ANAPHY REVIEWER

NERVOUS SYSTEM b) Functions

 Master control and communication system of the body  These nerves serve as communication lines among sensory
 Communicates with body cells using electrical impulses which organs, the brain and spinal cord, and glands/muscles
are rapid and specific and cause almost immediate responses  Link all parts of the body by carting impulses from the
sensory receptors to the CNS and from the CNS to the
FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM appropriate glands or muscles
1. Sensory Input
 Gathering information NERVOUS SYSTEM BASED ON FUNCTIONAL
 To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body CLASSIFICATION
 Changes: stimuli 1. Sensory (Afferent) Division
 Sensory organs  Afferent: towards the CNS
 Consists of nerves (composed of many individual nerve fibers)
2. Integration that convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors located
 To process and interpret sensory input and decide whether in various parts of the body
action is needed  Keeps the body constantly informed of events going on both
 Occurs in the CNS (brain) inside and outside the body
3. Motor Output  Acts as spy that detects different changes happening in and out
 A response to integrated stimuli the body
 Activates muscles or glands (effectors)
a) Somatic Sensory Fibers
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM  soma = body
 Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints

b) Visceral Sensory Fibers

 Transmitting impulses from the visceral organs

2. Motor (Efferent) Division

 Carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the muscles
and glands; that is, they effect (bring about or cause) a motor
response
 Output to the integrated NS
 Issue fibers that carry impulses away from the CNS organs
a) Somatic Nervous System
 Allows us to consciously, or voluntarily, control our
skeletal muscles
 Voluntary nervous system
 Not all skeletal muscle activity controlled by this
motor division is voluntary – stretch reflex

b) Autonomic Nervous System

 Regulates events that are automatic, or involuntary,
such as the activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
and glands
 Involuntary nervous system which has two parts –
what one stimulates, the other inhibits
NERVOUS SYSTEM BASED ON STRUCTURAL
o Sympathetic
CLASSIFICATION
 vigorous and strenuous acts
1. Central Nervous System
o Parasympathetic
a) Organs
 Inhibit certain stimulus
 Brain and spinal cord

b) Functions
 Integration; command center
NERVE TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
 Interpret incoming sensory information
 Issue instructions based on past experience and current TWO PRINCIPAL TYPES OF CELLS
conditions  Supporting Cells: mainly for support
 Neurons: send electrical impulses
2. Peripheral Nervous System
a) Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
SUPPORTING CELLS
 Spinal nerves: carry impulses to and from the spinal cord
 Are lumped or grouped together in the CNS as neuroglia (nerve
 Cranial nerves: carry impulses to and from the brain glue, glial cells / glia)
 General Functions of Neuroglia: support, insulate, and protect
delicate neurons
1. Astrocytes
2. Microglia
3. Ependymal
4. Oligodendrocytes

1. ASTROCYTES
 Abundant star-shaped cells that account nearly half of neural
tissue
 Their numerous projections have swollen ends that cling to The glial cells are said to be mitotic. They divide rapidly, while
neurons, bracing them and anchoring them to their nutrient neurons don’t divide.
supply lines – blood capillaries Consequently, most brain tumors are gliomas – tumors formed by
 Form a living barrier between capillaries and neurons, help neuroglia
determine capillary permeability, and play a role in making
exchanges between the two
 Help protect the neurons from harmful substances that might
be in the blood PNS GLIAL CELLS
 Help control the chemical environment in the brain by “mopping 1. Satellite Cells
up” leaked potassium ions, which are involved in generating a  Protect neuron cell bodies
nerve impulse, and recapturing chemicals released for
communication purposes

2. Schwann Cells
 Form myelin sheaths in the PNS

NERVOUS TISSUE: NEURONS

 Nerve cells
2. MICROGLIA  Highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from
 Spiderlike phagocytes that monitor the health of nearby neurons one part of the body to another
and dispose debris, such as dead brain cells and bacteria  Neurons differ structurally from one another, but they have
 Immunity and self-defense many common features
 Have a cell body that contains the nucleus and one or more
slender processes extending from the cell body

