ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY for
CIVIL ENGINEERS

P.C. Varghese
Engineering Geology
for Civil Engineers

P.C. VARGHESE
Honorary Professor, Anna University, Madras
Formerly, Professor and Head, Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, and
UNESCO Chief Technical Advisor, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

New Delhi-110001
2012
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
P.C. Varghese

© 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in
writing from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4495-2

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Raj Press, New Delhi-110012.
 To
Professor Karl Terzaghi
who first taught the author
Engineering Geology
 Contents  v

Contents

Foreword  xvii
Preface  xix
Acknowledgements  xxiii
Introduction  xxv

Part I  FORMATION OF ROCKS

1 Historical Geology 3–14
1.1 Introduction  3
1.2 A Short History of Earth and Division of Geological Time   3
1.3 Geological History (Time Scale and Rock Scale)   5
1.4 Division of Geological Scales   5
1.5 Historical Divisions of Geological Formations in India   7
1.6 Geologic Formation and Series   7
1.7 Physiographic and Stratigraphical Divisions of India   8
1.7.1 Physiographic Division of India   8
1.7.2 Stratigraphical Division of India   9
1.8 Examples of Descriptions in Engineering Geology   11
1.9 Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift   11
1.9.1 The Theory of Isostasy   13
1.9.2 Movements between Plates   13
1.10 Summary  13
Review Questions  14
References  14

2 Elements and Minerals 15–17

2.1 Introduction  15
2.2 Minerals and Rocks   15
2.2.1 Rock-forming Minerals   15
2.2.2 Clay Minerals   16
2.2.3 Activity of Clays   16
v
vi  Contents
2.3 Study of Rocks and Soils by Civil Engineers   16
2.4 Composition of Principal Minerals   17
2.5 Summary  17
Review Questions  17

3 Rocks and Their Formation 18–22

3.1 Introduction  18
3.2 Comparison of Formation of Different Types of Rocks with
Formation of Steel Concrete and Bricks   19
3.3 Kinds of Rocks   19
3.3.1 Formation of Igneous Rocks—“The Parent Rock” from Magma   20
3.3.2 Formation of Sedimentary Rocks   20
3.4 How Metamorphism Can Take Place   21
3.5 Summary  22
Review Questions  22
References  22

4 Igneous Rocks 23–28

4.1 Introduction  23
4.2 Extrusive and Intrusive   23
4.2.1 Extrusive or Volcanic Rocks   24
4.2.2 Intrusive or Plutonic Rock   24
4.3 Forms of Intrusive Rocks   24
4.4 Chemical and Mineralogical Composition—Classification of
Igneous Rocks   25
4.4.1 Acidic and Basic Rocks   26
4.5 Important Igneous Rocks   27
4.6 Rocks of Peninsular India   27
4.6.1 The Deccan Trap   27
4.6.2 Charnokites  27
4.7 Summary  27
Review Questions  28
References  28

5 Sedimentary Rocks 29–33

5.1 Introduction  29
5.2 Formation of Sedimentary Rocks   29
5.3 Cementation of Clastic Deposits   30
5.3.1 Gravel to Conglomerates and Breccias (Rudaceous Deposits)   31
5.3.2 Sand to Sandstone (Arenaceous Deposits)   31
5.3.3 Silt and Clay Form Shales (Argillaceous Deposits)   32
5.4 Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks   32
5.4.1 Marl to Limestone and Dolomite (Calcareous Deposits)   32
5.5 Importance of Immersion Tests on Sedimentary Rocks   32
5.6 Summary  33
Review Questions  33
 Contents  vii

6 Metamorphic Rocks 34–38

6.1 Introduction  34
6.2 Changes in Sedimentary Rock Due to High Temperature
and Pressure   34
6.2.1 Argilacous Rocks   35
6.3 Formation of Slate from Shale   35
6.4 Marble from Crystalline Limestone and Dolomite   35
6.5 Quartzite from Sandstone and Formation of Schist   37
6.6 Formation of Gneiss   37
6.7 Criteria for Distinguishing between Metamorphosed, Igneous Rocks
and Sedimentary Rocks   38
6.8 Summary  38
Review Questions  38

7 Structural Features in Rocks 39–47

7.1 Introduction  39
7.2 Rock Structures   39
7.3 Structural Features   40
7.4 Joints  41
7.5 Folds  41
7.5.1 Dip, Strike and Angle of Plunge   42
7.6 Faults  43
7.6.1 Overthrust  44
7.7 Cleavage  45
7.8 Minor Structural Features in Sedimentary Rocks Produced by Erosion   45
7.9 Summary  46
Review Questions  47
References  47

