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U.S. Department of Transportation Publication No. FHWA NHI-06-088
Federal Highway Administration December 2006

NHI Course No. 132012_______________________________
SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS

Reference Manual Volume I

National Highway Institute
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Technical Report Documentation Page

1. Report No.

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipients Catalog No.

FHWA-NHI06-088

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

December 2006
6. Performing Organization Code

SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS
REFERENCE MANUAL Volume I

7. Author(s)

8. Performing Organization Report No.

Naresh C. Samtani*, PE, PhD and Edward A. Nowatzki*, PE, PhD

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

11. Contract or Grant No.
Ryan R. Berg and Associates, Inc.
2190 Leyland Alcove, Woodbury, MN 55125
* NCS GeoResources, LLC
640 W Paseo Rio Grande, Tucson, AZ 85737

DTFH-61-02-T-63016

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

National Highway Institute
U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. 20590

15. Supplementary Notes
FHWA COTR Larry J ones
FHWA Technical Review J erry A. DiMaggio, PE; Silas Nichols, PE; Richard Cheney, PE;
Benjamin Rivers, PE; J ustin Henwood, PE.
Contractor Technical Review Ryan R. Berg, PE; Robert C. Bachus, PhD, PE;
Barry R. Christopher, PhD, PE
This manual is an update of the 3
rd
Edition prepared by Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas, Inc, in 2000.
Author: Richard Cheney, PE. The authors of the 1
st
and 2
nd
editions prepared by the FHWA in 1982 and 1993,
respectively, were Richard Cheney, PE and Ronald Chassie, PE.

16. Abstract

The Reference Manual for Soils and Foundations course is intended for design and construction professionals involved
with the selection, design and construction of geotechnical features for surface transportation facilities. The manual is
geared towards practitioners who routinely deal with soils and foundations issues but who may have little theoretical
background in soil mechanics or foundation engineering. The manuals content follows a project-oriented approach
where the geotechnical aspects of a project are traced from preparation of the boring request through design
computation of settlement, allowable footing pressure, etc., to the construction of approach embankments and
foundations. Appendix A includes an example bridge project where such an approach is demonstrated.
Recommendations are presented on how to layout borings efficiently, how to minimize approach embankment
settlement, how to design the most cost-effective pier and abutment foundations, and how to transmit design
information properly through plans, specifications, and/or contact with the project engineer so that the project can be
constructed efficiently.

The objective of this manual is to present recommended methods for the safe, cost-effective design and construction of
geotechnical features. Coordination between geotechnical specialists and project team members at all phases of a
project is stressed. Readers are encouraged to develop an appreciation of geotechnical activities in all project phases
that influence or are influenced by their work.
17. Key Words

18. Distribution Statement
Subsurface exploration, testing, slope stability, embankments, cut slopes, shallow
foundations, driven piles, drilled shafts, earth retaining structures, construction.
No restrictions.

19. Security Classif. (of this report)

20. Security Classif. (of this page)

21. No. of Pages

22. Price

UNCLASSIFIED

UNCLASSIFIED

462

Form DOT F 1700.7(8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

FHWA NHI-06-088 6 Slope Stability
Soils and Foundations Volume I 6 - 1 December 2006
CHAPTER 6.0
SLOPE STABILITY

Ground stability must be assured prior to consideration of other foundation related items.
Embankment foundation problems involve the support of the embankment by natural soil.
Problems with embankments and structures occasionally occur that could be prevented by
initial recognition of the problem and appropriate design. Stability problems most often
occur when the embankment is to be built over soft soils such as low strength clays, silts, or
peats. Once the soil profile, soil strengths, and depth of ground water table have been
determined by field explorations and/or field and laboratory testing, the stability of the
embankment can be analyzed and a factor of safety estimated. If the embankment is found to
be unstable, measures can then be taken to stabilize the foundation soils.

As illustrated in Figure 6-1, there are four major types of instability that should be considered
in the design of embankments over weak foundation soils. Recommendations on how to
recognize, analyze, and solve each of the first three problems are presented in this chapter.
Lateral squeeze is more closely related to the evaluation of foundation deformation and is
discussed in Chapter 7 (Approach Roadway Deformations).

The stability problems illustrated in Figure 6-1 can be classified as internal or "external."
"Internal" embankment stability problems generally result from the selection of poor quality
embankment materials and/or improper placement of the embankment fills and/or improper
placement requirements. The infinite slope failure mode is an example of an internal
stability problem; often such a failure is manifested as sloughing of the surface of the slope.
Internal stability can be assured through project specifications by requiring granular materials
with minimum gradation and compaction requirements. An example of a typical
specification for approach roadway construction is presented in Chapter 7. The failure
modes shown in Figure 6-1b, c and d, can be classified as external stability problems.

6.01 Primary Reference

The primary reference for this chapter is as follows:

FHWA (2001a). Soil Slope and Embankment Design Reference Manual. Report No. FHWA
NHI-01-026, Authors: Collin, J . G., Hung, J . C., Lee, W. S., Munfakh, G., Federal Highway
Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation.
.


Figure 6-1. Embankment failures: (a) Infinite slope failure in embankment fill, (b)
Circular arc failure in embankment fill and foundation soil, (c) Sliding block failure in
embankment fill and foundation soil, and (d) Lateral squeeze of foundation soil.
(a)
Embankment Fill
Firm Soil
Shallow translational failure
(Infinite Slope condition)
(b)
(c)
(d)

6.1 EFFECTS OF WATER ON SLOPE STABILITY

Very soft, saturated foundation soils or ground water generally play a prominent role in
geotechnical failures in general. They are certainly major factors in cut slope stability and in
the stability of fill slopes involving both internal and external slope failures. The effect
of water on cut and fill slope stability is briefly discussed below.

Importance of Water

Next to gravity, water is the most important factor in slope stability. The effect of
gravity is known, therefore, water is the key factor in assessing slope stability.

Effect of Water on Cohesionless Soils

In cohesionless soils, water does not affect the angle of internal friction (). The effect
of water on cohesionless soils below the water table is to decrease the intergranular
(effective) stress between soil grains ('
n
), which decreases the frictional shearing
resistance (').

Effect of Water on Cohesive Soils

Routine seasonal fluctuations in the ground water table do not usually influence either
the amount of water in the pore spaces between soil grains or the cohesion. The
attractive forces between soil particles prevent water absorption unless external forces
such as pile driving, disrupt the grain structure. However, certain clay minerals do react
to the presence of water and cause volume changes of the clay mass.

An increase in absorbed moisture is a major factor in the decrease in strength of
cohesive soils as shown schematically in Figure 6-2. Water absorbed by clay minerals
causes increased water contents that decrease the cohesion of clayey soils. These effects
are amplified if the clay mineral happens to be expansive, e.g., montmorillonite.

Cohesive
Strength
Water
Content

Figure 6-2. Effect of water content on cohesive strength of clay.

Fills on Clays

Excess pore water pressures are created when fills are placed on clay or silt. Provided
the applied loads do not cause the undrained shear strength of the clay or silt to be
exceeded, as the excess pore water pressure dissipates consolidation occurs, and the
shear strength of the clay or silt increases with time. For this reason, the factor of safety
increases with time under the load of the fill.

