AN

INTRODUCTION
TO
THE HUMAN
BODY
 Learning Objectives
 What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?

 What are the different levels of organization?

 What differentiates living things from non-living things?

 What is homeostasis?

 What are the components of a feedback mechanism?

 Explain anatomical body positions, directional terms used for

location of a body organ in relation to other organs?
 Anatomy and Physiology
 Anatomy is the study of body
structure.
 science of structure

 Physiology is the science of body

functions.
 science of body functions
 Anatomy and Physiology
 Structure mirrors function

This structure is the liver, which has the function of filtering blood and producing
bile. Can you see how the function is determined by the structure, and vice versa?
 Subdivisions of Anatomy
 Surface Anatomy is the study of form and markings of
the body surface, often explored through visualization or
palpation (without any “cutting”).

 Gross Anatomy is the study of anatomical structures

visible to unaided eye. After making the appropriate

surface marking in the prior picture, the gross dissection
proceeds through “cutting.”
Subdivisions of Anatomy
 Gross Anatomy can be studied by two general

approaches:

 Systemic approach (Systemic Anatomy):

 Regional approach (Regional Anatomy)

 Subdivisions of Anatomy
 Developmental anatomy

is the study of the fertilized

egg developing into its adult

form.( For e.g., Embryology)

 Subdivisions of Anatomy
 Histology is the study of tissues.

 Cytology, like histology, uses a

microscope, but restricts the study

to individual cellular structures .

 Pathology is the study of

anatomical changes due to

disease .
 Clinical Connection

 An autopsy is a postmortem (after death) examination of

the body and internal organs performed by a pathologist.

Levels of Organization
 Levels of Organization
 The chemical level of organization

 Atoms

 Molecules

 The Cell is next in complexity, in fact many billions of

times more complex than molecules.
 Cells (and this is important!) are the basic structural

and functional units of an organism .

 Levels of Organization

 Tissues are groups of cells that work together to perform a

similar function.

 Epithelium

 Connective Tissue

 Muscle

 Nerves
Levels of Organization
 Organs are structures composed of two or more

different types of tissues (all but the simplest of organs

have all 4 basic tissues represented.)

 Organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary

life functions.
 Levels of Organization
System Level
Digestive system
Takes in nutrients, breaks Respiratory system
them down, and eliminates Takes in oxygen and
unabsorbed matter (feces) eliminates carbon dioxide
Food CO2
Cardiovascular system O2 CO2
Via the blood, distributes oxygen O2
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs

CO2

Urinary system
O2
Eliminates Integumentary
Nutrients nitrogenous system
wastes and excess Protects the body as a
ions whole from the
Interstitial fluid
external environment

Nutrients and wastes pass

between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid

Feces Urine
 Levels of Organization
 An organism consists of a collection of organ
systems.
 Six important life processes:
 Metabolism
 Responsiveness
 Movement
 Growth
 Differentiation
 Reproduction

 In health, all parts of the body must be

functioning together in a process called
homeostasis.
 Levels of Organization
1. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in
body cells
 Catabolism and anabolism

2.Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to

stimuli
 Withdrawal reflex

3.Movement (contractility)
 Of body parts (skeletal muscle)
 Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
 Levels of Organization
4. Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism

5. Reproduction:
 Cellular division for growth or repair
 Production of offspring

6. Differentiation is the development of a cell from an

unspecialized to specialized state. Cells have specialized
structures and functions that differ from precursor cells.
1.
Survival
Nutrients
Needs
 Chemicals for energy and cell building
 Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins

2. Oxygen
 Essential for energy release (ATP production)

3. Water
 Most abundant chemical in the body
 Site of chemical reactions

4. Normal body temperature

 Affects rate of chemical reactions

5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure

 For adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
 Homeostasis
 A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s
internal environment. It is a dynamic condition meant
to keep body functions in the narrow range compatible
with maintaining life.
 Homeostasis
 Body fluids are defined as dilute, watery solutions

containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of the

cell. Maintaining the volume and composition of body

fluids is important.

 Intracellular Fluid (ICF) is the fluid within cells

 Extracellular Fluid (ECF) is the fluid outside cells

 Interstitial fluid is ECF between cells and tissues

 Homeostasis
 Some important body fluids:

 Blood Plasma is the ECF within blood vessels.

 Lymph is the ECF within lymphatic vessels.

 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is the ECF in the brain and

spinal cord.

 Synovial fluid is the ECF in joints.

 Aqueous humor is the ECF in eyes.

 Homeostasis
 Cellular function depends on the regulation of the

composition of the interstitial fluid.

 Composition of interstitial fluid changes as substances

move between plasma and the interstitial fluid.

 Movement back and forth across capillary walls provides

nutrients (glucose, oxygen, ions) to tissue cells and

removes waste (carbon dioxide).