8 Chemical Weathering of Rocks 48–50

8.1 Introduction  48
8.2 Nature of Action of Groundwater on Igneous Rocks   48
8.3 Action of Groundwater on Limestone   49
8.4 Action of Groundwater on Dolomites   49
8.5 Action of Groundwater on Clastic Rocks   49
8.6 Action of Groundwater on Metamorphic Rocks   49
8.7 Formation of Laterites   49
8.8 Formation of Expansive Soils (Black Cotton Soils)   49
8.9 Summary  50
Review Questions  50

9 Engineering Properties of Rocks 51–59

9.1 Introduction  51
9.2 Standard Laboratory Tests   51
9.2.1 Test for Density or Specific Gravity and Porosity   52
9.2.2 Water Absorption (Immersion) Test   52
viii  Contents
9.2.3 Compressive Strength and Elastic Modulus   52
9.2.4 Split Test for Strength in Tension (Brazilian Test)   53
9.2.5 Modulus of Rupture Test   53
9.2.6 Abrasion Resistance Tests by Dorry’s Machine   54
9.2.7 Attrition Test by Deval’s Attrition Test Machine   54
9.2.8 Impact Test for Toughness   55
9.2.9 Crushing Strength Test   55
9.2.10 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction Test and Test for
Deleterious Substances   56
9.3 Field and In Situ Tests for Rock Quality   56
9.4 Field Permeability Test   57
9.4.1 Tests for Permeability of Overburdens   57
9.4.2 Pressure Test for Field Permeability of Rocks   57
9.5 Summary  58
Review Questions  58
References  58

10 Weathering of Rocks and Geomorphology 60–65

10.1 Introduction  60
10.2 General Landforms and Forces Making Them   60
10.3 Weathering of Rocks   61
10.4 Mechanical Weathering   61
10.5 Chemical Weathering   62
10.6 Transport of Products of Weathering   63
10.7 Type of Regolith at a Place   64
10.8 Symbols Used to Describe the State of Weathering of Rocks   64
10.9 Summary  64
Review Questions  65
References  65

11 Groundwater and Groundwater Recharging 66–77

11.1 Introduction  66
11.2 Porosity and Permeability   66
11.3 Sources of Groundwater   67
11.3.1 Flow of Rainwater   67
11.3.2 Groundwater Zones   68
11.4 Freshwater and Salt Water Levels Near the Sea   69
11.5 Movement of Groundwater   69
11.6 Seepage and Springs   70
11.6.1 Thermal Springs   70
11.6.2 Aquifers and Artesian Water   70
11.7 Movement of Water in Rocks   71
11.7.1 Movement of Water in Igneous Rocks   71
11.7.2 Sedimentary Rocks as Aquifers   71
11.7.3 Metamorphic Rocks as Aquifers   72
 Contents  ix

11.8 Perched Water Tables   72

11.9 Wells for Extraction of Groundwater   72
11.9.1 Pumping from Wells   73
11.9.2 Groundwater Exploration   73
11.10 An Interesting Case of Dewatering and Recharging of Foundation   74
11.11 Recharge of Groundwater by Rainwater Harvesting   74
11.11.1 Roofwater Collection   75
11.12 Summary   76
Review Questions  77
References  77

Part II  FORMATION OF SOIL DEPOSITS

12 Field Identification and Classification of Soils 81–89
12.1 Introduction  81
12.2 Unified Soil Classification Systems (USCS)  81
12.3 Subdivisions of Coarse-Grained Soils   82
12.4 Symbols for Grading Classification of Gravel and Sand   83
12.5 Classifications of Fine-Grained Soils by Laboratory Tests   83
12.6 Summary of Symbols Used and Simplified Classification of Soils   84
12.7 Filed Identification of Fine-Grained Soils   84
12.8 Summary of the Procedure for Field Identification of Soils   86
12.9 Examples of Field Discription of Soils   87
12.10 U.S. Department of Agriculture Classification of Soils
(Sand, Silt and Clay)   88
12.11 Summary   89
Review Questions  89

13 Streams Rivers and Their Deposits 90–100

13.1 Introduction  90
13.2 Streams and Rivers   90
13.3 Playfair’s Law (Functions of a River)   91
13.4 Particles Carried or Deposited by River Water   91
13.4.1 Erosion   92
13.4.2 Transportation of Eroded Materials   93
13.4.3 Deposition (Alluvial Deposits)   93
13.4.4 The Problem Faced by Civil Engineers while Dealing with Rivers   93
13.5 The Normal Stream Cycle   94
13.5.1 Stream Cycle   94
13.6 Rejuvenation of Rivers   99
13.7 Coriolis Effect and Ferrel’s Law   99
13.8 Soil Deposits Along the River   99
13.9 Summary  100
Review Questions  100
References  100
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