Nervous System

BIO-101: HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 7: NERVOUS SYSTEM
1st SEMESTER | S.Y. 2023-2024 TRANSCRIBED BY: ZEE S.
SABANAL
LECTURER:

 is the master controlling and communicating

system of the body. Every thought, action, and
emotion reflect its activity.
 Its signaling device, or means of communicating
with body cells, is electrical impulses, which are
rapid and specific and cause almost immediate
responses.
 nervous system does not work alone to regulate
and maintain body homeostasis;
3 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
(1) It uses its millions of sensory receptors to
monitor changes occurring both inside and
outside the body. These changes are called
stimuli, and the gathered information is
called sensory input.
(2) It processes and interprets the sensory input
and decides what should be done at each
moment—a process called integration.
(3) It then effects, or causes, a response by
activating muscles or glands (effectors) via
motor output.

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

  divided into structural classification and SENSORY OR AFFERENT DIVISION
functional classification.  consists of nerves (composed of nerve fibers) that
convey impulses to the central nervous system
from sensory receptors located in various parts of
the body.
 (Afferent literally means “to go toward.”)
o Somatic Sensory Fibers
 Sensory fibers delivering impulses from
the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
 somatic (soma = body) sensory (afferent)
fibers.
o Visceral Sensory Fibers
 those transmitting impulses from the
visceral organs
the sensory division keeps the CNS constantly
informed of events going on both inside and outside
the body.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION MOTOR OR EFFERENT DIVISION

 carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs,
 Includes all nervous system organs the muscles and glands. These impulses activate
 has two subdivisions: The Central Nervous muscles and glands; that is, they effect (bring
System and the Peripheral Nervous about or cause) a motor response.
Central Nervous System (CNS)  The motor division in turn has two subdivisions:
 consists of the brain and spinal cord, which Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System
occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the
integrating and command centers of the nervous 2 SUB-DIVISIONS OF MOTOR
system. Somatic Nervous System
 They interpret incoming sensory information and  allows us to consciously, or voluntarily, control
issue instructions based on past experience and our skeletal muscles.
current conditions.  often refer as the “voluntary” nervous system.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)  not all skeletal muscle activity controlled by this
 is the part of the nervous system outside the CNS. motor division is voluntary.
It consists mainly of the nerves that extend from  Skeletal muscle reflexes, like the stretch reflex for
the brain and spinal cord; example (described later in the chapter) are
Spinal nerves: carry impulses to and from initiated involuntarily by these same fibers.
the spinal cord;
Cranial nerves: carry impulses to and from Autonomic Nervous System
the brain.  regulates events that are automatic, or
 These nerves serve as communication lines. They link involuntary, such as the activity of smooth and
all parts of the body by carrying impulses from the cardiac muscles and glands.
sensory receptors to the CNS and from the CNS to the  This subdivision, commonly called the
appropriate glands or muscles involuntary nervous system, itself has two parts,
the sympathetic (stimulate) and
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION parasympathetic (inhibits), which typically
 The functional classification scheme is concerned bring about opposite effects. What one
only with P.N.S. structures. stimulates, the other inhibits.
 It divides them into two principal subdivisions:
sensory/afferent division & motor/efferent NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
division.
 nervous tissue is made up of just two principal  spiderlike phagocytes that monitor the health of
types of cells: Supporting Cells and Neurons. nearby neurons, and dispose of debris, including
dead brain cells and bacteria. (Phagocytize
SUPPORTING CELLS
microbes & damaged nervous tissue)
 Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped together”
as neuroglia, literally, “nerve glue,” also simply Ependymal cells
called either glia or glial cells.  glial cells that line the central cavities of the brain
 includes many types of cells that generally and the spinal cord.
support, insulate, and protect the delicate  The beating of their cilia helps to circulate the
neurons. cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and
Neuroglia forms a protective cushion around the CNS.
- Produce, monitor & assist in the circulation of
 “nerve glue,” also simply called either glia or glial Cerebospinalfluid (CSF)
cells.
 Although glia somewhat resembles neurons Oligodendrocytes
structurally (both cell types have cell extensions),
 glia that wraps their flat extensions (processes)
they are not able to transmit nerve impulses, a
tightly around the nerve fibers, producing fatty
function that is highly developed in neurons.
insulating coverings called myelin sheath
 Another important difference is that glia never
- produces myelin sheath around nerve fibers in
loses their ability to divide, whereas most
the CNS.
neurons do. Consequently, most brain tumors are
- Resembles astrocytes but are smaller and contain
gliomas, or tumors formed by glial cells
fewer processes.
(neuroglia)
 each of the different types of neuroglia has special
functions. The CNS glia include the following:
Astrocytes, Microglia, Ependymal Cells,
Oligodendrytes.