Cuts in Clay

As a cut is made in clay the effective stress is reduced. This reduction will allow the
clay to expand and absorb water, which will lead to a decrease in the clay strength with
time. For this reason, the factor of safety of a cut slope in clay may decrease with time.
Cut slopes in clay should be designed by using effective strength parameters and the
effective stresses that will exist in the soil after the cut is made.

Slaking - Shales, Claystones, Siltstones, etc.

Sudden moisture increase in weak rocks can produce a pore pressure increase in trapped
pore air accompanied by local expansion and strength decrease. The "slaking" or
sudden disintegration of hard shales, claystones, and siltstones results from this
mechanism. If placed as rock fill, these materials will tend to disintegrate into a clay
soil if water is allowed to percolate through the fill. This transformation from rock to
clay often leads to settlement and/or shear failure of the fill. Index tests such as the jar-
slake test and the slake-durability test used to assess slaking potential are discussed in
FHWA (1978).

6.2 DESIGN FACTOR OF SAFETY

A minimum factor of safety as low as 1.25 is used for highway embankment side slopes.
This value of the safety factor should be increased to a minimum of 1.30 to 1.50 for slopes
whose failure would cause significant damage such as end slopes beneath bridge abutments,
major retaining structures and major roadways such as regional routes, interstates, etc The
selection of the design safety factor for a particular project depends on:

The method of stability analysis used (see Section 6.4.5).

The method used to determine the shear strength.

The degree of confidence in the reliability of subsurface data.

The consequences of a failure.

How critical the application is.

6.3 INFINITE SLOPE ANALYSIS

A slope that extends for a relatively long distance and has a consistent subsurface profile may
be analyzed as an infinite slope. The failure plane for this case is parallel to the surface of
the slope and the limit equilibrium method can be applied readily.

6.3.1 Infinite Slopes in Dry Cohesionless Soils

A typical section or slice through the potential failure zone of a slope in a dry cohesionless
soil, e.g., dry sand, is shown in Figure 6-3, along with its free body diagram. The weight of
the slice of width b and height h having a unit dimension into the page is given by:

W = b h 6-1

where is the effective unit weight of the dry soil. For a slope with angle as shown in
Figure 6-3, the normal (N) and tangential (T) force components of W are determined as
follows:

N =W cos and
T =W sin
6-2
6-3


Figure 6-3. Infinite slope failure in dry sand.

The available shear strength along the failure plane is given by:

S =N tan 6-4

The factor of safety (FS) is defined as the ratio of available shear strength to strength
required to maintain stability. Thus, the FS will be given by:

=
tan
tan

sin W
tan ) cos (W
=
sin W
N tan
T
S
= FS
6-5

For an infinite slope analysis, the FS is independent of the slope depth, h, and depends only
on the angle of internal friction, , and the angle of the slope, . The slope is said to have
reached limit equilibrium when FS=1.0. Also, at a FS =1.0, the maximum slope angle will
be limited to the angle of internal friction, .

6.3.2 Infinite Slopes in c- Soils with Parallel Seepage

If a saturated slope in a c- soil has seepage parallel to the surface of the slope as shown in
Figure 6-4, the same limit equilibrium concepts may be applied to determine the FS, which
will now depend on the effective normal force (N'). In the following analysis, effective shear
strength parameters, c' and ' are used.
T
W
b
h
Slope
Surface
Failure
Surface
S
N
W
S
N

Force Polygon
N


Figure 6-4. Infinite slope failure in a c- soil with parallel seepage.

From Figure 6-4, the pore water force acting on the base of a typical slice having a unit
dimension into the page is:

( )
cos h b =
cos
b

cos
h = U
w
2
w

6-6

where h is any depth less than or equal to the depth of saturation and b is a unit width.

The available frictional strength, S, along the failure plane will depend on ' and the effective
normal force, N' =N-U, where N is the total normal force. The equation for S is:

' tan ) U - N (
cos
b
c' S +
=
6-7

The factor of safety for this case will be:

=
sin W
' tan ) U - N ( + ) b/cos (c'

T
S
= FS
6-8

By substituting W =
sat
b h into the above expression and rearranging terms, the FS is given
by:

h cos
2

Seepage Flow
Failure Surface
Slope Surface
h
h
W
N'+U
Pore Water Force
U =
w
bh cos
b
T


cos sin h
' tan )
cos
( ) - ( h + c'
= FS
sat
2
w sat
6-9

where ' =(
sat
-
w
).

For c' =0, the above expression may be simplified to:

tan
' tan

'
= FS
sat

6-10

From Equation 6-10 it is apparent that for a cohesionless material with parallel seepage, the
FS is also independent of the slope depth, h, just as it is for a dry cohesionless material as
given by Equation 6-5. The difference is that the FS for the dry material is reduced by the
factor '/
sat
for saturated cohesionless materials to account for the effect of seepage. For
typical soils, this reduction will be about 50 percent in comparison to dry slopes.

The above analysis can be generalized if the seepage line is assumed to be located at a
normalized height, m, above the failure surface where m =z/h. In this case, the FS is:

] m + ) m - 1 ( [ cos sin h
' tan ] ' m + ) m - 1 ( [
cos
h + c'
= FS
sat m
m
2

6-11

and
sat
and
m
are the saturated and moist unit weights of the soil below and above the
seepage line. The above equation may be readily reformulated to determine the critical depth
of the failure surface in a c'-' soil for any seepage condition.

6.4 CIRCULAR ARC FAILURE

Experience and observations of failures of embankments constructed over relatively deep
deposits of soft soils have shown that when failure occurs, the embankment sinks down, the
adjacent ground rises and the failure surface follows a circular arc as illustrated in Figure 6-5.

Figure 6-5. Typical circular arc failure mechanism.

At failure the driving and resistance forces act as follows:

The force driving movement consists of the embankment weight. The driving moment is
the product of the weight of the embankment acting through its center of gravity times
the horizontal distance from the center of gravity to the center of rotation (L
W
).

The resisting force against movement is the total shear strength acting along the failure
arc. The resisting moment is the product of the resisting force times the radius of the
circle (L
S
).

The factor of safety against slope instability is equal to the ratio of the resisting moment to
driving moment.

W
S
L Force Weight
L Strength Shear Total
Safety of Factor

= =
Moment riving D
Moment Resisting

6-12

Failure takes place when the factor of safety is less than 1, i.e., the driving moment >
resisting moment.
Fill Surface
After Failure
Fill Weight
Force
Failure
Case
L
W

Center
L
S

Failure
Movement
Direction
of
Soft Clay
Resistance
Force
Sum of Shear Strength
Along Arc
Fill

6.4.1 Simple Rule of Thumb for Factor of Safety

A rule of thumb based on simplified bearing capacity theory can be used to make a
preliminary "guestimate" of the factor of safety (FS) against circular arc failure for an
embankment built on a clay foundation without presence of free water. The rule of thumb is
as follows:

Fill Fill
H
c 6
FS

6-13

Where: c = unit cohesion of clay foundation soil (psf)

Fill
= unit weight fill (pcf)
H
Fill
= height of fill (feet)

Since the rule of thumb assumes that there is no influence from groundwater, c and
Fill
are
effective stress parameters.