 Homeostasis
 Control of homeostasis is constantly being challenged by:

 Physical insults such as intense heat or lack of oxygen

 Changes in the internal environment such as a drop in

blood glucose due to lack of food

 Physiological stress such as demands of work or school

 Feedback System
 Cycle of events:
 Body is monitored and re-
monitored.
 Each monitored variable is termed
a controlled condition.
 Three basic components:
 Receptor
 Control center
 Effector
 4 Output:
3 Input: Information Information sent along
sent along afferent Control
efferent pathway to
pathway to control Center effector.
center. Afferent Efferent
2 pathway pathway
Receptor Effector 5
Receptor
Response
detects
change. of effector
feeds back
1 to reduce
Stimulus the effect of
produces BALANCE stimulus
change in and returns
variable. variable to
homeostatic
level.
 Feedback System
 Negative Feedback systems:

 Reverses a change in a controlled condition

 Regulation of blood pressure

 Positive Feedback systems:

 Strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the body’s

controlled conditions
 Normal child birth
 Feedback System

 Blood Pressure
regulation is a
negative feedback
system.
 Feedback System
 Childbirth is an example of a positive
feedback system:
 Clinical Connection
 Diagnosis of Disease is done by assessing:

 Signs and symptoms

 Medical history

 Collecting information about event

 Present illnesses and past medical problems

 Physical examination:

 Orderly evaluation of the body and its function

 Noninvasive techniques and other vital signs (pulse)

 Anatomical Terminology
 Anatomical Position

 In the anatomical position, the subject stands

erect facing the observer with the head

level, the eyes facing forward, feet flat on

the floor directed forward, and the arms

at their sides, palms forward.

 All anatomical descriptions are in

reference to this position.

 Anatomical Terminology
 Directional Terms
 Superior
 Inferior

 Above, top, toward head

 Below, bottom,
away from head
Anatomical Terminology

 Directional Terms
 Anterior (Ventral)

 Posterior (Dorsal)
Anatomical Terminology
Directional Terms
 Proximal  Nearest to the origination
 Distal  Farther from
origination
 Anatomical Terminology
 Directional Terms
 Superficial  Towards the surface
 Deep
 Towards the core of the body
Superficial

Superficial Deep Superficial

Superficial
 Anatomical Terminology
 Descriptive Terms
 Visceral  Pertaining to a covering over an organ
 Parietal
 Pertaining to a covering against a
cavity wall

Parietal

Visceral
 Anatomical
 Regional Names
Terminology
 Cranial  Skull
 Cervical  Neck
 Cubital  Elbow
 Carpal  Wrist
 Patellar  Front of knee
 Orbital  Eye

 Thoracic  Chest

 Inguinal  Groin
 Body Planes
 Body Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that separate
the body or body part into portions. There are three
major planes at right angles to one another:
 Sagittal (midline)

 Transverse (horizontal)

 Frontal (coronal)
Body Planes
A midsagittal section of the
human brain

A frontal (or coronal) brain

section

A transverse (or horizontal) brain

section
 Body Cavities
 Embryologically, the human organs develop within two
major body cavities:
 The brain and spinal cord
develop in a dorsal cavity.
 The remaining body organs
are found in the ventral
body cavity.
 Body Cavities
 Cranial cavity is formed by the cranial bones.
 Protects the brain
 Vertebral canal is formed by bones of vertebral column.
 Contains the spinal cord
 Meninges
 Layers of protective tissue
that line the cranial cavity
and vertebral canal
 Body Cavities
 Thoracic cavity is formed by the sternum, ribs, and the

thoracic portion of the bony vertebral column.

 Also called chest cavity

 Stabilized by the internal

and external muscles of

the chest
 Body Cavities
 Other cavities are contained within the thoracic cavity:
 Mediastinal cavity
 Located in the central part of the thoracic cavity

 Left and Right Pleural cavities

 Two fluid-filled spaces that surround each lung

 Body Cavities
 Pericardial cavity is itself located within the middle part of
the mediastinal cavity in the thoracic cavity (like a set of
Russian nesting dolls of decreasing size—one placed inside
the other).
 Body Cavities
 The
pericardial cavity is shown here nestled in the middle
mediastinum:

Left
Pleural
cavity
Right
peural
cavity
 Body Cavities

 Abdominopelvic Cavity extends from the diaphragm to

the groin and is encircled by the abdominal wall and
bones and muscles of the pelvis.
 Divided into two portions:
 Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, spleen, liver,
gallbladder, small and large intestines.
 Pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, internal organs of
reproductive system, and portions of the large intestine.
Body Cavities
 Membranes of the body cavities
Body Cavities
 Other body cavities

 Oral (mouth) cavity contains the tongue and teeth.

 Nasal cavity is part of the upper airways (Chapter 23).

 Orbital cavities contain the eyeballs and various nerves and

blood vessels.

 Middle ear cavities contain the small bones of the middle

ear.

 Synovial cavities are found in freely moveable joints like the

large joints of the shoulder and hip.