TYPES OF C.N.S. SUPPORTING CELLS

Astrocytes
 Largest & most abundant star-shaped cells that
account for nearly half of the neural tissue.
 Their numerous projections have swollen ends
that cling to neurons, bracing them and anchoring
them to their nutrient supply lines, the blood
capillaries.
 Astrocytes form a living barrier between
capillaries and neurons, help determine capillary
permeability, and play a role in making exchanges
between the two. In this way, they help protect
the neurons from harmful substances that might
be in the blood.
 Astrocytes also help control the chemical
environment in the brain by “mopping up”
leaked potassium ions and recapturing released
neurotransmitters.

Microglia
 2 TYPES OF PNS SUPPORTING CELLS  The armlike processes, or fibers, vary in length
 Supporting cells in the PNS come in two major from microscopic to about 7 feet in the tallest
varieties—Schwann cells and satellite cells. humans.
Schwann cells  The longest ones in humans reach from the
 form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that lumbar region of the spine to the great.
are found in the PNS
Satellite Cells Dendrites
 are the Neuron processes that convey incoming
 act as protective, cushioning cells messages (electrical signals) toward the cell body.
Axon
 are those that generate nerve impulses and
typically conduct them away from the cell body
 Neurons may have hundreds of the branching
dendrites (dendr = tree), depending on the
neuron type, but each neuron has only one axon,
which arises from a conelike region of the cell
body called the Axon Hill

NEURONS
 also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to
transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one
part of the body to another.
 differ structurally from one another, they have
many common features
 All have a cell body, which contains the nucleus
and is the metabolic center of the cell, and one or
more slender processes extending from the cell
body

Cell Body
 is the metabolic center of the neuron. Its
transparent nucleus contains a conspicuous
nucleolus.
 The cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus
contains the usual organelles except it lacks
centrioles (which confirms the amitotic
nature of most neurons).
 The rough ER, called Nissl bodies, and
Neurofibrils (intermediate filaments that are
important in maintaining cell shape)
are particularly abundant in the cell body
MYELIN SHEATHS
PROCESSESES (nerve fibers)  Most long nerve fibers are covered with a whitish,
 Dendrites and Axons fatty material called with a waxy appearance.
 Myelin protects and insulates the fibers and
increases the transmission rate of nerve impulses.
 Axons outside the CNS are myelinated by Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
Schwann cells, as just noted. These cells wrap  In people with multiple sclerosis (MS), the myelin
themselves around the axon in a jelly-roll fashion sheaths around the fibers are gradually
 Initially, the membrane coil is loose, but the destroyed, converted to hardened sheaths called
Schwann cell cytoplasm is gradually squeezed Scleroses.
from between the membrane layers. When the  As this happens, the electrical current is short-
wrapping process is done, a tight coil of wrapped circuited.
membranes, the myelin sheath, encloses the  The affected person may have visual and speech
axon. disturbances, lose the ability to control his or her
muscles, and become increasingly disabled.
 Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease in
which a protein component of the sheath is at
tacked. As yet there is no cure, but injections of
interferon (a hormonelike substance released by
some immune cells) appear to hold the symptoms
at bay and provide some relief.
TERMINOLOGIES OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nuclei
 Cell bodies that are found in the CNS in clusters
are called nuclei.
 Remember: that neurons do not routinely
undergo cell division after birth. The cell body
carries out most of the metabolic functions of a
neuron, so if it is damaged, the cell dies and is not
replaced
Neurilemma
 A part of the Schwann cell, external to the myelin Ganglia or Ganglion
sheath.  Small collections of cell bodies, are found in a few
 CNS sheaths lack a neurilemma. Because the sites outside the CNS in the PNS.
neurilemma remains intact (for the most part)
when a peripheral nerve fiber is damaged, it plays Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) are called:
an important role in fiber regeneration, an ability Tracks: in CNS
that is largely lacking in the central nervous Nerves: in PNS
system.
Nodes of Ranvier Presence of myelin sheaths:
White Matters
 Are the gaps or indentations at regular intervals,  Consist of dense collections of myelinated fibers
because myelin sheath is formed by many (tracts)
individual Schwann cells. Gray matters
 contains mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell
bodies
 They are also the most numerous, because pain
warns us that some type of body damage is
occurring or about to occur.
 strong stimulation of any of the cutaneous
receptors (for example, by searing heat, extreme
cold, or excessive pressure) is also interpreted as
Pain.
Proprioceptors
 those in the muscles and tendons.
CLASSFICATION OF NEURONS (elaborated)
 The proprioceptors detect the amount of stretch,
 Functional and Structural Classification or tension, in skeletal muscles, their tendons, and
joints.
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION  They send this information to the brain so that
 It groups neurons according to the direction the the proper adjustments can be made to maintain
nerve impulse is traveling relative to the CNS: balance and normal posture.
sensory, motor, and association neurons  Propria: comes from the Latin word meaning
(interneurons) “one’s own,” and the proprioceptors constantly
advise our brain of “our own” movements.