For example, the factor of safety for the proposed embankment illustrated in Figure 6-6 can
be computed as follows:

1.69
ft) pcf)(30 (130
psf) (6)(1,100
FS = =
Use Rule of Thumb 6-13

Figure 6-6. Example proposed embankment.

The factor of safety computed by using this rule of thumb should never be used for final
design. This simple equation obviously does not take into account such factors as fill
strength or fill slope angle and does not identify the location of a critical failure surface. If

the factor of safety computed by using the rule of thumb is less than 2.5, a more
sophisticated stability analysis is required.

However, this rule of thumb can be helpful very early in the design stage to make a quick
preliminary check on whether stability may be a problem and if more detailed analyses
should be conducted. It can also be of use in the field while borings and sampling are being
performed. For example, if in-situ vane shear tests are being carried out as part of the field
investigation for a proposed embankment, the geotechnical specialist can use the vane
strength with Equation 6-13 to estimate the FS in the field. This estimate can aid in directing
the drilling, sampling, and testing program while the drill crew is at the site and help insure
that critical strata are adequately explored and sampled. Finally, the FS calculated by the
rule of thumb can be used to check for gross errors in computer output or input.

6.4.2 Stability Analysis Methods (General)

There are several available methods that can be used to perform a circular arc stability
analysis for an approach embankment over soft ground. The simplest basic method is known
as the Normal or Ordinary Method of Slices, also known as Fellenius method (Fellenius,
1936) or the Swedish circle method of analysis. The Ordinary Method of Slices can easily be
performed by hand calculations and is also a method by which the computation of driving
and resisting forces is straightforward and easily demonstrated. For this method, the failure
surface is assumed to be the arc of a circle as shown in Figure 6-7 and the factor of safety
against sliding along the failure surface is defined as the ratio of the moment of the total
available resisting forces on the trial failure surface to the net moment of the driving forces
due to the embankment weight, that is:

(R) Arm Moment Forces Driving of Sum
(R) Arm Moment Forces Resisting of Sum
FS
=
6-14

Note that since the method consists of computing the driving and resisting forces along the
failure arc, the moment arm R is the same for both the driving and resisting forces. Thus,
Equation 6-14 reduces to:

Forces Driving of Sum
Forces Resisting of Sum
FS=
6-14a


Figure 6-7. Geometry of Ordinary Method of Slices.

For slope stability analysis, the mass within the failure surface is divided into vertical slices
as shown in Figures 6-7 and 6-8. A typical vertical slice and its free body diagram is shown
in Figure 6-9 for the case where water is not a factor. The case with the presence of water is
shown in Figure 6-10. The following assumptions are then made in the analysis using
Ordinary Method of Slices:

1. The available shear strength of the soil can be adequately described by the
Mohr-Coulomb equation:

=c +( u) tan 6-15

where:
= effective shear strength
c = cohesion component of shear strength
( - u) tan =frictional component of shear strength
=total normal stress on the failure surface at the base of a slice due to
the weight of soil and water above the failure surface
u =water uplift pressure against the failure surface
=angle of internal friction of soil
tan =coefficient of friction along failure surface

2. The factor of safety is the same for all slices.

3. The factors of safety with respect to cohesion (c) and friction (tan ) are equal.

4. Shear and normal forces on the sides of each slice are ignored.

5. The water pressure (u) is taken into account by reducing the total weight of
the slice by the water uplift force acting at the base of the slice.

Equation 6-15 is expressed in terms of total strength parameters. The equation could easily
have been expressed in terms of effective strength parameters. Therefore, the convention to
be used in the stability analysis, be it total stress or effective stress, should be chosen and
specified. In soil problems involving water, the engineer may compute the normal and
tangential forces by using either total soil weights and boundary water forces (both buoyancy
and unbalanced hydrostatic forces) or submerged (buoyant) soil weights and unbalanced
hydrostatic forces. The results are the same. When total weight and boundary water forces
are used, the equilibrium of the entire block is considered. When submerged weights and
hydrostatic forces are used, the equilibrium of the mineral skeleton is considered. The total
weight notation is used herein as this method is the simplest to compute.

6.4.3 Ordinary Method of Slices - Step-By-Step Computation Procedure

To compute the factor of safety for an embankment by using the Ordinary Method of Slices,
the step-by-step computational procedure is as follows:

Figure 6-8. Example of dividing the failure mass in slices.

Step 1. Draw a cross-section of the embankment and foundation soil profile on a scale
of either 1-inch = 10 feet or 1-inch = 20 feet scale both horizontal and vertical.

Step 2. Select a circular failure surface such as shown in Figure 6-7.

Step 3. Divide the circular mass above the failure surface into 10 - 15 vertical slices as
illustrated in Figure 6-8.

To simplify computation, locate the vertical sides of the slices so that the bottom of
any one slice is located entirely in a single soil layer or at the intersection of the
ground water level and the circle.

Locate the top boundaries of vertical slices at breaks in the slope. The slice widths
do not have to be equal. For convenience assume a one-foot (0.3 m) thick section
of embankment. This unit width simplifies computation of driving and resisting
forces.

Also, as shown in Figure 6-9 and 6-10 the driving and resisting forces of each slice
act at the intersection of a vertical line drawn from the center of gravity of the slice
to the failure circle to establish a centroid point on the circle. Lines (called rays)
are then drawn from the center of the circle to the centroid point on the circular
arc. The angles are then measured from the vertical to each ray.

When the water table is sloping, use Equation 6-16 to calculate the water pressure
on the base of the slice:

u =h
w

w
cos
2

w
6-16

where:
w
=slope of water table from horizontal in degrees.
h
w
=depth from ground water surface to the centroid point on the circle.

Step 4: Compute the total weight (W
T
) of each slice.

For illustration, the resisting and driving forces acting on individual slices with and
without water pressure are shown on Figures 6-9 and 6-10.

To compute W
T
, use total soil unit weight,
t
, both above and below the water
table.


Figure 6-9. Forces on a slice without water effect.

Figure 6-10. Forces on a slice with water effect.

C = Cohesion Along
Slice Base
Tan = Coefficient of
Friction Along Slice
Base
W
T
= Total Slice Weight
N = W
T
Cos
T = W
T
Sin
C = Cohesion Along
Slice Base
Tan = Coefficient of
Friction Along Slice
Base
W
T
= Total Slice Weight
(Soil + Water)
N = W
T
Cos - ul
T = W
T
Sin

W
T
=
t
Average Slice Height Slice Width 6-17

For example: Assume

t
=120 pcf (18.9 kN/m
3
)
Average height of slice =10 ft (3 m)
Slice width =10 ft (3 m)

Then for a unit thickness into the plane of the paper, W
T
=(120 pcf) (10 ft) (10 ft)
(1 ft) =12,000 lbs (53.3 kN)

Step 5: Compute frictional resisting force for each slice depending on location of
ground water table.

N =W
T
cos 6-18a

N =W
T
cos ul 6-18b

N = total normal force acting against the slice base
N = effective normal force acting against the slice base
W
T
= total weight of slice (from Step 4 above)
= angle between vertical and line drawn from circle center to midpoint
(centroid) of slice base (Note: is also equal to the angle between the
horizontal and a line tangent to the base of the slice)
u = water pressure on the base of the slice =average height of water, h
w

w
.
Use
w
=62.4 pcf (9.8 kN/m
3
)
l = arc length of slice base. To simplify computations, take l as the secant to
the arc.
u l = water uplift force against base of the slice per unit thickness into the
plane of the paper.
= internal friction angle of the soil.
tan = coefficient of friction along base of the slice.

