Methodological Dimensions in Curriculum Development

CONTENTS
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Curriculum Planning ....................................................................................................................... 2
1. SDP and Curriculum Planning ............................................................................................. 2
2. Structures for Curriculum Planning ..................................................................................... 6
3. Approaches to Curriculum Planning.................................................................................... 8
4. Curriculum Planning Process ............................................................................................... 9
Models for Curriculum Development ........................................................................................... 13
1. The Objectives Model ........................................................................................................ 13
2. The Process Model ............................................................................................................. 14
3. Tyler’s Model..................................................................................................................... 15
4. Wheeler’s Model ................................................................................................................ 16
5. Kerr’s Model ...................................................................................................................... 17
6. Michaelis Model ................................................................................................................ 18
7. The Taba Model ................................................................................................................. 18
8. Palma’s Linear Model ........................................................................................................ 18
Approaches to Curriculum Design................................................................................................ 18
1. The Four-Step Approach.................................................................................................... 18
2. The Seven-Step Approach ................................................................................................. 20
3. John Hopkins University Approach ................................................................................... 21
4. Connecticut State Department of Education Approach ..................................................... 24
5. Subject-Centered Curriculum Design ................................................................................ 25
6. Learner-Centered Curriculum Design................................................................................ 25
7. Problem-Centered Curriculum Design .............................................................................. 26
Diagnosis of Needs in Curriculum Development ......................................................................... 26
1. Needs assessment ............................................................................................................... 26
2. Tools for Diagnosis of Curricular Needs ........................................................................... 30
Formulation of Objectives in Curriculum Development .............................................................. 31
Evaluation in Curriculum Development ....................................................................................... 36
1. Bradley’s Effectiveness Model .......................................................................................... 36

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 2. Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model ................................................................................... 38
3. Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product Model ..................................................... 40
4. Scriven’s Goal-Free Model ................................................................................................ 41
5. Stake’s Responsive Model ................................................................................................. 42
6. Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model ....................................................................................... 43

INTRODUCTION

Curriculum development is a complex undertaking that involves many kinds of decisions.

Decisions must be made about the general aims which the school are to pursue and about the more
specific objectives of instruction. The major subjects of the curriculum must be selected, as well
as the specific content to be covered in each decision must be made about the choice of the type
of learning experiences with which to implement both the content understanding and other
objectives. There must be an evaluation of what learners are achieving and the effectiveness of the
curriculum in attaining he desired objectives and ends.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Discuss in a broader sense the important considerations in curriculum planning

2. Describe and compare the different models for curriculum development
3. Consider every aspect of curriculum development to make the curriculum more relevant to
the needs of the learner and society

CURRICULUM PLANNING

1. SDP and Curriculum Planning

a. Changing Needs: Planning Challenges

In order for planning to be effective, the school plan must address the schools needs as
articulated by the teachers and their school partners. School Development Planning works
on developing an awareness of these needs, not only in terms of managing the local world
of the school but also in terms of the wider needs of the students as members of society.

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These challenges have informed thinking on school and curriculum planning and have
influenced the development of curriculum planning materials

Specific challenges confronting the development of curriculum in Irish schools include:

 The culture of individualism among teachers

 The absence of a tradition of professional dialogue
 The domination of examination results
 The changing and increasing demands on schools

Curriculum Planning within a whole-school context addresses those challenges by

offering opportunities for teachers to:

 Collaborate
 Engage in debate and reflection
 Become empowered as educators

b. Curriculum Planning Framework

The four general aspects of curriculum should be reviewed as part of the planning
process:
1) Curriculum Provision
Areas of Curriculum Provision which may usefully be reviewed include:
 Subjects, Programs, Courses, Levels
 Time allocations, Options structures
 Provision for Students with Special Needs
 Breadth and Balance
 Relevance and Differentiation
 Co-curricular Activities

Schools curriculum policies and implementation procedures can determine the

subject choice and the subject level choice of the student and ultimately affect the
outcomes attained by the student.

2) Curriculum Planning and Coordination

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 It is important for the school to look at its arrangements for Planning and
Coordinating the Curriculum. A review of this aspect of curriculum would explore:
 Structures for Planning
 Procedures for Collaboration
 Program Coordination
 Cross-Curricular Issues
Schools may need to ask such questions as “What structures would help?” or “How
can teachers work together?”
The introduction of new curriculum programs, such as the Transition Year, Leaving
Certificate Applied and Leaving Certificate Vocational programs, has led to the
development of structured approaches to program coordination.
Cross-curricular work is also being undertaken within these programs, with
carrying degrees of success.
A review of arrangements for curriculum planning and coordination may enable the
school to identify creative approaches within the new programs that could fruitfully
be applied in other areas

3) Curriculum Implementation: Teaching and Learning Processes

The basic purpose of curriculum planning is to ensure effective learning that is
relevant to the full range of students’ educational needs. In pursuing this purpose,
the school may find it helpful to:
 Review its current situation with regard to:
 The grouping of students for learning (streaming/banding/mixed
ability grouping)
 Teaching methodologies
 Classroom environment
 Classroom practice
 Explore the impact of these aspects of school life on student learning
 Consider whether classroom processes are serving the aims and objectives
of the curriculum and promoting the development of students as effective
and responsible learners

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 There is much excellent practice by teachers in Irish schools, but traditionally there
have been relatively few opportunities for teachers to express or analyses, to share,
discuss, refine, develop or disseminate good practice in the wider school or among
peers. A collaborative approach to curriculum planning fosters the sharing of good
practice.

4) Curriculum Outcomes: Student Progress and Attainment

In reviewing curriculum outcomes, the school may usefully examine:
 Its current methods of assessing student progress and attainment
 How students’ levels of attainment compare with their standards of
attainment on entry to the school
 How students’ levels of attainment compare with national standards of
attainment
 What students have actually learnt, in terms of both holistic development
and academic achievement, on completing any given program or course in
the school

To draw these strands together, this unit provides materials to help the school to
adopt the subject department as a focus for curriculum review. This will enable the
school to:

 Promote collaboration
 Establish common purpose
 Develop communication
 Foster the sharing of good practice
 Provide support
 Encourage interdependence and mutual responsibility

It would be important for the school to provide a structured program of staff

development to support collaborative curriculum planning at whole-school level.
Such a program might address whole school curriculum issues such as the
following:

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  Homework Policy
 Thinking and Learning
 Multiple Intelligences
 Effective Methodologies
 Special Needs and Learning Support
 Assessment and Reporting
 Team Development

Clearly the individual school will identify many more.

