Foundations

Load from
roof to column

Load from
floor to column

(a) (b)
Load from
floor to column Fig. 3.69 Foundation failures: (a) sliding failure;
(b) overturning failure.
Load from
column to
foundation
Foundation loads resisted by ground

Fig. 3.68 Loading on foundations.

3.11 Foundations
(a) (b)
Foundations are required primarily to carry the dead
and imposed loads due to the structure’s floors, Fig. 3.70 Pad footing: (a) plan; (b) elevation.
beams, walls, columns, etc. and transmit and dis-
tribute the loads safely to the ground (Fig. 3.68).
The purpose of distributing the load is to avoid the foundations may bear directly on the ground or be
safe bearing capacity of the soil being exceeded supported on piles. The choice of foundation type
otherwise excessive settlement of the structure may will largely depend upon (1) ground conditions (i.e.
occur. strength and type of soil) and (2) type of structure
Foundation failure can produce catastrophic (i.e. layout and level of loading).
effects on the overall stability of a structure so that Pad footings are usually square or rectangular
it may slide or even overturn (Fig. 3.69). Such slabs and used to support a single column
failures are likely to have tremendous financial and (Fig. 3.70). The pad may be constructed using mass
safety implications. It is essential, therefore, that concrete or reinforced concrete depending on the
much attention is paid to the design of this element relative size of the loading. Detailed design of pad
of a structure. footings is discussed in section 3.11.2.1.
Continuous strip footings are used to support
3.11.1 FOUNDATION TYPES loadbearing walls or under a line of closely spaced
There are many types of foundations which are columns (Fig. 3.71). Strip footings are designed as
commonly used, namely strip, pad and raft. The pad footings in the transverse direction and in the

N = N = N = N
A B C D

Elevation

Plan

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.71 Strip footings: (a) footing supporting columns; ( b) footing supporting wall.

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Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

(a)

Plan (b) (c)

Typical sections through
raft foundations

Fig. 3.72 Raft foundations. Typical sections through raft foundation: (a) flat slab; (b) flat slab and downstand;
(c) flat slab and upstand.

longitudinal direction as an inverted continuous the surrounding strata by end bearing and/or fric-
beam subject to the ground bearing pressure. tion. End bearing piles derive most of their carry-
Where the ground conditions are relatively ing capacity from the penetration resistance of the
poor, a raft foundation may be necessary in order soil at the toe of the pile, while friction piles rely
to distribute the loads from the walls and columns on the adhesion or friction between the sides of the
over a large area. In its simplest form this may pile and the soil.
consist of a flat slab, possibly strengthened by
upstand or downstand beams for the more heavily 3.11.2 FOUNDATION DESIGN
loaded structures (Fig. 3.72). Foundation failure may arise as a result of (a) allow-
Where the ground conditions are so poor that able bearing capacity of the soil being exceeded,
it is not practical to use strip or pad footings but or (b) bending and/or shear failure of the base.
better quality soil is present at lower depths, the The first condition allows the plan-area of the base
use of pile foundations should be considered to be calculated, being equal to the design load
(Fig. 3.73). divided by the bearing capacity of the soil, i.e.
The piles may be made of precast reinforced
Ground design load bearing
concrete, prestressed concrete or in-situ reinforced (3.25)
pressure = plan area < capacity of soil
concrete. Loads are transmitted from the piles to
Since the settlement of the structure occurs dur-
ing its working life, the design loadings to be con-
sidered when calculating the size of the base should
be taken as those for the serviceability limit state
(i.e. 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk). The calculations to determine
the thickness of the base and the bending and shear
reinforcement should, however, be based on ulti-
mate loads (i.e. l.4Gk + 1.6Qk). The design of a
Soft pad footing only will be considered here. The reader
strata is referred to more specialised books on this sub-
ject for the design of the other foundation types
discussed above. However, it should be borne in
mind that in most cases the design process would
Hard
be similar to that for beams and slabs.
strata
3.11.2.1 Pad footing
The general procedure to be adopted for the
Fig. 3.73 Piled foundations. design of pad footings is as follows:
116
 Foundations

1. Calculate the plan area of the footing using ser-

viceability loads. Load on
shaded area
2. Determine the reinforcement areas required for to be used
bending using ultimate loads (Fig. 3.74). in design
3. Check for punching, face and transverse shear
failures (Fig. 3.75).
Fig. 3.74 Critical section for bending.