Note that the effect of water is to reduce the normal force against the base of
the slice and thus reduce the frictional resisting force. To illustrate this
reduction, take the same slice used in Step 4 and compute the friction resistance
force for the slice with no water and then for the ground water table located 5 feet
above the base of the slice.

Assume: =25
o
=20
o
l =11 ft (3.3 m)

If there is no water in the slice, u l =0 and Equation 6-18b reverts to Equation 6-
18a and the total frictional resistance can be computed as follows:

N =W
T
cos =(12,000 lbs) (cos 20
o
) =11,276 lbs (50.18 kN)
N tan =(11,276 lbs) (tan 25
o
) =5,258 lbs (23.4 kN)

If there is 5-ft of water above the midpoint of the slice, Equation 6-18b is used
directly and the effective frictional resistance is computed as follows:

u l = (h
w
)(
w
)(l) = (5 ft)(62.4 pcf))(11 ft)(1 ft) =3,432 lbs (15.3 kN)
N =W
T
cos - u l =11,276 lbs - 3,432 lbs =7,844 lbs (34.9 kN)
N tan =(7,844 lbs) (tan 25) =3,658 lbs (16.3 kN)

Step 6: Compute cohesive resisting force for each slice.

c = cohesive soil strength
l = length of slice base

Example: c =200 psf (9.6 kPa)
l =11 ft (3.6 m)
cl =(200 psf)(11 ft)(1 ft) =2,200 lbs (9.8 kN)

Step 7: Compute tangential driving force, T, for each slice.

T =W
T
sin 6-19

T is the component of total weight of the slice, W
T
, acting tangent to the slice base.
T is the driving force due to the weight of both soil and water in the slice.

Example: Given W
T
=12,000 lbs (53.3 kN)
=20
o

T =W
T
sin =(12,000 lbs)(sin 20
o
) =4,104 lbs (18.2 kN)

Step 8: Sum resisting forces and driving forces for all slices and compute factor of
safety.

T
1 c tan N
Forces Driving
Forces Resisting
FS
+
=
=
6-20

Tabular computation forms for use in performing a method of slices stability
analysis by hand are included on Figures 6-11 and 6-12.

Slice No. b h
i

i
W
i
W
i
=W
T

Figure 6-11a. Tabular form for computing weights of slices.

i
=unit weight of layer i
h
i
=height of layer at center of slice
W
i
=partial weight =b h
i

i
W
i
=total weight of slice W
T

Slice
No.

W
T

(from
Table
6-11a)
l c u ul W
T
cos N =
W
T
cos -ul

Ntan cl T=W
T
sin

=

+
=

+
=
sin W
cl tan N
sin W
cl tan ) ul cos W (
FS
T T
T
.

Legend: Refer to Figure 6-10 for definition of various slice quantities
W
T
= Total weight of Slice (soil +water)
l = Base length of the slice
c = Cohesion at base of slice
= angle of internal friction
u = pore water pressure at base of slice

Figure 6-11b. Tabular form for calculating factor of safety by Ordinary Method of Slices.
W
T

l

6.4.4 Recommended Stability Methods

The basic static forces on a typical slice are shown in Figure 6-12. The limit equilibrium
method of slices is based on the principles of statics, i.e., summation of moments, vertical
forces, and horizontal forces. The Ordinary Method of Slices ignores both interslice shear
(I
S
) and interslice normal (I
N
) forces and satisfies only moment equilibrium. There are many
other methods available for performing a slope stability analysis besides the Ordinary
Method of Slices. These include the Bishop Method (Bishop, 1955), the Simplified J anbu
Method (J anbu, 1954) and the Spencer Method (Spencer, 1967). These methods are
primarily variations and refinements of the Ordinary Method of Slices. The differences
among these more refined methods lie in the assumptions made regarding the interslice shear
and normal forces acting on the sides of slices. The Bishop Method, also known as the
Simplified Bishop Method, includes interslice normal forces (I
N
) but ignores interslice shear
(I
S
) forces. Again, Bishops method satisfies only moment equilibrium. The Simplified
J anbu Method is similar to the Bishop Method in that it includes the interslice normal (I
N
)
forces and ignores the interslice shear (I
S
) forces. The difference between the Bishop Method
and the Simplified J anbu Method is that the Simplified J anbu Method satisfies only
horizontal force equilibrium, as opposed to moment equilibrium. The Spencer Method
considers both normal and shear interslice side forces as well as moments. Therefore the
Spencer Method is theoretically more rigorous than the other methods.

Figure 6-12. Typical static forces on a slice of sliding mass without seepage.

The Ordinary Method of Slices is more conservative and gives unrealistically lower factors
of safety than the Bishop Method or the other more refined methods. The only reason for
inclusion of the Ordinary Method of Slides here is to demonstrate the principles of slope
stability. For purely cohesive soils the Ordinary Method of Slices and Bishops method give
identical results. For soils that have frictional strength, the Bishop Method should be used as
a minimum. While none of the methods is 100 percent correct theoretically, currently
available procedures such as Bishops method, J anbus Simplified method or Spencers
method are sufficiently accurate for practical analysis and design. For more information on
these and other slope stability methods, the reader is referred to FHWA (2001a).
I
S

I
S

I
N

I
N

W
T

N
T
Legend:
W
T
Total weight of slice
N Normal force at base of slice
T Tangential force at base of slice
I
S
Interslice shear (vertical) force
I
N
Interslice normal (horizontal) force

The method of analysis that should be used to determine a factor of safety depends on the
soil type, the source of the soil strength parameters, the level of confidence in the values, and
the type of slope that is being designed. Slope stability analyses should be performed only
by qualified and experienced geotechnical specialists. Guidelines recommended for the
analysis of slope stability are given in Table 6-1.

Table 6 -1. Slope stability guidelines for design
Foundation
Soil Type
Type of
Analysis
Source of Strength Parameters
(see Chapter 5)
Remarks
(see Note 1)
Short-term
(embankments
on soft clays
immediate end
of construction
=0
analysis).
UU or field vane shear test or
CU triaxial test.
Use undrained strength
parameters at p
o

Use Bishop Method. An angle
of internal friction should not be
used to represent an increase of
shear strength with depth. The
clay profile should be divided
into convenient layers and the
appropriate cohesive shear
strength assigned to each layer.
Stage
construction
(embankments
on soft clays
build
embankment in
stages with
waiting periods
to take
advantage of
clay strength
gain due to
consolidation).
CU triaxial test. Some
samples should be
consolidated to higher than
existing in-situ stress to
determine clay strength gain
due to consolidation under
staged fill heights.
Use undrained strength
parameters at appropriate p
o

for staged height.
Use Bishop Method at each
stage of embankment height.
Consider that clay shear strength
will increase with consolidation
under each stage. Consolidation
test data needed to estimate
length of waiting periods
between embankment stages.
Piezometers and settlement
devices should be used to
monitor pore water pressure
dissipation and consolidation
during construction.
Long-term
(embankment
on soft clays
and clay cut
slopes).
CU triaxial test with pore
water pressure measurements
or CD triaxial test.
Use effective strength
parameters.
Use Bishop Method with
combination of cohesion and
angle of internal friction
(effective strength parameters
from laboratory test).
Cohesive
Existing
failure planes
Direct shear or direct simple
shear test. Slow strain rate
and large deflection needed.
Use residual strength
parameters.
Use Bishop, Janbu or Spencer
Method to duplicate previous
shear surface.
Granular All types
Obtain effective friction angle
from charts of standard
penetration resistance (SPT)
versus friction angle or from
direct shear tests.
Use Bishop Method with an
effective stress analysis.
Note 1: Methods recommended represent minimum requirement. More rigorous methods such as
Spencers method should be used when a computer program has such capabilities.