2. Structures for Curriculum Planning

a. A Rationale for the Establishment of a Subject Department
b. Helpful Structures in Organizing the Subject Department
The decision on structures will depend on such matters as school size, school tradition
and culture, the number of teachers in the subject department, etc. The issues to be
addressed by the school and the subject department will include:
 Approaches to Coordination
 Team of subject teachers with a coordinator who has a Post of
Responsibility, or acts in a voluntary capacity
 Team of subject teachers with the role of coordinator rotating between
members
 Faculty grouping of similar subjects (effective where there may be only
one teacher of a subject)
 Cluster planning with teachers of same subjects from other local schools
(Whatever coordination structures are adopted must be on the basis of teamwork where
ideas and associated tasks are shared among the team collaboration and involvement
are key words)
 Infrastructural Supports that will be provided in terms of:
 Meeting Times
 Venues for meetings
 Planning Materials, e.g. subject syllabus and guidelines
 The procedures to be followed in relation to

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  Communication
 Consultation

Planning Resources Required for the Subject Department

Each subject department will be planning in the context of the prescribed syllabuses
for the subject and in the specific context of the school. A copy of each of the following
documents should be provided, therefore, for each member of the subject department:

 Statement of School Mission, Vision and Aims

 Subject syllabuses
 Teacher Guidelines related to the syllabuses
 Relevant subject association material
 Developmental priorities which may have been identified in earlier phases of
the planning process
c. Approaches to Establishing a Subject Department
In schools where subject departments have not been developed, the activities outlined
below may be used to structure reflection on the introduction of such structures and
how they might operate in the school. These activities may involve the whole staff or
may be undertaken by one or more individual subject departments.
Initially the teachers may consider a number of questions such as:
 Why have a subject department?
 What could a subject department do for the partners (Teachers, Students,
Parents) and for the school?
 How would the subject department best operate?
When the teachers of a subject reach consensus on the desirability of establishing a
department, they may then consider a number of questions focused more closely on
how their subject department should operate:
 What approaches to coordination would be most helpful for this subject
department in this school?
 What activities will be undertaken by the subject department?
 What procedures should be followed?

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  What supports will be required?
Before decisions are finalized on how a department for their subject should operate,
consultation with the Principal and / or the Senior Management Team as appropriate
must take place. This will ensure that the organization of the subject department is
consistent with other school structures and operates within the parameters of whole-
school policy.

Developing the Subject Department

In developing the subject department, the school may consider arranging training in the
following areas:
 School Development Planning
 Group Facilitation
 Team Development
 Policy Writing
 Methodology Development
 Assessment Procedures
 Parameters of operation within whole-school planning
This training may be provided concurrently with the subject department planning
process and either on a whole-school basis or for individual subject departments.
(It may be possible to arrange initial training locally through the School Development
Planning Initiative, the Education Centre or in conjunction with a group of schools)

3. Approaches to Curriculum Planning

There are many ways of setting about curriculum planning. Each school will decide on the
approach that is best suited to its own particular needs and circumstances.

Route 1: Early Action Planning Model

In the Early Action Planning Model, the first priority is to identify issues of concern and to
develop plans to address them. Matters relating to values, aims, policies and procedures
are dealt with as they arise in the course of the planning cycle (review, design,
implementation, evaluation) and not in accordance with a pre-ordained sequence. This

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 approach ensures that planning is seen to focus on evident needs and to involve action. The
early achievement of relevant targets strengthens commitment to the collaborative process
and supports the development of more complex planning structures. In this model,
curriculum planning begins with a review (either by the whole staff or by curriculum,
program or subject teams) and proceeds to the development of action plans to address
immediate concerns. In the context of this unit, a subject department following this route
would review the current situation with regard to their subject, identify immediate needs
(such as the need to prepare for the introduction of a new syllabus), and develop plans to
address them.

Route 2: Foundational Model

This model is based on the premise that development planning operates more effectively
when the school’s fundamental purpose and values have been clarified so that they can
serve as a frame of reference, and when the necessary enabling structures are in place. In
this model, the first phase of planning involves formulating the statement of mission, vision
and aims and whole school policies. The identification of development priorities comes
later. Curriculum planning from its inception is explicitly related to the school’s mission,
vision, aims and policies, and focuses in the early stages on the formulation of curriculum
aims and objectives and the establishment of curriculum-related policies and procedures.

4. Curriculum Planning Process

a. Early Action Planning Route
b. Foundational Route
1) Aims and Objectives
Some schools may address these at an early stage immediately after the
establishment of the subject department or even following the completion of the
statement of the school’s Mission, Vision and Aims Statement.
Other schools may prefer to proceed with the formalization of the Aims and
Objectives for teaching the subject at a later stage in the planning cycle when some
collaborative planning has already been successfully undertaken.
Relevant planning resources to inform the clarification of aims include:

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  Statement of School Mission, Vision and Aims
 Subject syllabuses
 Teacher Guidelines related to the syllabuses
 Relevant subject association material
 Developmental priorities which may have been identified in earlier phases
of the planning process
2) Methodologies Development
Initially the teachers review and discuss the methodologies which they find
effective.
They then consider what methodologies might be introduced or emphasized to meet
the subject needs in the light of the subject syllabus, the teacher guidelines, the aims
and objectives agreed by the subject department, and the differentiated needs of
students. A list of key learning skills and of effective teaching strategies is provided
to prompt this consideration.
The teachers may then select three or more teaching and learning strategies which
the subject department agrees to adopt as a means of meeting the needs of the
specified groups of students
Finally, the teachers identify what will be required in order to implement these
methodologies in terms of:
 Timetabling
 Resources
 Provision for differentiation
 In-service needs
 Modifications in assessment practices
3) Support for Students
In the context of whole-school policy, the Subject Department teachers
 Agree a strategy for supporting students who may experience difficulty with
the subject or in the classroom
 Agree a strategy for liaising with the Learning Support, Guidance and
Pastoral Care personnel in the school.
 Agree a strategy for liaising and communicating with parents

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4) Policies and Procedures
Having identified from the list below the issues which are relevant to the teaching
of the subject and to the school, the teachers discuss, formulate and agree the
department policy and procedures. This process is carried out in the context of
whole-school policies, the subject’s aims and objectives, and the consensus reached
on teaching and learning.
Policy Issues may include:
 Class organization and allocation of students to classes
 Textbooks and course materials
 Homework
 Assessment, formal and informal
 Record-keeping
 Reporting
 Resources and accommodation
 Cross-curricular links
 Health and Safety considerations
 Associated activities, field trips etc.
 Subject development, i.e. measures to assist the promotion of the subject in
and out of school
There may be other significant issues which the subject department may also wish
to address in terms of policy formulation
5) Course Content
The teachers outline the course content for each year group, listing content,
specifying depth and key concepts to be taught.
6) Staff Development
The Subject Department is asked:
 To identify the needs for professional training/development which have
emerged in the course of the planning process
 To prioritize these needs and indicate the numbers of staff and timeframe
involved

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  To recommend, where possible, potential courses or in-service providers,
including colleagues who may have developed expertise in the identified
areas
 To communicate these needs to the staff development task group or
principal as appropriate
c. Monitoring and Evaluation
1) Academic Attainment
Students’ levels of attainment may be compared with their standards of attainment
on entry to the school. Results attained in state examinations may be used.
The percentage of students taking each level of examination may be considered.
Where the subject is optional, the level of take-up of the subject could be reviewed.
This, however, may be influenced by the composition of optional subject choices
in the school.
These patterns within the school may be compared with current national norms, but
it is essential first to consider the range of ability in the cohort of students. This
information is often available from standardized ability tests administered on
students’ entry to school.
2) Holistic Development
In order to evaluate how the subject contributes to the holistic development of the
student, the subject teachers could examine:
 How it contributes to the fulfilment of the school’s Mission, Vision and
Aims
 How it helps to promote the moral, spiritual, social and personal
development of the student. [The Education Act (1998) confers on the
school the function of promoting “the moral, spiritual, personal, social
development of students’]
 How it contributes to the Eight Areas of Experience proposed by the NCCA
as a Curriculum Framework

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 MODELS FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum design is a complex but systematic process. This unit describes a variety of models of
curriculum design in order to make this complex activity understandable and manageable. It is
important to understand how the curriculum was designed.

