The thin gold foil had a circular florescent Zinc sulphide screen around it.

On the basis of α- particle scattering experiment Rutherford observed that:

(i) Most of the α- particles passed through the gold foil un-deflected.
(ii) A small fraction of the α- particles was deflected by small angle.
(iii) A very few α- particles bounced back that is were deflected by nearly 1800.

On the basis of the observation Rutherford gave following conclusions regarding the
structure of atom.
(i) Most of the space in the atom is empty
(ii) A few positively charge α- particles were deflected. So that positive charge has to be
concentrated in a very small volume.
(iii) Volume occupied by the nucleus is negligible small as compared to the total volume
of atom.
The +ve charge and most of the mass of the atom was concentrated in small region called
nucleus.
The nucleus is surrounded by e- that moves around the nucleus in circular path called orbits.
e- & nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.

Atomic Number (Z)

The number of proton present in the nucleus is equal to atomic number.
Z= No. of protons in nucleus of an atom.
Z= No. of electron in a neutral atom.

Mass Number (A) or Atomic Mass or Atomic Mass No.

The sum of the number of the protons & neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called
mass number the atom.
A= number of protons number of neutrons.
A=Z+N
Number of nucleus = p + n

Drawbacks/Weakness of Rutherford’s model:

(i) Rutherford model cannot explain the stability.
(ii) Rutherford model cannot explain the electronic structure of atom.

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Bohr’s atomic theory:
Bohr improved the weakness of Rutherford’s model of an atom. Three developments played a
major role in the formulation of Bohr model of atom. These are:
(i) The electrons continue revolving in their respective orbits without losing energy.
(ii) Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an e- moves form one level to
another.
(iii) The angular momentum of an electron moving round the nucleus is quantized.
Mvr = nh
2π
Quantum Number:
The order to define the state of an electron in an atom set of four numbers is required known as
quantum number.
They are four quantum numbers:
(1) Principal quantum number.
(2) Azimuthal quantum number or secondary quantum number.
(3) Magnetic quantum number or orientation quantum number
(4) Spin quantum number (s)

Principal quantum number (n)

It is represented by small ‘n’.
It gives the average distance of the e- form the nucleus hence called radial quantum number.
It determines the main energy shell in which the electron is revolving around the nucleus.
Principal quantum number can’t be zero.
PQN Main energy shell
1 K
2 L
3 M
4 N

Azimuthal quantum number (l)

 It is represented by ‘l’
 It is also called secondary or serial quantum number.
 It gives the angular momentum of electron in the orbit.
 It also orbit gives the shape of sub shell.
AZQN Sub Shell Shape Max. no of e-
1=0 s Spherical 2
1=1 p Dumb- bell 6
1=2 d Double-dumb-bell 10
1=3 f Complicated 14
1=4 g Highly complicated 18
ℎ
Orbital angular momentum = 2𝜋 √1(1 + 1)

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Magnetic quantum number (m)
or
Orientation quantum number
 It is represented by ‘m’
 Magnetic QN gives the orientation of orbital in which electrons are present.
 Magnetic quantum no. explains Zeeman Effect.
 The value of m vary -1 through (zero) to +1.
 Total value of m are (21+1).
Sub shell values of (np) no. of atomic orbit
l=0 1 1
l=1 3 3
l=2 5 5
l=3 7 7

Spin quantum number (s)

S.Q.N define the direction of electron during circular motion on the axis.
Spin of electron occur in two direction clockwise or anticlockwise.
S = +1/2 ↑
S = -1/2 ↓
Note:
(1) Total number of e- in nth shell is = 2n2
(2) ‘ ↿’ may have any positive integral value managing from 0 to n-1.

Pauli’s exclusion principal

No two electrons in the same atom can have the same values for all the four quantum number.
For e.g.
n=1
↓
↿=0
↓
m=0

S = +1/2 S = -1/2

PQN AQN MQN SQN

N=2 ↿= 0(2𝑠) m = 0(2s) ±1/2
↿= 1(2𝑝)
m = -1 (2px) ±1/2
m = 0 (2py) ±1/2
m = +1 (2pz) ±1/2

Isotopes
 Isotopes were discovered by F. Soddy
 Isotopes have the same nucleus charge but differ in number of neutrons in the nucleus.
 They have identical chemical properties but differ in physical properties.
e.g.
1. Protium (1H1), deuterium (1H2) and tritium (1H3)
2. 17C↿ 3S 17C↿37
3. 3C12, 6C13 and 6C14

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Isobars
Isobars have different number of electrons, protons and neutrons but the sum of neutrons and
protons in their nucleus is the same.
40 40 40
e.g. 18Ar , 19K , 20Ca

Electronic configuration of elements:

Electron enter in the sub shell of atom in the increasing order of energy, this principal is called
Aufbau principal which means building up

1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p

Element Atomic No.