6.4.5 Remarks on Safety Factor

For side slopes of routine highway embankments, a minimum design safety factor of 1.25 as
determined by the Ordinary Method of Slices is used. For slopes that would cause greater
damage upon failure, such as end slopes beneath bridge abutments, major retaining
structures, and major roadways such as regional routes, interstates, etc., the design safety
factor should be increased to at least 1.30 to 1.50. For cut slopes in fine-grained soils, which
can lose shear strength with time, a design safety factor of 1.50 is desirable.

6.5 CRITICAL FAILURE SURFACE

The step-by-step procedure presented in the preceding section illustrates how to compute the
factor of safety for one selected circular arc failure surface. The complete analysis requires
that a large number of assumed failure surfaces be checked in order to find the critical one,
i.e., the surface with the lowest factor of safety. This task would obviously be a tedious and
time consuming operation if done by hand. Therefore a computer program becomes a
valuable tool for performing such computations. Any method for stability analysis is easily
adapted to computer solution. For critical circle methods a grid of possible circle centers is
defined, and a range of radius values established for each. The computer can be directed to
perform stability analyses for each circle center over the range of radii and then to print out
all the safety factors or just the minimum one and its radius. A plot of minimum safety factor
for each circle center in the form of contours can be used to define the location of the most
critical circle and the minimum safety factor as shown in Figure 6-13. The radius of the most
critical surface can be used to locate the intersection points of the circle with the ground
surface above and below the slope. This is useful in identifying structures above and below
the slope that may be potentially impacted by slope instability.

Figure 6-13 shows just one of several ways that computer programs can be used to search for
the most critical failure surface. It is beyond the scope of this manual to discuss these in
detail. However, the following points should be noted as one uses a computer program for
locating the most critical failure surface:

1. Check multiple circle center locations and compare the lowest safety factors. There
may be more than one local minimum and a single circle center location may not
necessarily locate the lowest safety factor for the slope.


Figure 6-13. Location of critical circle by plotting contours of minimum safety factors
for various trial circles.

2. Search all areas of the slope to find the lowest safety factor. The designer may find
multiple areas of the slope where the safety factors are low and comparable. In this
case, the designer should try to identify insignificant failure modes that lead to low
safety factors for which the consequences of failure are small. This is often the case
in cohesionless soils, where the lowest safety factor is found for a shallow failure
plane located close the slope face.

3. Review the soil stratigraphy for secondary geological features such as thin
relatively weak zones where a slip surface can develop. Often, circular failure
surfaces are locally modified by the presence of such weak zones. Therefore
computer software capable of simulating such failures should be used. Some of the
weak zones may be man-made, e.g., when new fills are not adequately keyed into
existing fills for widening projects.

4. Conduct stability analyses to take into account all possible loading and unloading
schemes to which the slope might be subjected during its design life. For example, if
the slope has a detention basin next to it, then it might be prudent to evaluate the
effect of water on the slope, e.g., perform an analysis for a rapid drawdown condition.

5. Use the drained or undrained soil strength parameters as appropriate for the
conditions being analyzed

6. Use stability charts to develop a feel for the safety factor that may be anticipated.
Stability charts are discussed in the next section. Such charts may also be used to
verify the results of computer solutions.

6.6 DESIGN (STABILITY) CHARTS

Slope stability charts are useful for preliminary analysis to compare alternates that may be
examined in more detail later. Chart solutions also provide a quick means of checking the
results of detailed analyses. Engineers are encouraged to use these charts before performing
a computer analysis in order to determine the approximate value of the factor of safety. The
chart solution allows some quality control and a check for the subsequent computer-
generated solutions.

Slope stability charts are also used to back-calculate strength values for failed slopes, such as
landslides, to aid in planning remedial measures. In back-calculating strength values a factor
of safety of unity is assumed for the conditions at failure. Since soil strength often involves
both cohesion and friction, there are no unique values that will give a factor of safety equal to
one. Therefore, selection of the most appropriate values of cohesion and friction depends on
local experience and judgment. Since the friction angle is usually within a narrow range for
many types of soils and can be obtained by laboratory tests with a certain degree of
confidence, it is generally fixed for the back-calculations in practice and the value of
cohesion is varied until a factor of safety of one is obtained.

The major shortcoming in using design charts is that most charts are for ideal, homogeneous
soil conditions that are not typically encountered in practice. Design charts have been
devised with the following general assumptions:

1. Two-dimensional limit equilibrium analysis.
2. Simple homogeneous slopes.
3. Slip surfaces of circular shapes only.

It is imperative that the user understands the underlying assumptions for the charts
before using them for the design of slopes.

Regardless of the above shortcomings, many practicing engineers use these charts for non-
homogeneous and non-uniform slopes with different geometrical configurations. To do this
correctly, one must use an average slope inclination and weighted averages of c, , or c', '
or c
u
calculated on the basis of the proportional length of slip surface passing through
different relatively homogeneous layers. Such a procedure is extremely useful for
preliminary analyses and saves time and expense. In most cases, the results are checked by
performing detailed analyses using more suitable and accurate methods, for example, one of
the methods of slices discussed previously.

6.6.1 Historical Background

Some of the first slope stability charts were published by Taylor (1948). Since then various
charts were developed by many investigators. Two of the most common stability charts are
presented in this manual. These were developed by Taylor (1948) and J anbu (1968).

6.6.2 Taylors Stability Charts

Taylors Stability Charts (Taylor, 1948) were derived from solutions based on circular failure
surfaces for the stability of simple, homogeneous, finite slopes without seepage (i.e.,
condition of effective stress). The general equations that Taylor developed as the basis for
his stability charts are relationships between the height (H) and inclination () of the slope,
the unit weight of the soil (), and the values of the soils developed (mobilized) shear
strength parameters, c
d
and
d
. These developed (mobilized) quantities are as follows:

=
F
tan
tan ;
F
c
c
d
c
d

6-21

Where F
c
is the average factor of safety with respect to cohesion and F
, is the average factor

of safety with respect to friction angle, i.e.,
d
=arctan (tan / F
). As an approximation, the
following equation may be used for the developed friction angle:

F
d

6-22

However, for soils possessing both frictional and cohesive components of strength, the factor
of safety in slope stability analyses generally refers to the overall factor of safety with respect
to shearing strength, FS, which equals /
d
where =shear strength and
d
=the developed
(mobilized) shear strength. Therefore, the general Mohr-Coulomb expression for developed
shear strength in terms of combined factors of safety is:

=
F
tan
F
c
FS
c
d

6-23

Equation 6-23 can be re-written in terms of developed shear strength parameters as follows:

d d d
tan c + =
6-24

There are an unlimited number of combinations of F
c
and F
that can result in a given value

of FS. However, Equations 6-21 and 6-23 suggest that for the case where the value of F
c
=
F
, the factor of safety with respect to shearing strength, FS, also equals that value. The
importance of this condition will be illustrated in Section 6.6.2.1 by an example problem.