1. The Objectives Model

The objectives model of curriculum design contains content that is based on specific
objectives. These objectives should specify expected learning outcomes in terms of specific
measurable behaviors.
This model comprises four main steps:
 agreeing on broad aims which are analyzed into objectives,
 constructing a curriculum to achieve these objectives,
 refining the curriculum in practice by testing its capacity to achieve its objectives,
 communicating the curriculum to the teachers through the conceptual framework
of the objectives. (Gatawa, 1990: 30)

Adapted from Gatawa, B. S. M. (1990: 28). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An
Introduction. Harare: Jongwe Press.

Note for this model:

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  Evaluation is done at each stage of the curriculum design.
 Content, materials and methodology are derived from the objectives.

2. The Process Model

Unlike the objectives model, this model does not consider objectives to be important. Using
this model presupposes that:
 Content has its own value. Therefore, it should not be selected on the basis of the
achievement of objectives.
 Content involves procedures, concepts and criteria that can be used to appraise the
curriculum.
 Translating content into objectives may result in knowledge being distorted.
 Learning activities have their own value and can be measured in terms of their own
standard. For this reason, learning activities can stand on their own. (Gatawa, 1990:
31)

Adapted from Gatawa, B. S. M. (1990: 31). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An
Introduction. Harare: Jongwe Press.

It is important to note that in the process model:

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  Content and methodology are derived from the goals. Each of them has outcomes
that can be evaluated.
 The evaluation results from the outcome are fed into the goals, which will later
influence the content and methodologies. Unlike the objectives model, there is no
direct evaluation of the content and methodologies.

3. Tyler’s Model
Tyler’s model for curriculum designing is based on the following questions:
 What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
 What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
 How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
 How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Adapted from Urevbu, A. O. (1985: 20). Curriculum Studies.

The model is linear in nature, starting from objectives and ending with evaluation. In this
model, evaluation is terminal. It is important to note that:

 Objectives form the basis for the selection and organization of learning
experiences.
 Objectives form the basis for assessing the curriculum.

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  Objectives are derived from the learner, contemporary life and subject specialist.

To Tyler, evaluation is a process by which one matches the initial expectation with the
outcomes.

4. Wheeler’s Model
Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an improvement upon Tyler’s model. Instead
of a linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model. Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is
not terminal. Findings from the evaluation are fed back into the objectives and the goals,
which influence other stages.

Adapted from Urevbu, A. O. (1985: 22). Curriculum Studies.

Wheeler contends that:

 Aims should be discussed as behaviors referring to the end product of learning
which yields the ultimate goals. One can think of these ultimate goals as
outcomes.
 Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning. This
results in the formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a terminal level.

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  Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which determine that
content.

5. Kerr’s Model
Most of the features in Kerr’s model resemble those in Wheeler’s and Tyler’s models.
However, Kerr divided the domains into four areas (Urevbu, 1985: 23):
 Objectives,
 Knowledge,
 Evaluation, and
 School learning experiences.

A simplified version of Kerr’s model of curriculum design is shown below.

What you should note about the model is that:

 The four domains are interrelated directly or indirectly, and

 Objectives are derived from school learning experiences and knowledge.

In Kerr’s model, objectives are divided into three groups:

 Affective
 Cognitive
 Psychomotor.

The model further indicates that knowledge should be (Urevbu, 1985):

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  Organized,
 Integrated,
 Sequenced, and
 Reinforced.

Evaluation in Kerr’s model is the collection of information for use in making decisions
about the curriculum. School learning experiences are influenced by societal opportunities,
the school community, pupil and teacher relationships, individual differences, teaching
methods, content and the maturity of the learners. These experiences are evaluated through
tests, interviews, assessments and other reasonable methods.

In his model, Kerr asserts that everything influences everything else and that it is possible
to start an analysis at any point (Urevbu, 1985: 22).

6. Michaelis Model
7. The Taba Model
8. Palma’s Linear Model

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGN

Curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in planning,
implementing and evaluating a curriculum. In discussing the approaches to curriculum
development, one focuses on the manner curriculum is arranged to facilitate effective delivery by
the implementer. Approaches to curriculum development are the strategies employed in organizing
curriculum content and learning activities that are presented to the learners. They are the ways of
attaining a functional curriculum development. Mbakwem (2009), writes that curriculum approach
and design can be used interchangeably. Approaches to curriculum development can also be
regarded as models of curriculum development.

1. The Four-Step Approach

There are different approaches to curriculum development, which are presented according
to ones focus on the elements of curriculum development and the level of operation of the
curriculum. No matter the approach or design or model, they all cover the same scope needed to

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develop a functional curriculum. Giles, McCutchen and Zechiel (1942) developed a four-step
model of curriculum development. The four steps are: selection of objectives, selection of learning
experiences, organization of learning experiences and evaluation. Their understanding of
curriculum development approach is that the developer must first of all select the objectives which
they believe propels the other steps, since every other step has focus on attainment of the objectives.

Tyler's (1975) approach to curriculum development also has four steps, just like Giles et
al. The only difference between the two approaches is that Tyler's approach is liner, showing that
one step leads to another; while Giles et al show the interrelatedness and interdependence of the
steps. They believe that the objectives determine what happens at the other steps. Tyler posed four
basic questions to explain the approaches to curriculum development, namely:

1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

A curriculum developer in answering the questions would develop a good curriculum

because he would have selected the objectives, earning experiences, organized the learning
experiences and embarked on evaluation. The questions are specific and help the curriculum
developer to be on track, always focusing on the objectives.

Kerr's (1968) approach has also four steps dealing with selection of objectives, selection of content,
selection of learning experiences and evaluation. Though the steps are interrelated and dependent
on each other, he did not say anything about organization of learning experiences. This is a
limitation to this model, because curriculum implementation cannot be attained without effective
organization of the learning experiences.