MAJOR REGIONS OF NEURONS

1. Cell Body
 Is the metabolic center of the neuron
 Its transparent nucleus contains a large nucleolus
 The cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus contains the usual
organelles, except that it lacks centrioles – amitotic
3. EPENDYMAL  Contains Rough ER or Nissl Bodies and neurofibrils
 Line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal cord  Neurofibirils: intermediate filaments that are important in
 The beating of their cilia helps to circulate the cerebrospinal maintaining cell shape and are abundant in the cell body
fluid that fills those cavities and forms a protective watery
cushion around the CNS 2. Processes
 Armlike processes or fibers, vary in length from microscopic to
about 7ft in the tallest humans
 The longest ones reach from the lumbar region of the spine to
the great toe
a) Dendrites
 Neuron processes that convey incoming messages (electrical
signals) toward the cell body
 Neurons may have hundreds of branching dendrites (dendr
4. OLIGODENDROCYTES = tree), depending on the neuron type
 Wrap their flat extensions (processes) tightly around the nerve
fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin b) Axons
sheaths  Generate nerve impulses and typically conduct them away
from the cell body
 Exclusive to CNS only
 Each neuron has only one axon, which arises from a
conelike region of the cell body called the axon hillock
  An occasional axon gives off a collateral branch along its 3. Brain Stem
length, but all axons branch profusely at their terminal end, 4. Cerebellum
forming hundreds to thousands of axon terminals
 Axon terminals: contain hundreds of tiny vesicles, or I. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (PAIRED)
membranous sacs, that contain chemicals called  Collectively called the cerebrum
neurotransmitters  Most superior part of the brain
 When impulses reach the axon terminals, they stimulate the  Larger than the other three brain regions combined
release of neurotransmitters into the extracellular space  As they develop and grow, they enclose and obscure most of
between neurons, or between a neuron and its target cell. the brain stem (so many brain stem structures cannot be
 Synaptic Cleft: a tiny gap that separates each axon terminal normally seen unless a sagittal region is made)
to the next neuron .  The right and left hemisphere performs higher functions
 Synapse: junction between nerves (interpret, touch, hear, speak) – sense organs for cognitive
 Synapse: where an impulse is transmitted from one neuron to reasoning
another (syn = to clasp or join)  Have three basic regions:
 a superficial cortex of gray matter
3. Myelin sheaths  an internal are of white matter
 Whitish, fatty material covering axons  basal nuclei – islands of matter situated deep within the
 Has waxy appearance white matter (innermost)
 Protects and insulates the fibers and increases the transmission
rate of nerve impulses.  GYRI
a) Axons outside the CNS are myelinated by Schwann  Elevated ridges of tissue exhibited by the entire surface of the
Cells which wrap themselves around axons in a jelly- cerebral hemispheres
roll fashion (nodes of Ranvier: gaps or indentations at  Singular; twisters
regular intervals)
 Neurilemma: outermost part of plasma membrane  SULCI
external to the myelin sheath  Shallow grooves separating gyri
 Neurilemma: important role in fiber regeneration
where peripheral nerve is damaged  LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
 Other fissures or sulci divide each cerebral hemisphere into
b) Oligodendrocytes
these
 Produce myelin sheaths around axons of the CNS
 Named for the cranial bones that lie over them
NEURON CELL BODY LOCATIONS
 FISSURES
 Most neuron cell bodies are found in the CNS  Deeper grooves which are less numerous
 Nuclei: cluster of cell bodies within the bony skull or vertebral
 Separates the right and left hemisphere - large regions of
column the brain
 Ganglia: small collections of cell bodies outside the CNS;
 Longitudinal Fissure: single deep fissures that separates the
associated with PNS (can be found in a few sites outside the cerebral hemisphere
CNS in the PNS)
 Ganglion: relay station for the ganglia signals
 Interneurons: connect sensory and motor neurons

1. Tracts
 Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) running through the
CNS
2. Nerves
 Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) running through the
PNS
3. White Matter
 Collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
4. Gray Matter
 Collections of mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Develops from the embryonic neutral tube