MOTOR OR EFFERENT NEURON

 Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the
viscera and/or muscles and glands.
 The cell bodies of motor neurons are usually
located in the CNS.

INTERNEURONS OR ASSOCIATION NEURONS.

 They connect the motor and sensory neurons in
neural pathways. Their cell bodies are typically
located in the CNS

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
SENSORY OR AFFERENT NEURONS  Structural classification is based on the number
 Neurons carrying impulses from sensory of processes extending from the cell body
receptors (in the internal organs or the skin) to
the CNS are sensory, or afferent neurons. Multipolar Neuron
 Sensory neurons keep us informed about what is  If there are several processes, the neuron is a
happening both inside and outside the body. multipolar neuron.
 The dendrite endings of the sensory neurons are  Because all motor and association neurons are
usually associated with specialized Receptors multipolar, this is the most common structural
that are activated by specific changes occurring type.
nearby.
Bipolar Neurons
TYPES OF SENSORY RECEPTORS  Neurons with two processes—an axon and a
Cutaneous Sense Organs dendrite—are called bipolar neurons.
 Bipolar neurons are rare in adults, found only in
 the simpler types of sensory receptors in the skin.
some special sense organs (eye, nose), where they
 The pain receptors (actually bare nerve
act in sensory processing as receptor cells.
endings) are the least specialized of the
cutaneous receptors. Unipolar neurons
 have a single process emerging from the cell body. neuron’s plasma membrane than there are on its
However, it is very short and divides almost outer face.
immediately into proximal (central) and distal  The major positive ions inside the cell are
(peripheral) processes. potassium (K+), whereas the major positive ions
 are unique in that only the small branches at the outside the cell are sodium (Na+).
end of the peripheral process are dendrites.  As long as the inside remains more negative than
 The remainder of the peripheral process and the the outside, the neuron will stay inactive.
central process function as axons; thus, in this
case, the axon conducts nerve impulses both Action Potential Initiation and Generation
toward and away from the cell body. Sensory  Many different types of stimuli excite neurons to
neurons found in PNS ganglia are unipolar become active and generate an impulse.
 For example, light excites the eye receptors,
sound excites some of the ear receptors, and
pressure excites some cutaneous receptors of the
skin.
 However, most neurons in the body are excited by
neurotransmitter chemicals released by other
neurons

TWO MAJOR PROPERTIES OF NEURONS

1. Irritability
 the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert
it into a nerve impulse.
2. Conductivity
 the ability to transmit the impulse to other
neurons, muscles, or glands.

Electrical Conditions of a Resting Neuron’s

Membrane
 The plasma membrane of a resting, or inactive, NERVE IMPULSES
neuron is polarized, which means that there are
fewer positive ions sitting on the inner face of the
(1) The major positive ions inside the cell are (1) When the action potential reaches an axon
potassium (K+), whereas the major positive ions terminal, the electrical change opens calcium
outside the cell are sodium (Na+) channels.
(2) Because sodium is in much higher concentration (2) Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles
outside the cell, it then diffuses quickly into the containing the neurotransmitter chemical to
neuron. This inward rush of sodium ions changes fuse with the axonal membrane
the polarity of the neuron’s membrane at that (3) pore like openings form, releasing the
site, an event called depolarization. Locally, the transmitter
inside is now more positive, and the outside is
less positive, a local electrical situation called a
graded potential.
(3) if the stimulus is strong enough and the sodium
influx is great enough, the local depolarization
(graded potential) activates the neuron to initiate
and transmit a long-distance signal called an
action potential, also called a nerve impulse in
neurons
(4) The nerve impulse is an all-or-none response, like
firing a gun. It is either propagated (conducted, or
sent) over the entire axon, or it doesn’t happen at
all.
(5) Almost immediately after the sodium ions rush
into the neuron, the membrane permeability
changes again, becoming impermeable to sodium
ions but permeable to potassium ions. This
outflow of positive ions from the cell restores the
electrical conditions at the membrane to the
polarized, or resting, state, an event called
repolarization.
(6) After repolarization occurs, the initial
concentrations of the sodium and potassium ions
inside and outside the neuron are restored by
activation of the sodium-potassium pump. y
activation of the sodium-potassium pump. This
pump uses ATP (cellular energy) to pump excess
sodium ions out of the cell and to bring potassium
ions back into it.