1. The Five-Step Approach

The five-step approach presents a departure from the four-step approach as discussed above.
Nicholls and Nicholls (1978) recommended this type of approach. The additional step is due to
their emphasis on situational analysis. They see this as a very crucial component of curriculum
development process. Situational analysis is the diagnosis of all the factors and issues involved in
curriculum planning and development. These factors are identified and analyzed to ensure that the

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development of the curriculum will be hitch free and that a worthwhile and functional curriculum
is developed. They believe that embarking on situational analysis would facilitate selection of the
objectives that reflect the needs of the society.
So, Nicholls and Nicholls approach include: situational analysis, selection of objectives,
selection of content, methods, and evaluation. The four-step approach proponents did not use
content but learning experiences, to qualify the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values presented
in the curriculum for the learners to imbibe. Nicholls and Nicholls call it content. They also refer
to organization of learning experiences as methods. Methods deal with the arrangement of the
curriculum materials to be presented to the learners, which is the same as organization. It deals
with observing the principles of effective organization, which include sequencing, integration,
continuity and scope. Their approach is cyclic in nature which depicts a flexible process whereby
the curriculum worker can start from any point to develop the curriculum. This presents curriculum
development as a continuous and on-going process.
In the same vein, Wheeler's (1980) approach supports that of Nicholls and Nicholls. His
model is a five-step, cyclic approach, made up of: Selection of objectives, selection of content,
selection of learning experiences, organization of content and learning experiences, and evaluation.
Wheeler differed from the others by accommodating both learning experiences and content, which
he shows as two different components. The content is the body of knowledge, the subject matter,
the facts, ideas etc. presented to the learners, while the learning experiences are the activities
embarked upon by the learners to help them learn the content. They can be physical or mental;
overt or covert. They are learner oriented and goal-oriented. So, the learning experiences are the
means, while the content is the end. Wheeler also sees the organization of the two as the methods
applied in the implementation of the curriculum.
Wheeler neglects situational analysis which deals with needs analysis. His approach is also
cyclic and flexible in that one can begin curriculum development task from any point. It also shows
that curriculum is an on-going activity because the society is dynamic, and so, curriculum, a
vehicle used to produce functional members of the society should also be dynamic.

2. The Seven-Step Approach

Taba (1962) proposes her model or approach to curriculum development to have seven
components. She strongly believes that the phases should be specified to avoid confusing the
curriculum developer. She has the same point with Nicholls and Nicholls; that curriculum

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development should begin with situational analysis. She went further to identify the factors to be
studied at the situational analysis phase, which include: the learner, the teacher, the learning
process, the nature of available accumulated body of knowledge, the nature of the educational
system and facilities, the nature of the society, and environmental influences on the learner. The
data collected from this analysis will equip the curriculum developer with the necessary details to
select the curriculum objectives. The process or approach has the following steps: Situational
analysis, selection of objectives, selection of learning experiences, selection of content,
organization of learning experiences, organization of content, and evaluation. Unlike Wheeler, the
learning experiences and content are organized separately.

3. John Hopkins University Approach

An approach to curriculum development which was developed by physician educators at
John Hopkins University for clinical educators was presented by Kern, Thomas, Howa and Bass
'1998). This approach has six steps, which include: problem identification, needs assessment of
targeted learners, goals and objectives, educational strategies, implementation, evaluation and
feedback. They see the approach as logical, systematic, dynamic, and interactive. These six steps
are discussed briefly in details.

a. Problem Identification

This is the first step. The main reason for developing a curriculum is to train learners to be
useful members of their society. A functional curriculum focuses on the problems of the
society and so in developing a curriculum these problems form the basis for selecting the
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to be inculcated in the learners to equip them to
solve their problems. In identifying the problems, the learner characteristics, their current
status and what they should be are analyzed to identify the problems. The society is also
studied to sift the problems, which will be dealt with in developing the curriculum.

b. Needs Assessment of Targeted Learners

At this step, a needs assessment of the targeted learners is embarked upon. It involves a
process by which the curriculum developer finds out the differences between what is and
what should be; the actual characteristics of the targeted group of learners, and what obtains
in their environment. The first step in any curriculum development process involves
research that reviews recent issues and trends of the discipline, both within the society and
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 across the nation. This research allows a curriculum committee to identify key issues and
trends that will support the needs assessment that should be conducted and the philosophy
that should be developed. Tyler (1971) describes needs as the gap between where the
learner is and where he/she wants to be or should be. To be able to close this gap, the
required knowledge, skills, attitudes and values must be included in the curriculum.
As a result of this process, committee members are likely to identify many of the following
issues and trends that will need to be addressed as the curriculum development process
moves forward: meeting the needs of all students; learning theory and other cognitive
psychology findings on how students learn; what determines developmental readiness or
developmental appropriateness; the current expectations of the field; the knowledge of and
readiness for change on the part of teachers; the. availability of resources; the role and
availability of information and technology resources; scheduling issues; methods and
purposes of assessments; and professional development.

c. Goals and Objectives

This is the third step. Goals are broad statements of intended learning outcomes. They are
stated using broad terms that are not measurable until they are broken down into action
verbs. Objectives are specific statements of intensions of what is expected of the learners
at the end of teaching session. They are stated in action verbs, which are measurable. Once
the problems are identified the needs of the targeted group analyzed, the broad goals are
formulated and broken down to specific objectives
Subsequent steps hinge on the specific objectives because they are put in place to facilitate
attainment of the objectives.
In selecting the objectives, the three behaviors: cognitive, affective and psychomotor are
borne in mind. This is to ensure that the curriculum is comprehensive and will produce the
total man. The objectives drive every other activity in curriculum development. This is why
it is important to use specific and clear action verbs to avoid misunderstanding. Goals and
objectives are important because they help direct the choice of curricular content; suggest
what learning methods will be most effective; enable evaluation of learners and the
curriculum; suggest what evaluation methods are appropriate; clearly communicate to
others what the curriculum addresses and hopes to achieve.

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d. Educational Strategies
Educational strategies are the detailed means of facilitating learning. It involves the
manipulations of the learning environment to motivate learners to learn. A method may
accommodate a number of strategies, which means that strategies are sub-sets of method.
In this step, the educational strategies are developed. The strategies must promote the
attainment of the objectives. The strategies involve both the activities and the contents. The
activities are the means while the contents are the ends. This is why active participation of
the learners in curriculum endeavors is encouraged. Today, interactive strategies such as
collaboration, cooperation, learner autonomy, use of songs, small group activities and
drama are encouraged.

e. Implementation
Implementation is putting into action, the planned curriculum. It is the combined efforts of
the learner, the teacher and other stakeholders in ensuring effective execution of the
curriculum document. It calls for teacher-learner, learner-learner and learner-classroom
environment interactions. Careful attention must be paid to issues of implementation. The
curriculum developer must ensure that sufficient resources, political and financial support,
and administrative strategies have been developed to successfully implement the
curriculum. It has been observed in Nigeria, that lofty policies which are formulated are
not adequately implemented, especially when the political will is lacking.

f. Evaluation and Feedback

Most curriculum development models put evaluation as the last step. Evaluation and
feedback close the loop in the curriculum development cycle. Evaluation deals with the
extent of attainment of the stated objectives. It is the process of identifying the strengths
and weaknesses of the curriculum. It exposes what the learners have learnt and the gaps to
be closed. It is through evaluation that the feedback which is knowledge of result (KR) is
obtained. The feedback informs the curriculum developer about the next action to embark
on. This is why Wheeler sees curriculum development as a cyclic activity which has no
end as the feedback is ploughed back to the entire process for improvement.