To simplify the determination of the factor of safety, Taylor calculated the stability of a large
number of slopes over a wide range of slope angles and developed friction angles,
d
. He
represented the results by a dimensionless number that he called the Stability Number, N
s
,
which he defined as follows:

H F
c
H
c
N
c
d
s

= =
6-25

Equation 6-25 can be rearranged to provide an expression for F
c
as a function of the Stability
Number and three variables, c, H and , as follows:

H N
c
F
s
c

=
6-26

Taylor published his results in the form of curves that give the relationship between N
s
and
slope angle, , for various values of developed friction angles,
d
, as shown in Figure 6-14.
Note that factors of safety do not appear in the chart. The chart is divided into two zones, A
and B. As shown in the inset for Zone A, the critical circle for steep slopes passes through
the toe of the slope with the lowest point on the failure arc at the toe of the slope. As shown
in the inset for Zone B, for shallower slopes the lowest point of the critical circle is not at the
toe, and three cases must be considered as follows:

Case 2: For shallow slope angles or small developed friction angles the critical
circle may pass below the toe of the slope. This condition corresponds to Case 2 in
the inset for Zone B. The values of N
s
for this case are given in the chart by the long
dashed curves.


Figure 6-14. Taylor's chart for soils with friction angle (after Taylor, 1948).
See Figure 6-15
Slope Angle,


Figure 6-15. Taylor's chart for ' =0 conditions for slope angles () less than 54 (after
Taylor, 1948).
= 53
For > 53, use Figure 6-14

Case 1: Where long dashed curves do not appear in the chart, the critical circle
passes through the toe. This condition corresponds to Case 1. Stability numbers for
Case 1 are given by the solid lines in the chart both when there is and when there is
not a more dangerous circle that passes below the toe, i.e., the curves for Case 1 are
an extension of the curves that correspond to a toe circle failure in Zone A. In both
Case 1 and Case 2 the failure circle passes through the soil below the toe of the slope.
The depth ratio, D, which is a multiple of the slope height H, is used to define the
depth (DH) from the top of the slope to an underlying strong material through which
the failure circle does not pass.

Case 3: This case corresponds to the condition where there is an underlying strong
layer at the elevation of the toe (D=1). This case is represented by short dashed lines
in the chart.

Comment on
d
= 0 condition: The condition of
d
=0 in Taylors Stability Chart is
somewhat misleading since, as noted previously, Taylors charts were derived for simple
slopes without seepage, i.e., for an effective stress analysis. The condition of
d
=0 was
used by Taylor to simplify the analysis and permit generation of the stability charts by
assuming that shear strength is constant with depth. Basically, in the Mohr-Coulomb
equation, Taylor assumed an average intergranular pressure,
avg
instead of an actual value
of which varies with depth. Since stability analyses are much simpler to perform when the
shear strength is constant, he introduced this concept into his stability charts by considering
the effective cohesion to be the average shear strength and by considering the friction angle
to be zero. Thus the condition where
d
=0 is merely an example of substitution of an
average value for a variable quantity. However, in the context of Taylors definition of
d
=
0, the stability charts are often used in practice for estimating the factor of safety and location
of the critical circle in a homogeneous saturated clay in undrained shear.

As shown in Figure 6-14, the critical circle for the
d
=0 case passes below the toe for
slopes with inclinations less than 53. In practice the depth to which the failure circle extends
is limited by an underlying strong material. Thus, the value of N
s
for this case is greatly
dependent on this limiting value of depth. The chart shown in Figure 6-15 is used
exclusively for the
d
=0 case and supplements the curves shown in Figure 6-14 for that
condition. The coordinates in Figure 6-15 allow the chart to be used easily and enable the
user to evaluate a number of parameters that may be of interest in practice. For example, the
chart can be used to determine nH, which is the distance from the toe of the slope to where
the critical failure surface passing below the toe may be expected to emerge.

6.6.2.1 Determination of the Factor of Safety for a Slope

As indicated in Section 6.6.2, in order to use Taylors charts to determine the minimum
overall factor of safety with respect to shear strength for a slope of given height H and
inclination having soil properties , c
and
, the condition FS =F
c
=F
must be satisfied.
The general computational approach is as follows:

1. Assume a reasonable value for the common factors of safety FS =F
c
=F
.
2. Use Equations 6-21 to calculate the corresponding values of c
d
and
d
.
3. For the given value of and the calculated value of
d
, read the corresponding value
of the stability number N
s
from Figure 6-14.
4. Use an inverted form of Equation 6-26 to calculate the slope height H corresponding
to the assumed factor of safety.
5. If the calculated value of H is within an acceptable distance of the actual height, e.g.,
0.5 feet, the assumed value of the common factor of safety represents the minimum
overall factor of safety of the slope with respect to shear strength, F
s
.
6. If the calculated value of H is not within the desired acceptable range, the process is
repeated with a new assumed value of the common factor of safety until the
recomputed value of H falls within that range.
7. The new assumed value of the common factor of safety for subsequent iterations is
generally less than the previously chosen value if the calculated value of H is less
than the actual value of H. Conversely, a. larger value of the new common factor of
safety is assumed if the calculated value of H is greater than the actual value of H.

The use of Taylors chart is illustrated by the following example.

Example 6-1: Determine the factor of safety for a 30 ft high fill slope. The slope angle is
30. The fill is constructed with soil having the following properties:
Total unit weight, =120 pcf; Effective cohesion, c =500 psf
Effective friction angle, =20
Solution:

First assume a common factor of safety of 1.6 for both cohesion and friction angle so that F
c

=F
=1.6. Since F
=1.6, the developed friction angle,

d
, can be computed as follows:

o
o
d
12.8
1.6
20 tan
arctan
F
tan
arctan =

For
d
=12.8, and =30, the value of the stability number N
s
from Figure 6-14 is
approximately 0.065. Thus, from Equation 6-26

(H) pcf) (120 (1.6)
psf 500
0.065 =
or
(0.065) pcf) (120 (1.6)
psf 500
H = =40.1 ft

Since computed height H =40.1 ft is greater than the actual height of 30-ft, the value of the
common safety factor must be greater than 1.6. Assume F
c
=F
=1.9 and recompute as

follows:

If F
=1.9, then
d
=10.8 and N
s
from Figure 6-14 is approximately 0.073 based on which
the recomputed value of H is as follows:

(0.073) pcf) (120 (1.9)
psf 500
H = =30.04 ft

The height of 30.04 ft is virtually identical to the correct height of 30 ft. Therefore, the
minimum factor of safety with respect to shearing strength is approximately 1.9.