Saltatory Conduction
 faster type of electrical impulse propagation.
 Fibers that have myelin sheaths conduct impulses
much faster because the nerve impulse literally
jumps, or leaps, from node to node along the
length of the fiber.
 This occurs because no electrical current can flow
across the axon membrane where there is fatty
myelin insulation.

Transmission of The Signal at Synapses

 (4) The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse  Secretion of saliva (salivary reflex) and changes in
across the synapse and bind to receptors on
the membrane of the next neuron
(5) If enough neurotransmitter is released, the
whole series of events described above
(sodium entry depolarization, etc.) will occur,
leading to generation of a graded potential,
and eventually a nerve impulse in the neuron
beyond the synapse.
(6) neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the
synapse, either by diffusion away, by reuptake
into the axon terminal, or by enzymatic
breakdown.

the size of the eye pupils (pupillary reflex) are

two such reflexes.
 regulate such body functions as digestion,
elimination, blood pressure, and sweating.

5 ELEMENTS OF REFLEXES
 All reflex arcs have a minimum of five elements:
Reflexes Sensory Receptor (which reacts to a stimulus), an
 Are rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses Effector Organ (the muscle or gland eventually
to stimuli. stimulated), and Sensory and Motor neurons to
 They are much like one-way streets— once a connect the two. The synapse or interneurons
reflex begins, it always goes in the same direction. between the sensory and motor neurons represents
 Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex the central element— the CNS integration center.
arcs and involve both CNS and PNS structures.

TYPES OF REFLEXES
Somatic reflexes
 include all reflexes that stimulate the skeletal
muscles. When you quickly pull your hand away
from a hot object, a somatic reflex is working.
Autonomic reflexes
 regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart,
and glands.
Peripheral Nervous System
 consists of nerves and scattered groups of
neuronal cell bodies (ganglia) found outside the
CNS
Nerve
 nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers found outside
the CNS. Within a nerve, neuron fibers, or
processes, are wrapped in protective connective
tissue coverings

STRUCTURE OF A NERVE
 endoneurium: Each fiber is surrounded by a
delicate connective tissue sheath
 perineurium: groups of fibers are bound by a
coarser connective tissue wrapping
 Fascicles: are the fiber bundles,
 Epineurium: a tough fibrous sheath where all
the fascicles are bound together to form the
cordlike nerve.
  are Nerves carrying both sensory and motor fibers
 all spinal nerves are mixed nerves.

Sensory or Afferent Nerves

 Nerves that carry impulses toward the CNS only

Motor or Efferent Nerves

 Are those that carry only motor fibers

CRANIAL NERVES
 12 pairs of cranial nerves primarily serve the head
and neck. Only one pair (the vagus nerves) extends
to the thoracic and abdominal cavities
 Mnemonics:
“Oh, oh, oh, to touch and feel very good velvet, ah.”

CLASSIFICATION OF A NERVE
Mixed Nerves
 SPINAL NERVES AND NERVE PLEXUSES
 The 31 pairs of human spinal nerves are formed
by the combination of the ventral and dorsal
roots of the spinal cord.
 Each spinal nerve divides into dorsal and ventral
rami making each spinal nerve only about ½ inch
long.

Dorsal Rami
 serve the skin and muscles of the posterior
body trunk
Ventral Rami
 The ventral rami of spinal nerves T1 through
T12 form the intercostal nerves, which
supply the muscles between the ribs and the
skin and muscles of the anterior and lateral
trunk
 form complex networks of nerves called
Plexuses, which serve the motor and sensory
needs of the limbs

4 NERVE PLEXUSES