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 4. Connecticut State Department of Education Approach
The Bureau of Curriculum Development and Instruction (2006), propounded four major
approaches to curriculum development, namely: Planning, articulating and developing,
Implementation and Evaluation. They called them components of curriculum development process.
Each step has a number of activities that must be carried out by the curriculum developer during
the process as shown below.

a. Planning
This section entails: convening a Curriculum Development Committee meeting to identify
key issues and trends in the specific content area, and assess needs and issues. Curriculum
development should be viewed as a process by which meeting student needs leads to
improvement of student learning. Regardless of the theory or model followed, curriculum
developers should gather as much information as possible. This information should include
the desired outcomes or expectations of a high-quality curriculum, the role of assessment,
the current status of student achievement and actual program content. The information
should also consider the concerns and attitudes of teachers, administrators, parents and
students.

b. Articulating and Developing

This component deals with articulating the philosophy of the program; defining the goals
and deriving the objectives from the goals; identifying the required resources for
implementation of the curriculum; and identifying the appropriate assessment procedures
and instruments to measure the students' learning outcomes.

c. Implementing
The third component is implementation and this means putting the New Program into practice.
This is the operational stage of the curriculum whereby the learners are exposed to the
curriculum and then engage in the learning activities as contained in the curriculum.

d. Evaluation
Evaluation deals with determining the success of the curriculum. Through the attainments of
the learners, the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum are identified and the feedback is
used to update the curriculum. Appropriate instruments are developed and used to evaluate the

24
 attained curriculum. The feedback is used to restructure, modify, review or jettison the
curriculum.
Additionally, there are three basic approach of curriculum design: 1) Subject-centered design; 2)
Learner-centered design; 2) Problem-centered design.

5. Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or
discipline. For example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. This type
of curriculum design tends to focus on the subject rather than the individual. It is the most common
type of curriculum used in K-12 public schools in states and local districts in the United States.

Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it should
be studied. Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design which can be standardized
across schools, states, and the country as a whole. In standardized core curricula, teachers are
provided a pre-determined list of things that they need to teach their students, along with specific
examples of how these things should be taught. You can also find subject-centered designs in large
college classes in which teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline.

The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-

centered. In particular, this form of curriculum design is constructed without considering the
specific learning styles of the students. This can cause problems with student engagement and
motivation and may even cause students to fall behind in class.

6. Learner-Centered Curriculum Design

In contrast, learner-centered curriculum design takes each individual's needs, interests, and
goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that students are not uniform and adjusts
to those student needs. Learner-centered curriculum design is meant to empower learners and
allow them to shape their education through choices.

Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are differentiated, giving students the

opportunity to choose assignments, learning experiences or activities. This can motivate students
and help them stay engaged in the material that they are learning.

The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it is labor intensive. Developing
differentiated instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create instruction and/or find materials

25
that are conducive to each student's learning needs. Teachers may not have the time or may lack
the experience or skills to create such a plan. Learner-centered curriculum design also requires that
teachers balance student wants and interests with student needs and required outcomes, which is
not an easy balance to obtain.

7. Problem-Centered Curriculum Design

Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is also a
form of student-centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on teaching students how to
look at a problem and come up with a solution to the problem. Students are thus exposed to real-
life issues, which helps them develop skills that are transferable to the real world.

Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum and allows
students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The drawback to this form of curriculum
design is that it does not always take learning styles into consideration.

DIAGNOSIS OF NEEDS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The first important step in determining what the curriculum should be for a given
population is to diagnose its needs. Diagnosis is an essential part of curriculum development in
order to attune it with the needs of the times and of learners, and to help determine which objectives
to stress. Diagnosis should be a continuous part of on-going curriculum and teaching. The
continuous need to accommodate different types of learners and to introduce new materials or a
new emphasis demands that these adjustments be made according to diagnostic check on what the
learners know and can understand, what skills they have, or what mental processes they have
mastered. Diagnostic evidence is also needed to gear plans and expectations to the upper limits of
potentiality.

1. Needs assessment
Needs assessment is a process of defining the desired end or outcome, product, or result of
a given sequence of curriculum development. It is a process of making specific, in some intelligible
manner, what schooling should be about and how it can be assessed. Needs assessment is not by
itself a curricular innovation, it is a method for determining if innovation is necessary and or

26
desirable. It is an empirical process for defining the outcomes of education, and as such it is then
a set of criteria by which curricula may be developed and compared.

a. Diagnosis of the Learners

The curriculum should be developed to enhance the desirable uniqueness of individuals. It

should be organized in terms of the learners’ interest, ability, and activities. The learner
should be made the starting point, the center. The nature of the learner must be made the
science of learning.

In order to diagnose the learners, we must know a great deal about the learners’ status in
the attainment of educational objectives and their abilities objectives, such as: cultural
backgrounds, motivational patterns, content of their social learning. We must also know
the differences from the learners like their mental system, approaches to problem solving,
functioning of their intelligence, interest span, social maturity, enthusiasm, creative urges,
and areas of conscious interest.

Why diagnosis of the learners is an important determinant of the curriculum? The reasons are:

 The maximum development of each individual, within the framework of the common
welfare is the essence of schooling
 A person is truly educated only as he develops to the fullest extent possible his unique
talents and capacities
 The welfare and advancement of the social group depend on the maximum
development of the human potentialities of each member comprising the group
 The nature of our nation in years to come depends on the skills, insights, knowledge,
and character of the individuals who will comprise that society
 The motivational syndrome of the individual himself –his drives, his needs, his
perceptions, his self-concepts, his expectations, and his aspirations –constitutes one of
the primary bases for the selection and development of learning experiences
 The program of the school and the learning experiences selected for pupils at all levels
must be adapted to the maturity, capacities, and abilities of the learner
 Evaluation of the pupil’s growth and development and the extent of his attainment of
the behavioral goals of education must take account of his own capacities.

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b. Diagnosis of Social Needs
Since the school is established by a society to serve its needs, the content of the curriculum
should deal with the nature, background, and needs of that society. The organization of the
curriculum should be based on the conditions, problems, and needs of society, and on the
real concerns, problems and interest of the learners. It should also be concerned with the
improvement of living and learning conditions in the school and in the society.

Reasons behind the importance of societal diagnosis as a determinant of the curriculum are
the following:
 Teachers and curriculum leaders themselves are participants in the society and usually
have been thoroughly educated in the culture of the group for whom they plan a school
program
 The school inculcates the values, ideals, beliefs, traditions and mores of the social
group
 The school educates its pupils to live in a particular society at a particular time in its
group life
 The culture shapes learners’ development and personality, and determines their
educational needs
 Curriculum planning and teaching should take account of the social as well as the innate
aspects of pupil motivation
 The relative importance of the knowledge and concepts to be learned by the young is
culturally determined

Other things which curriculum planners and curriculum developers should know about
what society are the following:
 The fundamental beliefs, values, and moral principles of the people
 The mores, traditions, expectations, and value patterns of the citizens of a school
community

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 The philosophy, points of view, and recommendations on education of pertinent
professional, civic, and patriotic organizations, and of leading authorities and officials
in the field of education
 Social, economic, and political conditions
 The home and family situation of the learners
 Legal mandates, requirements of superior agencies, and admission requirements of
colleges, universities, and other post-secondary educational institutions
 The psychology and sociology of cultural change

c. Diagnosis of achievement
Diagnosis of achievement is determining how well students have achieved important
educational objectives. The scope of the objectives determines the scope of this diagnosis.
It may include such matters as what concepts and information students have mastered, what
patterns of thinking they find easy of difficult, what maturity in attitudes and feelings they
possess, which skills they can or cannot use, and what their interests are.

d. Diagnosis of values
Because of the wealth of the materials and the limited time available, curriculum
developers must select the subject-matter most valuable for the particular learners they are
considering. Subject–matter of relative value rather than preparatory value should be taken
into consideration in curriculum development.

e. Diagnosis of school facilities and resources of the community

The curriculum must be alive and dynamic, adapted to the circumstances and experiences
of the learners. The activities in the curriculum should be indigenous to the community.
Information regarding the recreational facilities, health conditions, occupations, and the
physical features of the community will also prove valuable in the determination of the
school program and activities.

f. Diagnosis of curriculum problems

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 Curriculum developers must also find out the causes of underachievement, the difficulties
encountered in teaching, or the evident failure of the curriculum to reach a considerable
portion of the learners. Suggested procedure: problem identification, problem analysis,
formulation of hypotheses and gathering of data; and experimenting with action.