Alternate Graphical Approach

An alternate graphical approach for determining the minimum factor of safety with respect to
shearing strength is also available. The procedure is as follows:

1. Assume a reasonable value for F
and calculate
d
.
2. For the given value of and the calculated value of
d
read the corresponding value
of the stability number N
s
from Figure 6-14.
3. Use Equation 6-26 to calculate F
c

4. Repeat the process for at least two other assumed values of F
over a range of
expected factors of safety so that at least three pairs of F

and F
c
are obtained.
5. Plot the calculated points on F
c
versus F
coordinates and draw a curve through the

points.
6. Draw a line through the origin that represents F
c
=F
.
7. The minimum overall factor of safety of the slope with respect to shear strength is the
value of factor of safety at the intersection of the calculated with the F
c
=F
line.

Example 6-1a: Solve Example 6-1 by using the alternate graphical approach.

Solution:

Set up a table for ease of computation (steps 1 through 4) as follows:

Assumed F
Calculated
d
N
s
from Figure 6-14 Calculated F
c

1.0 20 0.026 5.3
1.5 14 0.055 2.5
2.0 10 0.075 1.9
2.5 8 0.087 1.6

As shown in the figure below, plot the data as per steps 5 and 6 of the procedure. Read the
value of F
c
=F
=1.95 at the intersection of plotted curves. This value is the minimum

factor of safety with respect to shearing strength, FS. This value is close to the value of 1.9
calculated in Example 6-1. This example problem is also solved by the use of a computer
program, ReSSA, in Appendix D and the computer analysis yielded a FS =1.96 which is
close to the values computed by the use of stability chart.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
F
F
c
F
c
=F

6.6.3 Janbus Stability Charts

J anbu (1968) published stability charts for slopes in soils with uniform strength for =0 and
>0 conditions. These charts are presented in Figures 6-16 through 6-19. This series of
charts accounts for several different conditions and provides factors for surcharge loading at
the top of the slope, submergence, and tension cracks that can be expected to influence the
design of typical highway slopes.

The stability chart for slopes in soils with uniform shear strength throughout the depth of the
layer and with =0 is shown in Figure 6-16. Charts for correction factors for the conditions
when surcharge loads, submergence and tension cracks are present are shown in Figures 6-17
through 6-19. Step-by-step guidance for the use J anbus charts follows.

Steps for using Janbus Charts on Figures 6-16 through 6-19, for = 0 material.

Step 1. Use the chart at the bottom of Figure 6-16 to determine the position of the center
of the critical circle, which is located at a coordinate point defined by X
o
, Y
o
with
respect to a cartesian coordinate system whose origin is at the toe of the slope.
Following are some guidelines that can be used to identify the critical center:
o For slopes steeper than 53, the critical circle passes through the toe. For
slopes flatter than 53, the critical circle passes below the toe.
o In addition to the toe circle, at least four circles with different depths below
the toe, D, should be analyzed to ensure that the actual minimum factor of
safety and the actual critical circle have been found. The following
suggestions may be used to select the circles (Duncan and Wright, 2005):
If there is water outside the slope, a circle passing above the water may
be critical.
If a soil layer is weaker than the one above it, the critical circle may
extend into the lower (weaker) layer. This applies to layers both above
and below the toe.
If a soil layer is stronger than the one above it, the critical circle may
be tangent to the top of the stronger layer.

For each of the assumed circles, perform Steps 2 to 6.


Figure 6-16. Stability charts for = 0 soils (Janbu, 1968).

Step 2. Using the assumed critical circle as a guide, estimate the average value of
strength, c, by calculating the weighted average of the strengths along the failure
surface. The number of degrees intersected along the arc by each soil layer as a
percentage of the entire angle subtended by the arc is used as the weighting factor.

Step 3. Calculate the depth factor, d where d =D/H. (Note that the depth factor, d, for
J anbus charts is different from the depth ratio D for Taylors chart.)

Step 4. Calculate P
d
by using the following equation:

P
d
=(H +q -
w
H
w
)/(
t

q
w
) 6-27

where: q =surcharge load

w
=unit weight of water
H
w
=depth of water outside the slope

t
=tension crack correction factor (Figure 6-17)

q
=surcharge correction factor (Figure 6-18, top)

w
=submergence correction factor (Figure 6-18, bottom)

Step 5. Use the chart at the top of Figure 6-16 to determine the value of the stability
number, N
o
, which depends on the slope angle , and the value of d.

Step 6. Calculate the factor of safety (FS) by using the following equation:

FS =N
o
c/P
d
6-28

Step 7. Repeat Steps 2 to 6 for all the circles assumed in Step 1. Compare the FS to
obtain the most critical circle as the circle with the lowest FS. If it appears that
the minimum FS is for a circle close to the toe, i.e., d=0, then it is prudent to
check if the critical failure surface is within the height of the slope, H. In this
case, the toe of the slope is adjusted to the point of intersection of assumed circle
with the slope and all dimensions, (i.e., D, H, and H
w
) are adjusted accordingly in
the calculations and steps 1 to 6 are repeated (Duncan and Wright, 2005).


Figure 6-17. Reduction factors to account for tension cracks to be used with stability
charts for =0 and > 0 soils (Janbu, 1968).

Crack filled with water, i.e., full
hydrostatic pressure in crack
No water in crack i.e., no
hydrostatic pressure in crack


Figure 6-18. Reduction factors to account for surcharge (upper) and submergence
and/or seepage (lower) to be used with stability charts for =0 and > 0 soils (Janbu,
1968).

Steps for using Janbus Charts on Figures 6-17 through 6-19, for > 0 materials.

Step 1. Use judgment to estimate the location of the critical circle. For most conditions
of simple slopes in uniform soils with >0, the critical circle passes through the
toe of the slope. The critical stability numbers given in Figure 6-19 were
developed from analyses of toe circles.

Where conditions are not uniform and there is a weak layer beneath the toe of the
slope, a circle passing beneath the toe may be more critical than a toe failure.
Figure 6-19 may be used to calculate the factor of safety for such cases provided
the values of c and used in the analysis represent the correct average values for
the circle considered.

If there is a weak layer above the toe of the slope, a circle passing above the toe of
the slope may be more critical. Similarly, if there is water outside the toe of the
slope, a circle passing above the water may be more critical. When these types of
circles are analyzed, the value of H should be equal to the height from the base of
the weak layer, or the water level, to the top of the slope.

Step 2. Use the estimated circle in Step 1 as a guide to estimate the average values of c
and . This can be done by calculating the weighted average values of c and .
The number of degrees intersected along the arc by each soil layer as a percentage
of the entire angle subtended by the arc is used as the weighting factor for each
parameter.

Step 3. Calculate P
d
by using Equation 6-27.

Step 4. Calculate P
e

P
e
=(H +q -
w
H
w
)/(
q
w
) 6-29

where: H
w
=height of water within the slope (Figure 6-18, bottom)

q
=surcharge correction factor (Figure 6-18, top)

w
=seepage correction factor (Figure 6-18, bottom)


Figure 6-19. Stability charts for > 0 (Janbu, 1968).

Step 5. Calculate the dimensionless parameter
C

C
=P
e
tan/c 6-30

For c=0,
C
is infinite therefore skip to Step 6.

Step 6. Use the chart in Figure 6-19 to determine the value of the critical stability
number, N
cf
, which is dependent on the slope angle, , and the value of
C
.