H 1
He 2
Li 3
Be 4
B 5
C 6
N 7
O 8
F 9
Ne 10
Na 11
Mg 12
Al 13
Si 14
P 15
S 16
Cl 17
Ar 18
K 19
Ca 20
Sc 21
Ti 22
V 23
Cr 24
Mn 25
Fe 26
Co 27
Ni 28
Cu 29
Zn 30

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N (7) = 1s2 2s2 2p3
F (9) = 1s2 2s2 2p5
Mg (12) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Ca (20) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
Cr (24) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4 (Incorrect)
Cr (24) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 (Correct)

4s1 3d5
1 1 1 1 1 1

More stable
Cu (29) = 1s 2s 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
2 2

Q1. Write all the values quantum number for 15th electron of calcium.
Sol. Ca (20) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

12 electrons
n=3
l=1
m = +1
s = +1/2
Q2. Write all the value of quantum number for 23 electron of Cu.
Sol. Cu (24) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5

19 electrons
n=3
l=2
m = +1
s = +1/2
Note:
(i) The radius, r of the nucleus of an atom is related to its mass number (A) according to
the relation.
Μ = R0A1/3 where R0 is a having value = 1.4x10
(ii) Size of the atom = 10-8 cm
(iii) Size of the nucleus = 10-13 cm

Write the electronic configuration of following elements:

Al (13) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
S (16) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Cl (17) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
O (8) = 1s2 2s2 2p4
Al3+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s0 3p0
O2- = 1s2 2s2 2p6

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Difference between orbit and orbital
Orbit Orbital

(i) It is well defined path followed by electron (i) It is a region around nucleus where the
around nucleus. possibility of finding electrons is maximum.

(ii) It represents two dimensional motion of (ii) It is represents 3 dimensional motion of

electron around nucleus. electron around nucleus.
(iii) The maximum of electron in orbit is 2n2. (iii) The maximum of electron in orbital is 2.
(iv) The shape of the orbit is circular. (iv) An orbital has different shapes.

Shapes of orbital

Chemical Bonds:
(i) The attraction force which holds the atoms/molecules together is called chemical
bond.
(ii) When the force of attraction between two molecules/atom are increases there is
greater probability of formation chemical bonds and there is decreases in potential
energy.
Electronic theory of valency:
(i) Valency (n) is the number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom which part in
a chemical reaction.

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 (ii) If the number of electrons is 1, 2 and 3 the valency is 1, 2, 3 but if the number of e- is
4 to 8 then, valency is 8-n.
(iii) The electronic theory of valency is based on electronic configuration.
(iv) Elements having zero valency is called inert elements.

Ionic or Electrovalent bond:

An electrovalent or ionic bond in the chemical bond formed due to transfer of electrons.
e.g. Na + Cl Nacl
Li + F LiF

Condition for formation of ionic bond:

(1) One of the atoms must have low ionization energy so that is easily loses its electron e.g.
Na, Li.
(2) The other atom must have been highly electron affinity (capacity to hold extra electron)
e.g. Cl, F.
(3) One atom must be a metal which the other is a non-metal.
(4) Smaller radius of cathion and larger radius of anion helps in forming of strong bond.

Properties of Ionic compounds:

(1) In fused state, ionic compound are good conductors of effectively.
(2) Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points formation of compound is an
exothermic process.
(3) In solid state they consist of ions bound together in crystal lattice by electrostatic forces.
(4) They are freely soluble in polar solvent like water and insoluble in non polar solvents like
benzene (CcHc).
e.g. Sodium chloride
Na (Z = 11) – 2, 8, 1
Cl (Z = 17) – 2,8, 7

MgO
Mg (Z=12) - 2,8,2
O (Z = 8) - 2,6

CaCl2 (Calcium Chloride)

Ca (Z = 20) 2,8,8,2
Cl (Z = 17) 2,8,7

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Covalent Bonds:
Covalent bonds are formed between two or more atoms as a result of mutual sharing of electrons
by the atom. Compounds formed as a result of covalence are called covalent compounds or non-
polar compounds.
Covalent bond occurs in the formation of molecules of non-metals such as H2, N2, Cl2 and O2
and the compounds of these non-metals e.g. HCl, NH3, etc.
Properties of covalent compounds:
(1) Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity either in fused state or in liquid state.
(2) They are slightly soluble in polar solvents like water but readily soluble in organic
solvents such as benzene.
(3) They are non-polar because they don’t ionize in water.

Co-ordinate Bond:
Coordinate or dative bond is a specialized way of combining of two atoms by sharing a pair of
electrons. The free pair of e- is known as lone pair. e.g. H2O2
Properties:
(i) They usually do not conduct electricity.
(ii) They are usually insoluble in water, but soluble in

Hydrogen Bond:
The force of attraction which bonds hydrogen atoms of one molecule with electronegative atoms
(such as F, N and O) of another molecule of the same substance forming weak links is known as
H-bond. For e.g. HF molecule is covalently bonded however it forms a polar covalent bond.
The molecule behavior likes a dipole since the bonding electrons shift towards the
electronegative atom. Thus when two HF molecular approach each other closely an electrostatic
attraction takes places between the hydrogen atom of one HF molecule and fluorine atom of the
other HF molecule.
+δ -δ +δ -δ
H-F+H-F H-F ………….H-F
Hydrogen bonds occur in compounds like HF, H2 and NH3 in alcohol (R-OH), carboxylic acid.
There is no significant hydrogen bonding in HCl, HBr and HI, because Cl, Br and I are much
less electronegative then F (the greater radius of I, Cl)
There are two types of H-bonding:
(i) Intermolecular H-bonding
(ii) Intra molecular H-bonding

Property of H-bond:
(i) H-bond in electrostatic in nature and so covalent compounds containing hydrogen
bonds are partially polar.
(ii) H-bonds can form a bridge only between two such atoms one of which in small in
size and the other highly electronegative.
HF – Hydrogen Fluoride
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