1.0d
Punching shear
1.5d
perimeter = Face shear
column
1.5d

perimeter
+ 8 × 1.5d

Transverse shear

Fig. 3.75 Critical sections for shear. (Load on shaded areas to be used in design.)

Example 3.15 Design of a pad footing (BS 8110)

A 400 mm square column carries a dead load (G k ) of 1050 kN and imposed load (Q k ) of 300 kN. The safe bearing
capacity of the soil is 170 kNm−2. Design a square pad footing to resist the loads assuming the following material
strengths:
fcu = 35 Nmm−2 fy = 500 Nmm−2

Axial loads: dead = 1050 kN

imposed = 300 kN

PLAN AREA OF BASE

Loading

Dead load
Assume a footing weight of 130 kN
Total dead load (Gk) = 1050 + 130 = 1180 kN

Serviceability load
Design axial load (N ) = 1.0Gk + 1.0Q k = 1.0 × 1180 + 1.0 × 300 = 1480 kN

Plan area
N 1480
Plan area of base = = = 8.70 m2
bearing capacity of soil 170
Hence provide a 3 m square base (plan area = 9 m2)
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Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Example 3.15 continued

Self-weight of footing
Assume the overall depth of footing (h) = 600 mm
Self weight of footing = area × h × density of concrete
= 9 × 0.6 × 24 = 129.6 kN < assumed (130 kN)

BENDING REINFORCEMENT
Design moment, M
Total ultimate load (W ) = 1.4G k + 1.6Q k
= 1.4 × 1050 + 1.6 × 300 = 1950 kN
W 1950
Earth pressure ( ps ) = = = 217 kNm−2
plan area of base 9

1300 400 1300

217 kN/m2

psb 2 217 × 1.300 2

Maximum design moment occurs at face of column (M ) = =
2 2
= 183 kNm/m width of slab

Ultimate moment
Effective depth
Base to be cast against blinding, hence cover (c) to reinforcement = 50 mm (see Table 3.8). Assume 20 mm diameter
(Φ) bars will be needed as bending reinforcement in both directions.

d
Φ

Cover

Hence, average effective depth of reinforcement, d, is

d = h − c − Φ = 600 − 50 − 20 = 530 mm

Ultimate moment
Mu = 0.156fcubd 2 = 0.156 × 35 × 103 × 5302
= 1534 × 106 Nmm = 1534 kNm
Since Mu > M no compression reinforcement is required.
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 Foundations

Example 3.15 continued

Main steel
M 183 × 106
K = = = 0.0186
fcubd 2 35 × 1000 × 5302
z = d[0.5 + (0.25 − K /0.9)]
= d[0.5 + (0.25 − 0.0186/0.9)]
= 0.979d ≤ 0.95d = 0.95 × 530 = 504 mm
M 183 × 106
As = = = 835 mm2 /m
0.87f y z 0.87 × 500 × 504
Minimum steel area is
0.13%bh = 780 mm2/m < A s OK
2
Hence from Table 3.22, provide H20 at 300 mm centres (A s = 1050 mm /m) distributed uniformly across the full width
of the footing parallel to the x–x and y–y axis (see clause 3.11.3.2, BS 8110).