 Major Body Organs

Cavity Subdivisions Organ Associated structures

Cranium Brain Cranial nerves
Cranial
Vertebral canal Spinal cord Spinal nerves
Thyroid gland
Pleural Lungs
Thymus
Esophagus
Trachea
Thoracic
Mediastinum Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava
Aorta
Pericardial Heart
Diaphragm
Stomach
Liver
Abdomen
Small intestine Greater omentum
Large intestine (most)
Abdominopelvic Retroperitoneal Kidneys Ureters
Urinary bladder
Ovaries (♀)
Pelvic
Uterine tubes (♀)
Uterus (♀)
Testes (♂)
 Major Body Organs
 Brain
 Spinal Cord
 Thyroid Gland
 Thymus
 Major Body Organs
 Lungs
 Trachea
 Superior vena cava
 Inferior vena cava
 Aorta
 Heart
 Major Body Organs
 The diaphragm is a powerful skeletal muscle that divides

the thorax

(thoracic cavity)

from the abdomen

Diaphragm
(abdominal cavity).
 Major Body Organs

 Trachea
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Liver
 Small Intestine
 Large Intestine
Major Body Organs

 Kidneys
 Urinary bladder
 Major Body Organs  Uterus
 Ovaries  Testes
 Uterine tubes
 Abdominopelvic Quadrants & Regions

 Identification of quadrants and regions in the

abdominopelvic cavity helps clinicians describe the
location of the many abdominal and pelvic organs.
 There are 4 abdominopelvic quadrants and 9 regions.
 The dividing lines between these are centered on the
umbilicus (“belly button”).
 Abdominopelvic Quadrants & Regions
 Vertical and horizontal lines pass through the umbilicus
 Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
 liver
 Left upper quadrant (LUQ)

 spleen and left kidney

 Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

 appendix
 Left lower quadrants (LLQ)
 left ovary ( )
 Abdominopelvic Quadrants & Regions

 Dividing the abdomen and pelvis into regions is done using a Tic-
Tac-Toe grid. It is a little more complex than using quadrants,
but is also more specific
 There are nine
abdominopelvic
regions
Abdominopelvic Quadrants & Regions
 Medical Imaging
 Techniques and procedures used to create images of the

human body

 Allow visualization of structures inside the body

 Diagnosis of anatomical and physiological disorders

 Conventional radiography (X-rays) have been in use since

the late 1940’s

 Medical Imaging
 Radiography is done using X-rays to produce an image
of interior structures. They are inexpensive and quick
 Hollow structures appear black or gray
 Do not pass easily through dense structure (bone)
 At low dose, useful for soft
tissue (breast)
 Mammography (breast)
 Bone densitometry (bone

density)
 Medical Imaging
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is done using an
extremely powerful magnetic field. It is a safe procedure
but cannot be used on patients containing metal.
 Protons in body fluid align with field
 Used for differentiating normal and abnormal tissues
(tumors, brain abnormalities, blood flow)
 2D and 3D color images can be viewed on a video monitor.
 Medical Imaging
 Computed Tomography or CT-Scans are done using a
computer to organize x-rays to form a 3D image. It is used
to visualize soft tissue in more detail than conventional
radiography.
 Tissue intensities show
varying degrees of gray.
 Whole-body CT scans
expose the body to a high
dose of x-rays.
Medical Imaging
 Here are 3 cross sectional images of a
head from the Visible Human Project.
They are done using the three

http://vhp.med.umich.edu/
modalities discussed above.
 From top to bottom:
 Photograph of frozen, sawed head

 CT scan of the same level/plane

 MRI scan of the same level/plane

Objective 10
 Medical Imaging
 Ultrasound Scanning (sonography) is done using high

frequency sound waves. It is noninvasive and painless.

 Medical Imaging
 Radionuclide Scanning is done by giving a radioactive
substance (radionuclide) intravenously.
 Gamma rays emitted by tissues that take up the radionuclide
are detected by a camera and displayed on a video monitor.
The color intensity represents the amount of uptake.

 Single-photo-emission

computerized tomography
(SPECT) is a specialized
form of this technique.
 Medical Imaging
 Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan) is done by
injecting a substance emitting positively charged particles
into the body. The collision between positrons and negatively
charged electron in

body tissues produce gamma rays

used to form a computer assisted

image.
 Used to study physiology of

body structures (metabolism)

 Medical Imaging
 Endoscopy is done using a lighted instrument with a lens

projecting an image onto a monitor.

 Colonoscopy is a study of the interior of the colon.

 Laparoscopy is a study of the organs

in the abdominopelvic cavity.

 Arthroscopy is a study of the

interior of a joint (knee).

 Clinical Connection
 Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques are used to inspect

different aspects of the body:

 Is often done to access structure and function and to search

for the presence of disease.

 Palpation is gently touching body surfaces with hands.

 Auscultation is listening to body sounds (stethoscope).

 Percussion is tapping on the body surface with fingertips and

listening to echoes.