2. Tools for Diagnosis of Curricular Needs

There are many tools for making diagnosis of curricular needs. One is the open-ended
classroom interview which consists of asking the class questions designed to elicit the meaning
certain things have for them, what they are familiar with, or descriptions of experiences they have
had which can be used to interpret their background and their feelings toward or understanding of
certain phenomena or concepts. Other informal diagnostic devices are open-ended questions and
themes, unfinished stories and incidents, records of discussions, records of reading and writing,
observation and recording of performance, special assignments and exercises, sociometric tests,
surveys, diaries and diagnostic programs.

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 FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

For the formulation of objectives, the investigator studied the related literature. Bloom
(1956) and Krathwohl (1964) have attempted to produce, using educational logical-psychological
principles, a complete taxonomy of the objectives in cognitive., affective and psychomotor areas.
The value and utility of these objectives lie in the fact that they present the intended behavior of
the students. They also suggest that besides information, there are abilities and skills which can be
cultivated. The cognitive domain includes the behavior pertaining to knowledge and Intellectual
abilities or skills and the affective domain includes those objectives which stress an emotion, a
feeling tone or a degree of acceptance or rejection.
So, the first two domains from which the investigator has formulated objectives are the
cognitive domain and the affective domain. But the investigator feels that as the goal of population
education is the inculcation of certain attitudes and values leading the target group to behave
rationally, some objectives relating to behavior should also be included. These objectives may be
about the observable population behavior, non-observable population behavior or delayed
behavior i.e. the behavior which cannot be practiced in life situations for the present. Thus, the
investigator has formulated general and specific objectives from three domains - the cognitive, the
affective and the behavior.

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 The objectives are usually stated as general objectives and specific objectives. General
objectives are long-term objectives. They cannot be developed or achieved during the course of a
single teaching-learning unit. They very broadly outline the expected behavior expressed as
categories of intended outcomes, the expected and products of educational endeavor. Die specific
objectives, on the other hand, describe behavior to be attained in a particular unit or a period. They
are short-term objectives. Their chief function is to guide the making of curriculum decisions on
what to cover, what to emphasize, what content to select and which learning experiences to stress.
It is needless to say that the specific objectives should be consistent with the general overarching
ones and in their totality express the vision of the general objectives.
The investigator has kept in mind the following principles discussed at length by Taba
(1962:199-205) to guide the formulation of objectives:
1. A statement of objectives should describe both the kind of behavior expected and the
content or the context.to which that behavior applies.
2. Complex objectives need to be stated analytically and specifically enough, so that there is
no doubt as to the kind of behavior expected, or what the behavior applies to.
3. Objectives should also be so formulated that there are clear distinctions among learning
experiences required to attain different behaviors.
4. Objectives are developmental, representing roads to travel rather than terminal points.
5. Objectives should be realistic and should include only what can be translated into
curriculum and class room experience.
6. The scope of objectives should be broad enough to encompass all types of outcomes for
which the school is responsible.

After taking the above listed principles into consideration, the investigator formulated the
following general and specific objectives for developing the curriculum in population education
for the secondary teachers under training:
General Objective No. 1:
To enable the student teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the dynamics,
determinants, consequences and control of population growth.
Specific Objectives:

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(1.1) To enable the student teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the meaning,
concept, scope and importance of population education.
(1.2) To enable the student teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the demographic
concepts.
(1.3) To enable the strident teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the population
situation in Gujarat and India in the context of the world population situation.
(1.4) To enable the student teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the factors
affecting growth rate and birth rate of population.
(1.5) To enable the student teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the economic
consequences of population growth,
(1.6) To enable the student teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the effects of
unchecked growth of population on environment and natural resources,
(1.7) To enable the student teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the relationship
between food problem and growth in population.
(1.8) To enable the student teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the social
implications of growth in population.
(1.9) To enable the student teachers to know and understand that the problem of urbanization
arises due to unabated growth of population.
(1.10) To enable the student teachers to acquire knowledge and understanding of the effects of
population growth on education.
(1.11) To enable the student teachers to know and understand how population growth affects life,
health and nutrition of family.
(1.12) To enable the student teachers to know and tinder stand the role of the teacher as a
population educator.

General objective Ho. 2:

To enable the student teachers to develop appreciation, awareness and attitudes favorable
to population control.
Specific objectives:
(2.1) To enable the student teachers to be aware of the fact that rapid population growth is the
result of the saving and prolonging of lives due to modern health practices.

33
(2.2) To enable the student teachers to be conscious and to feel concerned about the serious
problems posed by the population explosion at the micro and macro levels.
(2.3) To enable the student teachers to be aware of the fact that the size of a family can be planned
and that it is not a matter of fate.
(2.4) To enable the student teachers to develop positive attitudes for limiting the size of the
family and for planned parenthood.
(2.5) To enable the student teachers to appreciate the family welfare policies and programmers
of the country.
(2.6) To enable the student teachers to appreciate population education as an effective means of
social change and reconstruction.
(2.7) To enable the student teacher to develop positive attitude for eradicating superstitions and
wrong beliefs and barriers which stand in the way of population control.
(2.8) To enable the student teachers to develop awareness and attitudes necessary for their future
role of a population educator.
(2.9) To enable the student teacher to develop an attitude for a better way of life resulting from
planned and small family.
General objectives no 3:
To enable the student teachers to develop skill and abilities necessary for their future role
of a population educator.
Specific objectives:
(3.1) to enable the student teachers to develop the skill of communicating population education
concepts to secondary school students.
(3.2) To enable the student teacher to develop the ability of collecting and interpreting
demographic data.
(3.3) To enable the student teachers to develop ability to make correct and rational decisions in
matters relating to family size and population.
(3.4) To enable the student teachers to develop the skill of presenting demographic data through
graphs, charts, tables and figures.
(3.5) To enable the student teachers to develop skill in participating effectively in group
discussion.

34
(3.6) To enable the student teachers to develop the skill of preparing and or using audio-visual
aids for teaching the concepts relating to population education.
(3.7) To enable the student teachers to develop the ability of comparing, contrasting and
analyzing different situations and of drawing conclusions therefrom.
(3.8) To enable the student teachers to develop the skill in integrating concepts relating to
population education in various co-curricular activities.