 NEURAL TUBE
 Becomes the brain and the spinal cord
 It extends the dorsal median plane
 Its opening becomes the ventricles
 Four chambers within the brain
 Filled with cerebrospinal fluid which is used for  SURFACE LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
cushioning and lubrication 1. Frontal Lobe
 Recognizing
FOUR MAJOR REGIONS OF THE BRAIN  Motor skills
1. Cerebral Hemispheres  Higher level of recognition
2. Diencephalon  Expressive language
  Damage results to behavioral changes  Damage to this area, which is only located in one hemisphere
(usually left), causes the inability to say words properly
2. Parietal Lobe
 Tactile sensory information  OTHER SPECIALIZED AREAS
 Pressure  Intellectual reasoning and socially acceptable behavior
 Pain  Posterior: recognize patterns and faces and blending of
 Touch several inputs to understand the whole situation; abstract
 Process information corresponding to pressure and touch reasoning
 Damage results to numbness  Anterior and posterior association area
 Speech area (Wernicke’s): located at the junction of
3. Occipital Lobe frontal, parietal, and occipital lobe
 Visual stimuli and information
 Damage results to blindness and dyslexia
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: CEREBRUM
4. Temporal Lobe
 Interpreting sounds and language that we hear 1. GRAY MATTER
 Outer layer in the cerebral cortex
 Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
SPECIALIZED AREAS OF THE CEREBRUM
1. Primary Somatic Area 2. WHITE MATTER
 Located in the parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus  Fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
 Receives, localizes, and interprets impulses traveling from the  Corpus callosum connect hemisphere
body’s sensory receptors (except for the special senses)  Most of the remaining cerebral hemisphere tissue
 Allows you to recognize pain, coldness (temperature), or light  Composed of fiber tracts carrying impulses to, from, or within the
touch cortex
 Body regions with the most sensory receptors – the lips and
fingertips – send impulses to neurons that make up a large part  CORPUS CALLOSUM
of the sensory area  Very large fiber tract
 Left side of the primary somatic sensory area receives impulses  Connects the cerebral hemispheres
from the right side (vice versa) – Sensory pathways are  Fiber tracts: commissures
crossed-pathways  Arches above the structures of the brain stem and allow the
cerebral hemispheres to communicate with one another
 SENSORY HOMUNCULUS  Important because some of the cortical functional
 “little man” areas are in only one hemisphere
 Is a spatial map that has been used to show how much tissue in  Association fiber tracts connect areas within
the primary somatic area is developed to sensory functions hemisphere
various  Protection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with
lower CNS centers – brain stem
2. Cerebral Area Involved in Special Areas
 Impulses from the special sense organs are interpreted in other 3.BASAL NUCLEI
cortical areas  Innermost portion
 Visual area is located in the posterior part of the occipital lobe  Several islands of gray matter
bordering the lateral sulcus  Buried deep within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres
 Olfactory area us deep inside the temporal lobe  Help regulate voluntary activities (skeletal muscles)
 Modify instruction sent into the skeletal muscle by primary motor
 PRIMARY MOTOR AREA cortex
 Anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe  A tight band of projection fibers called the internal capsule,
 Sends impulses to skeletal muscles passes between the thalamus and the basal nuclei
 Allows us to consciously move our skeletal muscles  Damage: unable to walk/move properly because it mainly affects
 The axons of these motor neurons form the pyramidal tract skeletal system

PYRAMIDAL TRACT / CORTICOSPINAL TRACT

 Major voluntary tract formed by the primary motor
area which descends to the cord

 Most of the neurons located here control body areas having the
finest motor control – face, mouth, and hands
 Motor homunculus is the body map on the motor cortex; spatial
map