CRITICAL SHEAR STRESSES

Punching shear

Critical
1.5d
perimeter

Critical perimeter, pcrit, is

= column perimeter + 8 × 1.5d
= 4 × 400 + 8 × 1.5 × 530 = 7960 mm
Area within perimeter is
(400 + 3d)2 = (400 + 3 × 530)2 = 3.96 × 106 mm2
Ultimate punching force, V, is
V = load on shaded area = 217 × (9 − 3.96) = 1094 kN
Design punching shear stress, υ, is
V 1094 × 103
υ= = = 0.26 Nmm−2
p critd 7960 × 530
100 A s 100 × 1050
= = 0.198
bd 103 × 530
Hence from Table 3.11, design concrete shear stress, υc, is
υc = (35/25)1/3 × 0.37 = 0.41 Nmm−2
Since υc > υ, punching failure is unlikely and a 600 mm depth of slab is acceptable.
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Design in reinforced concrete to BS 8110

Example 3.15 continued

Face shear
Maximum shear stress (υmax) occurs at face of column. Hence
W 1950 × 103
υmax = = = 2.3 Nmm−2 < permissible (= 0.8 35 = 4.73 Nmm−2)
column perimeter × d (4 × 400) × 530
Transverse shear 770 mm 530 mm

Ultimate shear force (V ) = load on shaded area = ps × area = 217(3 × 0.770) = 501 kN
Design shear stress, υ, is
V 501 × 103
υ= = = 0.32 Nmm−2 , υc
bd 3 × 103 × 530
Hence no shear reinforcement is required.

REINFORCEMENT DETAILS
The sketch below shows the main reinforcement requirements for the pad footing.
01-11H20-300
alternate bars
reversed

A A

01-11H20-300
alternate bars
reversed
75 kicker

Column starter
bars (not designed)

01 01

01 01 01 01
Section A–A

120
 Retaining walls

Natural ground
slope
Retaining wall
necessary to
avoid demolition
of building
Existing ground level

Building

Fig. 3.76 Section through road embankment incorporating a retaining wall.

3.12 Retaining walls main categories of concrete retaining walls (a) grav-
ity walls and (b) flexible walls.
Sometimes it is necessary to maintain a difference
in ground levels between adjacent areas of land. 3.12.1.1 Gravity walls
Typical examples of this include road and railway Where walls up to 2 m in height are required, it is
embankments, reservoirs and ramps. A common generally economical to choose a gravity retaining
solution to this problem is to build a natural slope wall. Such walls are usually constructed of mass
between the two levels. However, this is not always concrete with mesh reinforcement in the faces to
possible because slopes are very demanding of reduce thermal and shrinkage cracking. Other con-
space. An alternative solution which allows an struction materials for gravity walls include masonry
immediate change in ground levels to be effected is and stone (Fig. 3.77).
to build a vertical wall which is capable of resisting Gravity walls are designed so that the resultant
the pressure of the retained material. These struc- force on the wall due to the dead weight and the
tures are commonly referred to as retaining walls earth pressures is kept within the middle third
(Fig. 3.76). Retaining walls are important elements of the base. A rough guide is that the width of
in many building and civil engineering projects and base should be about a third of the height of the
the purpose of the following sections is to briefly retained material. It is usual to include a granular
describe the various types of retaining walls avail- layer behind the wall and weep holes near the base
able and outline the design procedure associated to minimise hydrostatic pressure behind the wall.
with one common type, namely cantilever retaining Gravity walls rely on their dead weight for strength
walls. and stability. The main advantages with this type
of wall are simplicity of construction and ease of
3.12.1 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS maintenance.
Retaining walls are designed on the basis that they
are capable of withstanding all horizontal pressures 3.12.1.2 Flexible walls
and forces without undue movement arising from These retaining walls may be of two basic types,
deflection, sliding or overturning. There are two namely (i) cantilever and (ii) counterfort.

Mesh
reinforcement Granular
Drainage layer
Weep holes backfill

Porous pipe
Mass concrete
footing
(a) (b)

Fig. 3.77 Gravity retaining walls: (a) mass concrete wall; (b) masonry wall.

121