General objective No. 4:

To enable the student teachers to develop and accept rational and responsible behavior
patterns in population situations at the micro as well as the macro levels.
Specific objectives:
(4.1) To enable the student teachers to demonstrate the ability to collect, present and interpret
demographic data.
(4.2) To enable the student teachers to appraise the population problems of the state, country and
the world.
(4.3) To enable the student teachers to strive for a higher socio-economic status by restricting
the size of the family.
(4.4) To enable the student teachers to evaluate the relationship between family size and the
quality of life.
(4.5) To enable the student teachers to be the agents of change and to work actively for
population control.
(4.6) To enable the student teachers to co-operate actively with the agencies working in the field
of population control.
(4.7) To enable the student teachers to develop confidence that many problems of the family,
state, country and world could be solved by controlling population growth.
(4.8) To enable the student teachers to aspire and to work for better conditions of living by
accepting the norm of a small size family.
(4.9) To enable the student teachers to advocate and accept the practice of late marriage.

Thus, the four general objectives were formulated and several specific objectives were
derived from each of the general objectives. The investigator has taken utmost care to formulate

35
these objectives in such a way as would indicate both the behavioral aspects and content aspects.
It is hoped that they would serve as guides in the attainment of the objectives of this investigation
and also as guides in the selection of essential and desirable subject matter or the content, learning
experience, methods of teaching and teaching devices. It is further hoped that they would serve as
bases in measuring the effectiveness of the learning and the teaching activities. The investigator,
however, does not want to suggest that the objectives formulation here are final exhaustive and all
conclusive. There is always a scope for improvement, alteration, additional education in an
exercise like this.
After finishing the task of formulating the objectives, both general and specific, the
investigator undertook the process of selecting the content which from phase 3 of the model.

EVALUATION IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The foregoing analysis yields this stipulative definition of curriculum evaluation: The
assessment of the merit and worth of a program of studies, a field of study, or a course of study.

Evaluation Models

How can the merit and worth of such aspects of curriculum be determined? Evaluation specialists
have proposed an array of models, an examination of which can provide useful background for the
process presented in this work.

1. Bradley’s Effectiveness Model

How can a developed curriculum be assessed and evaluated for effectiveness? Bradley’s
(1985) book Curriculum Leadership and Development Handbook provides 10 key indicators that
can be used to measure the effectiveness of a developed curriculum. The chart in Exhibit 12.1 is
designed to help you identify your perceptions regarding the 10 indicators to appraise curriculum
effectiveness in your school building or district.

Indicator Description Yes or No

Vertical The course of study reflects a K–12 format that enables teachers
curriculum to have quick and constant access to what is being taught in the
continuity grade levels below and above them. Also, upward spiraling
prevents undue or useless curricular repetition.

36
Indicator Description Yes or No
Horizontal The course of study developed provides content and objectives
curriculum that are common to all classrooms of the same grade level. Also,
continuity daily lesson plans reflect a commonality for the same grade
level.
Instruction Lesson plans are derived from the course of study, and
based on curriculum materials used are correlated with the content,
curriculum objectives, and authentic tasks developed.
Curriculum Philosophical and financial commitments are evident. Clerical
priority assistance is provided and reasonable stipends are paid to
teachers for work during the summer months. In addition,
curriculum topics appear on school board agendas,
administrative meeting agendas, and building-staff meeting
agendas.
Broad Buildings in the district have teacher representatives on the
involvement curricular committees; elementary, middle level or junior high,
and high school principals (or designees) are represented; and
school board members are apprised of and approve the course
of study.
Long-range Each program in the district is included in the 5-year sequence
planning and review cycle. Also, a philosophy of education and theory of
curriculum permeate the entire school district.
Decision- Controversies that occur during the development of a program
making clarity center on the nature of the decision, and not on who makes the
decision.
Positive human Also, the initial thoughts about the curriculum come from
relations teachers, principals, and the curriculum leader. All participating
members are willing to risk disagreeing with anyone else;
however, communication lines are not allowed to break down.

37
Indicator Description Yes or No
Theory-into- The district philosophy, vision, mission, exit (graduation)
practice outcomes, program philosophy, rationale statement, program
approach goals, program objectives, learning outcomes, and authentic
tasks are consistent and recognizable.
Planned change Tangible evidence shows that the internal and external publics
accept the developed program course of study for the school
district. The process of developing a course of study for each
program or discipline in a school district is no longer one of
determining how to do it, but one of determining how to do it
better.
If any of the 10 indicators are identified with a No (negative), consideration should be given to
make it a Yes (positive) indicator.
Source: The 10 indicators of effective curriculum development were adapted from Curriculum
Leadership and Development Handbook (pp. 141–146), by L. H. Bradley, 1985, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.

The indicators for effective curriculum development represent working characteristics that
any complex organization must have in order to be responsive and responsible to its clients.
Further, the measurement can be oriented to meet the needs of any school district— from large to
small—and it can focus on a specific evaluation of a district’s curriculum area, such as reading,
language arts, math, or any content area designated. The models (Tyler’s objectives-centered
model; Stufflebeam’s context, input, process, product model; Scriven’s goal-free model; Stake’s
responsive model, and Eisner’s connoisseurship model) presented below give some support to
Bradley’s effectiveness model.

2. Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model

One of the earliest curriculum evaluation models, which continues to influence many
assessment projects, was that proposed by Ralph Tyler (1950) in his monograph Basic Principles
of Curriculum and Instruction. As explained in this work and used in numerous large-scale

38
assessment efforts, the Tyler approach moved rationally and systematically through several related
steps:
1. Begin with the behavioral objectives that have been previously determined. Those
objectives should specify both the content of learning and the student behavior expected:
“Demonstrate familiarity with dependable sources of information on questions relating to
nutrition.”
2. Identify the situations that will give the student the opportunity to express the behavior
embodied in the objective and that evoke or encourage this behavior. Thus, if you wish to
assess oral language use, identify situations that evoke oral language.
3. Select, modify, or construct suitable evaluation instruments, and check the instruments for
objectivity, reliability, and validity.
4. Use the instruments to obtain summarized or appraised results.
5. Compare the results obtained from several instruments before and after given periods in
order to estimate the amount of change taking place.
6. Analyze the results in order to determine strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum and
to identify possible explanations about the reason for this particular pattern of strengths and
weaknesses.
7. Use the results to make the necessary modifications in the curriculum. (as cited in
Glatthorn, 1987, p. 273)
The Tyler model has several advantages: It is relatively easy to understand and apply. It is
rational and systematic. It focuses attention on curricular strengths and weaknesses, rather than
being concerned solely with the performance of individual students. It also emphasizes the
importance of a continuing cycle of assessment, analysis, and improvement. As Guba and Lincoln
(1981) pointed out, however, it suffers from several deficiencies. It does not suggest how the
objectives themselves should be evaluated. It does not provide standards or suggest how standards
should be developed. Its emphasis on the prior statement of objectives may restrict creativity in
curriculum development, and it seems to place undue emphasis on the preassessment and post-
assessment, ignoring completely the need for formative assessment. Similarly, Baron and Boschee
(1995), in their book Authentic Assessment: The Key to Unlocking Student Success, stress that “we
are encountering fundamental changes in the way we view and conduct assessment in American

39
schools” (p. 1). And “sixty years have passed since we experienced such a deep-seated and
thoughtful revaluation of our assessment methods” (p. 1).

3. Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product Model

These obvious weaknesses in the Tyler model led several evaluation experts in the late 1960s
and early 1970s to attack the Tyler model and to offer their own alternatives. The alternative that
had the greatest impact was that developed by a Phi Delta Kappa committee chaired by Daniel
Stufflebeam (1971). This model seemed to appeal to educational leaders because it emphasized
the importance of producing evaluative data for decision making; in fact, decision making was the
sole justification for evaluation, in the view of the Phi Delta Kappa committee.
To service the needs of decision makers, the Stufflebeam model provides a means for
generating data relating to four stages of program operation: context evaluation, which
continuously assesses needs and problems in the context to help decision makers determine goals
and objectives; input evaluation, which assesses alternative means for achieving those goals to
help decision makers choose optimal means; process evaluation, which monitors the processes
both to ensure that the means are actually being implemented and to make the necessary
modifications; and product evaluation, which compares actual ends with intended ends and leads
to a series of recycling decisions.

During each of these four stages, specific steps are taken:

 The kinds of decisions are identified.
 The kinds of data needed to make those decisions are identified.
 Those data are collected.
 The criteria for determining quality are established.
 The data are analyzed on the basis of those criteria.
 The needed information is provided to decision makers. (as cited in Glatthorn, 1987, pp.
273–274)

The context, input, process, product (CIPP) model, as it has come to be called, has several
attractive features for those interested in curriculum evaluation. Its emphasis on decision making
seems appropriate for administrators concerned with improving curricula. Its concern for the

40
formative aspects of evaluation remedies a serious deficiency in the Tyler model. Finally, the
detailed guidelines and forms created by the committee provide step-by-step guidance for users.

The CIPP model, however, has some serious drawbacks associated with it. Its main
weakness seems to be its failure to recognize the complexity of the decision-making process in
organizations. It assumes more rationality than exists in such situations and ignores the political
factors that play a large part in these decisions. Also, as Guba and Lincoln (1981) noted, it seems
difficult to implement and expensive to maintain.

4. Scriven’s Goal-Free Model

Michael Scriven (1972) was the first to question the assumption that goals or objectives
are crucial in the evaluation process. After his involvement in several evaluation projects where
so-called side effects seemed more significant than the original objectives, he began to question
the seemingly arbitrary distinction between intended and unintended effects. His goal-free model
was the outcome of this dissatisfaction.

In conducting a goal-free evaluation, the evaluator functions as an unbiased observer who

begins by generating a profile of needs for the group served by a given program (Scriven is
somewhat vague as to how this needs profile is to be derived). Then, by using methods that are
primarily qualitative in nature, the evaluator assesses the actual effects of the program. If a program
has an effect that is responsive to one of the identified needs, then the program is perceived as
useful.

Scriven’s main contribution, obviously, was to redirect the attention of evaluators and
administrators to the importance of unintended effects—a redirection that seems especially useful
in education. If a mathematics program achieves its objectives of improving computational skills
but has the unintended effect of diminishing interest in mathematics, then it cannot be judged
completely successful. Scriven’s emphasis on qualitative methods also seemed to come at an
opportune moment, when there was increasing dissatisfaction in the research community with the
dominance of quantitative methodologies.

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 As Scriven himself notes, however, goal-free evaluation should be used to complement,
not supplant, goal-based assessments. Used alone, it cannot provide sufficient information for the
decision maker. Some critics have faulted Scriven for not providing more explicit directions for
developing and implementing the goal-free model; as a consequence, it probably can be used only
by experts who do not require explicit guidance in assessing needs and detecting effects.

5. Stake’s Responsive Model

Robert Stake (1975) made a major contribution to curriculum evaluation in his develop-
ment of the responsive model, because the responsive model is based explicitly on the assumption
that the concerns of the stakeholders—those for whom the evaluation is done—should be
paramount in determining the evaluation issues. Stake recommends an interactive and recursive
evaluation process that embodies these steps:

 The evaluator meets with clients, staff, and audiences to gain a sense of their perspectives
on and intentions regarding the evaluation.
 The evaluator draws on such discussions and the analysis of any documents to determine
the scope of the evaluation project.
 The evaluator observes the program closely to get a sense of its operation and to note any
unintended deviations from announced intents.
 The evaluator discovers the stated and real purposes of the project and the concerns that
various audiences have about it and the evaluation.
 The evaluator identifies the issues and problems with which the evaluation should be
concerned. For each issue and problem, the evaluator develops an evaluation design,
specifying the kinds of data needed.
 The evaluator selects the means needed to acquire the data desired. Most often, the means
will be human observers or judges.
 The evaluator implements the data-collection procedures.
 The evaluator organizes the information into themes and prepares “portrayals” that
communicate in natural ways the thematic reports. The portrayals may involve videotapes,
artifacts, case studies, or other “faithful representations.”

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  By again being sensitive to the concerns of the stakeholders, the evaluator decides which
audiences require which reports and chooses formats most appropriate for given audiences.
(as cited by Glatthorn, 1987, pp. 275–276)

Clearly, the chief advantage of the responsive model is its sensitivity to clients. By iden-
tifying their concerns and being sensitive to their values, by involving them closely throughout the
evaluation, and by adapting the form of reports to meet their needs, the model, if effectively used,
should result in evaluations of high utility to clients. The responsive model also has the virtue of
flexibility: The evaluator is able to choose from a variety of methodologies once client concerns
have been identified. Its chief weakness would seem to be its susceptibility to manipulation by
clients, who in expressing their concerns might attempt to draw attention away from weaknesses
they did not want exposed.

6. Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model

Elliot Eisner (1979) drew from his background in aesthetics and art education in developing
his “connoisseurship” model, an approach to evaluation that emphasizes qualitative appreciation.
The Eisner model is built on two closely related constructs: connoisseurship and criticism.
Connoisseurship, in Eisner’s terms, is the art of appreciation—recognizing and appreciating
through perceptual memory, drawing from experience to appreciate what is significant. It is the
ability both to perceive the particulars of educational life and to understand how those particulars
form part of a classroom structure. Criticism, to Eisner, is the art of disclosing qualities of an entity
that connoisseurship perceives. In such a disclosure, the educational critic is more likely to use
what Eisner calls “nondiscursive”—a language that is metaphorical, connotative, and symbolic. It
uses linguistic forms to present, rather than represent, conception or feeling.

Educational criticism, in Eisner’s formulation, has three aspects. The descriptive aspect is
an attempt to characterize and portray the relevant qualities of educational life—the rules, the
regularities, the underlying architecture. The interpretive aspect uses ideas from the social sciences
to explore meanings and develop alternative explanations—to explicate social phenomena. The
evaluative aspect makes judgments to improve the educational processes and provides grounds for
the value choices made so that others might better disagree.

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 The chief contribution of the Eisner model is that it breaks sharply with the traditional
scientific models and offers a radically different view of what evaluation might be. In doing so, it
broadens the evaluator’s perspective and enriches his or her repertoire by drawing from a rich
tradition of artistic criticism. Its critics have faulted it for its lack of methodological rigor, although
Eisner has attempted to refute such charges. Critics have also argued that use of the model requires
a great deal of expertise, noting the seeming elitism implied in the term connoisseurship.

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