3.Broca’s Area  Parkinson’s Disease

 Motor Speech Area  Hereditary
 All ages
 Specialized cortical area involved in our ability to speak
 Males are prone
 Found at the base of the precentral gyrus (anterior to the central
 New degenerative disorder
sulcus)
 Neurons undergo degeneration
 Base of the primary motor cortex  Tremors, stiffness, and slow movement
 III. BRAIN STEM
 Huntington’s Disease  Is about the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately 3
 Both genders are affected inches (7.5 cm) long
 Younger are more vulnerable  Major structures:
 Primarily affect our brain with a gradual loss in control of  Midbrain
movement and memory, mental ability  Pons
 Medulla Oblongata
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: DIENCEPHALON  Provides a pathway for ascending and descending tracts
 Has many small gray matter areas
 Produce the rigidly programmed autonomic behaviors necessary
II. DIENCEPHALON for survival.
 Interbrain  Some are associated with the cranial nerves and control vital
 Sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral activities such as breathing and blood pressure
hemispheres
 Made of three parts (major strucures):
 Thalamus 1. MIDBRAIN
 Hypothalamus  A relatively small part of the brain stem
 Epithalamus  Extends from thee mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly
 Cerebral Aqueduct: tiny canal that travels through the
1. THALAMUS midbrain, connects the third ventricle of the diencephalon
 Encloses the third ventricle the brain to the fourth ventricle
 Relay station for sensory impulses passing upward sensory  Forms a canal between the ventricles located in
cortex third and fourth ventricles where cerebrospinal fluid
 Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for will be located
localization and interpretation – primary somatic sensory area  Cerebral Peduncles: two bulging fiber tracts located in the
 As impulses surge through it, crude recognition of whether the midbrain, anteriorly that convey ascending and descending
sensation is pleasant or unpleasant impulses
 Judgement center of the brain because it interprets  Little feet of the cerebrum
 Cerebral Quadrigemina: four rounded protrusions that are
2. HYPOTHALAMUS dorsally located.
 Under the thalamus  They reminded some anatomist of two pairs of twins
 Makes up the floor of the diencephalon (gemini).
 Regulates temperature, water balance, metabolism  These bulging nuclei are reflecx centers involves with
 Center for many drives and emotions vision and hearing.
 Ex. Thirst, appetite, sex, pain, and pleasure  Pupillary and auditory reflex
 Limbic System “emotional-visceral brain”  Smallest muscle that can be found in human body
 Regulates the pituitary gland (an endocrine organ) and responsible for auditory reflex – stapes / stapedius muscle
produces two hormones of its own
 Two hormones: 2. PONS
 Thyrotropin  Is the rounded structure that protrudes just below the
 Corticotropin midbrain
 Pituitary Gland: hangs from the anterior floor of the  Means “bridge” and this area of the brain stem is mostly
hypothalamus by a slender stalk fiber tracts (bundle of nerve fibers in the CNS).
 Mamillary bodies: reflex centers involved in olfaction (the  However, it does have important nuclei involved in the
sense of smell), bulge from the floor of the hypothalamus control of breathing.
posterior to the pituitary gland
 Important autonomic nervous system – involuntary 3. MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 Most inferior part of the brain stem
3. EPITHALAMUS  Below the brain
 Forms the roof of the third ventricle  Merges into the spinal cord below without any obvious
 Important parts are the pineal gland (endocrine) and choroid change in structure
plexus of the third ventricle  Like the pons, it is an important fiber tract area.
 Choroid plexus: knots of capillaries within each of the four  Area where the pyramidal tracts (motor fibers) cross over to
ventricles, form the cerebrospinal fluid the opposite side
 Ependymal cells possess tiny hairlike structures called cilia  Also contains many nuclei that regulate vistal visceral
 The layer of ependymal-derived cells surrounding the blood activities
vessels of the choroid plexus functions mainly to  Contains centers that control heart rate, blood pressure,
produce cerebrospinal fluid breathing, swallowing, and vomiting, among others.
 Cilia regulates CSF  Fourth Ventricle lies posterior to the pons and medulla and
 Involved in melatonin secretion anterior to the cerebellum
 Melatonin – sleep hormone and produced by pineal gland
 Which type of functional classes of globular proteins ---- to RETICULAR FORMATION
diencephalon  Extends to the entire length of the brain stem
 Hormones maintain body homeostasis  Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
 Its neurons are involved in motor control of the visceral
organs
 Controlling smooth muscle in the digestive tract
 RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS) 2. ARACHNOID LAYER
 Plays a role in consciousness and the awake/sleep cycle  Middle meningeal layer, weblike
 Acts as a filter for the flood of sensory inputs that streams  Arachnida means “spider”, and some think the arachnid
up the spinal cord and brain stem daily membrane looks like a cobweb
 Filters weak or repetitive signals, but unusual or strong  Its threadlike extensions span the subarachnoid space to attach
impulses do reach consciousness. it to the innermost membrane – pia matter
 Damage to this area can result in prolonged  The subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
unconsciousness or coma  The CSF is absorbed into the venous blood in the dural
sinuses through the arachnoid granulations
RADIATIONS TO CEREBRAL CORTEX  Will reabsorb cerebrospinal fluid
 Wakes up consciousness  Defect absorption of cerebrospinal fluid will possibly
 Will produce motor – efferent output accumulate and exert pressure to the brain which can lead to
 Descending motor projections to spinal cord hydrocephalus
 Ascending sensory tracts – touch, pain,
temperature  ARACHNOID GRANULATIONS
 Specialized projections of the arachnoid membrane
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: CEREBELLUM  Protrude through the dura matter
 Large, cauliflower-like
 Projects dorsally from under the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum 3. PIA MATTER
 Has two hemispheres and a convoluted surface  “gentle mother”
 Also has an outer cortex made up of gray matter and an  Innermost membrane
inner region of white matter  Clings tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
 Difference to cerebrum, it does not have basal nuclei
 Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and  MENINGITIS
controls our balance  An inflammation of the meninges
 Because of its activity, body movements are smooth and  Serious threat to the brain because bacterial or viral meningitis
coordinated may spread into the nervous tissue of the CNS
 It plays its role less well when it is sedated by alcohol  Encephalitis: brain inflammation
 Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium apparatus  Usually diagnosed by taking a sample of CSF from the
of the inner ear, the eye, the proprioceptors of the skeletal subarachnoid space surrounding the spinal cord
muscles and tendons, and many other areas
 Automatic pilot – constantly compares the brain’s II. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
“intentions” with actual body performance by monitoring  A watery “broth” with components similar to blood plasma,
body position and the amount of tension in various body from which it forms
parts  It contains less protein and more Vitamin C, and its ion
 Sends messages to initiate proper measures composition is different
 If damaged, movements become clumsy and disorganized –  Formed by the choroid plexuses
ataxia  Choroid Plexuses: clusters of capillaries hanging from
the “roof” in each of the brain’s ventricles, or enlarged
PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM chambers
 Nervous tissue is soft and delicate  Forms a water cushion that protects the fragile nervous tissue
 Irreplaceable neurons are easily subjected to injury from blows and other trauma
even if subjected to light pressure  Helps the brain “float” so it is not damaged by the pressure of
 Neuron: amitotic its own weight
 Cell structure: lack centrioles  It is continually moving inside the brain
 Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of
I. MENINGES the spinal cord
 Three connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the  It circulates from the two lateral ventricles (in the cerebral
CNS structures hemispheres) into the third ventricle (in the diencephalon) and
then through the cerebral aqueduct of the midbrain into the
1. DURA MATTER fourth ventricle dorsal to the pons and medulla oblongata
 Tough or hard mother  Some of the fluid reaching the fourth ventricle simply continues
 A double layered membrane where it surrounds the brain down into the spinal cord, but most of it circulates into the
 One of its layers is attached to the inner surface of the subarachnoid space through three openings, the paired lateral
skull, forming the periosteum (periosteal layer) apertures and the median aperture (aper = open), in the walls of
 The other called meningeal layer, forms the outermost the fourth ventricle
covering layer of the brain and continues as the dura  The CSF returns to the blood in the dural venous sinuses
matter of the spinal cord through the arachnoid granulations – CSF is continually
 The dural layers are fused together except in three areas replaced
where they separate to enclose dural venous sinuses that
collect venous blood – superior sagittal sinus  HYDROCEPHALUS
 In several places, the inner dural membrane extends inward  CSF begins to accumulate and exert pressure on the brain
to form a fold that attaches the brain to the cranial cavity  “water on the brain”
 Falx Cerebri  Possible in an infant because the skull bones have not yet fused
 Tentorium Cerebelli  Causes the head to enlarge as the brain increases in size
 Separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum
  In adults, this situation results to brain damage  Cerebral edema
 Because the skull is hard, and the accumulating fluid
creates pressure that crushes soft nervous tissue and could CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENTS
restrict blood flow into the brain  Strokes
 Infants’ bones aren’t fully developed so they have the greater  Fifth leading cause of death in the US
tendency to survive than adults  Occur when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked, as by a
 Today, it is treated surgically by inserting a shunt (a plastic blood clot or a ruptured blood vessel, and vital brain tissue dies
tube) to drain the excess fluid into a vein in the neck or  After a CVA, it is often possible to determine the area of brain
abdomen damage by observing the patient’s symptoms
 If the patient has left-sided paralysis (hemiplegia = one-
III. BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER sided paralysis), the right motor cortex of the frontal lobe
 Separates neurons from bloodborne substances is most likely involved
 Composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole body  Aphasias are a common result of damage to the left
 These capillaries are almost seamlessly bound together by cerebral hemisphere, where the language areas are located
tight junctions all around  Motor Aphasia is the most common, which involves
 Of water-soluble substances, only water, glucose, and damage to Broca’s area abd a iss if ability to speak
essential amino acids pass easily through the walls of these  Sensory Aphasia, in which a person loses the ability
capillaries to understand written or spoken language
 Metabolic wastes, such as urea, toxins, proteins, and most  Brain lesions can also cause marked changes in a person’s
drugs, are prevented from entering the brain tissue because disposition
they normalizes the voltage of cells  A change from a sunny to foul personality
 Excludes many potentially harmful substances
 Useless as a barrier against some substances that diffuse  TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK (TIA)
easily through plasma membrane  Temporary brain ischemia
 Fats and fat-soluble molecules  Restricted blood flow
 Respiratory gases  Last from 5 to 15 minutes and are characterized by
… that explains why these can affect the brain: Numbness
 Alcohol Temporary paralysis
 Nicotine Impaired speech
 Anesthesia  Although these defects are not permanent, they do constitute
 Na ions can’t enter “red flags” that warn of impending, more serious CVAs
 Alters the permeability of neurons
 No influx of ions, no action potential CEREBRAL CORTEX
 Non-essential amino acids and potassium ions not only ae  Functions: Speech, memory, logical and emotional responses,
prevented from entering the brain, but also are actively pumped consciousness, the interpretation of sensation, and voluntary
from the brain into the blood across the capillary walls. movements
 Although the bulbous “feet” of the astrocytes that cling to the
capillaries may contribute to the barrier, the relative
impermeability of the brain capillaries is most responsible for
providing this protection
 Composed of tight junctions to prevent leakage

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES

1. CONCUSSION
 Occurs when the brain injury is slight
 The victim may be dizzy, “see stars,” or lose consciousness
briefly, but typically little permanent brain damage occurs
 No permanent brain damage

2. CONTUSION
 Result of marked tissue destruction
 If the cerebral cortex is injured, the individual may remain
conscious, but severe brain stem contusions always result in a
coma lasting from hours to a lifetime due to injury to the reticular
activating system
 Nervous tissue destruction occurs
 Nervous tissue does not regenerate

3. CEREBRAL EDEMA
 Swelling of the brain due to inflammatory response to injury
 May compress and kill brain tissue
 Individuals who are initially alert and lucid following head
trauma and then begin to deteriorate neurologically are most
likely hemorrhaging or suffering the delayed consequences of
edema, both of which compress vital brain tissue
 After head blow, death may result from:
 Intracranial hemorrhage (bleeding from ruptured vessels)