Step 7. Calculate the factor of safety for the slope as follows:

For c >0 FS =N
cf
c/ P
d
6-31
For c =0 FS =P
e
b tan / P
d
6-32

Step 8. Determine the actual location of the critical circle by using the chart on the right
side of Figure 6-19. The center of the circle is located at a coordinate point
defined by X
o
, Y
o
with respect to a cartesian coordinate system whose origin is at
the toe of the slope. The circle passes through the toe of the slope (the origin),
except for slopes flatter than 53, where the critical circle passes tangent to the top
of firm soil or rock. If the critical circle is much different from the one assumed
in Step 1 for the purpose of determining the average strength, Steps 2 through 8
should be repeated.

If a slope contains more than one soil layer, it may be necessary to calculate the factor of
safety for circles at more than one depth. If the underlying soil layer is weaker than the layer
above it, the critical circle will extend into the lower layer, and either a toe circle or a deep
circle within this layer will be critical. If the underlying soil layer is stronger than the layer
above it, the critical circle may or may not extend into the lower layer, depending on the
relative strengths of the two layers. Both possibilities should be examined (Duncan and
Wright, 2005).

The use of J anbus charts is illustrated by the following example.

Example 6-2: Figure 6-20 shows a 35 ft high slope with a grade of 1.5H:1V. The soil
properties within the slope and under it are shown on the figure.
Groundwater is immediately under the slope. Calculate the factor of safety
for a toe circle by using total stress analysis based on the soil properties
shown. (Note: The circle in Figure 6-20 is plotted in Step 5 of the solution.)


Solution:

The correction factors
t
,
q
,
w
and
w
are all equal to 1.0 since there is no tension crack (H
t

=0), no surcharge on the slope (q =0), no water above the toe of the slope (
w
H
w
=0), and no
seepage out of the slope (
w
H
w
=0).

1. Calculate P
d
by using Equation 6-27 as follows:

P
d
=(H +q -
w
H
w
)/(
t

q
w
)
P
d
=(120 pcf)(35 ft)/[(1)(1)(1)] =4,200 psf

2. Calculate P
e

P
e
=(H +q -
w
H
w
)/(
q
w
)
P
e
=(120 pcf)(35 ft)/[(1)(1)] =4,200 psf

3. For a toe circle, it is likely that a segment of the circle will pass through the soil
below the toe and the average shear strength parameters along the circle will be
different than those for the two layers. However, since at this stage the length of the
segment passing through the soil below the toe is unknown, assume that the shear
strength values of the soil within the slope height are representative and calculate the
parameter
C

C
=P
e
tan/c =(4,200 psf) (tan 20)/(500 psf) =3.06

4. From Figure 6-19 obtain the approximate center coordinates of the critical circle by
using b=1.5 and
C
=3.06 as follows
35 ft
25 ft
2
=29
1
=54
t
=120 pcf
u
=20
c
u
=500 psf
t
=120 pcf
u
=0
c
u
=1,000 psf
Figure 6-20. Data for Example 6-2.

x
o
0.4 y
o
1.6 Thus, X
o
=(H)(x
o
) =(35 ft) (0.4) =14 ft
Y
o
=(H)(y
o
) =(35 ft) (1.6) =56 ft

5. Plot the critical circle on the given slope, as shown in Figure 6-20. Note that the
subtended angles for the failure circle within the slope and the foundation are
1
=54
and
2
=29 degrees, respectively.

6. Calculate c
av
, tan
av
and
C
based on the angular distribution of the failure surface
within the slope and foundation soil using
1
and
2
as follows:

c
av
=[(54) (500 psf) +(29) (1,000 psf)] / (54+29) =674.7 psf

tan
av
=[(54) (tan 20) +(29) (tan 0)] / (54+29) =0.236 (or
av
=13.3)

Thus, according to Equation 6-30;
C
=P
e
tan/c =(4,200 psf) (0.236)/(674.7 psf) =1.47 1.5

7. From Figure 6-19 obtain the center coordinates of the critical circle by using b=1.5
and
C
=1.5 as follows

x
o
0.5 y
o
1.55 Thus, X
o
=(H)(x
o
) =(35 ft) (0.5) =17.5 ft
Y
o
=(H)(y
o
) =(35 ft) (1.55) =54.3 ft

This circle is close to the circle obtained in the previous iteration, so retain
C
=1.5
and c
av
=674.7 psf .

8. From Figure 6-19, obtain N
cf
=10.0 for b =1.5 and
C
=1.5.

9. Calculate the factor of safety, FS, by using Equation 6-28 as follows :

FS =N
o
c/P
d
=(10) (674.7 psf) / (4,200 psf)

FS =1.61

This calculation sequence is only for a given circle. This sequence is repeated for
several circles and the resulting FS compared to find the minimum FS. With the
advent of computer programs, this method is now more often used to verify the
results of the computer generated most critical circle rather than computing the
minimum FS by repeating the above sequence of calculations for several circles.

6.7 SLIDING BLOCK FAILURE

A "sliding block" type failure can occur where:

1. the foundation soil contains thin seams of weak clay or organic soils,

2. a shallow layer of weak soil exists at the ground surface and is underlain by firm soil,
and

3. the foundation soil contains thin sand or silt lenses sandwiched between less
permeable soil. The weak layers or lenses provide a plane of weakness along which
sliding can occur. In the case of sand or silt lenses trapped between less permeable
soils, the mechanism that can cause sliding is as follows. As the fill load is placed,
the water pressure is increased in the sand or silt lense. Since the water cannot escape
due to the impermeable soil above and below, the sand or silt loses frictional strength
as a result of the intergranular effective stress between soil grains being decreased
due to the excess pore water pressure.

Typical "sliding block" type failures are illustrated in Figure 6-21. When sliding occurs, an
active wedge type failure occurs through the fill and a passive wedge type failure occurs
below the fill toe as soil in the toe area is pushed out of the way. The sliding mass moves
essentially as a block, thus the term "sliding block." These concepts are illustrated in Figure
6-22.

Figure 6-21. Sliding block failure mechanism.

6.7.1 Sliding Block Hand Method of Analysis

A simple sliding block analysis to estimate the factor of safety against sliding is
straightforward and can be performed easily and quickly by hand. For the analysis, the
potential sliding block is divided into three parts; (1) an active wedge at the head of the slide,
(2) a central block, and (3) a passive wedge at the toe as shown in Figure 6-22.
Figure 6-22. Geometry and force components for sliding block analysis.

For the problem illustrated in Figure 6-22, the factor of safety would be computed by
summing forces horizontally, to give:

a
p
P
cL P
Forces Driving Horizontal
Forces Resisting Horizontal
FS
+
= =
6-33

where: P
a
= Active force (driving)
P
p
= Passive force (resisting)
cL = Resisting force due to cohesion of clay

The assumption is made that the loading is rapid so that there is no frictional component of
resistance. For convenience of computation of a 1 ft thick slice of embankment is assumed.

Several trial locations of the active and passive wedges must be checked to determine the
minimum factor of safety. Note that since wedge type failures occur at the head and toe of
the slope, similar to what occurs behind retaining walls, the active and passive forces are
Passive
Wedge
Central Block Active Wedge
W
Soft
12 Clay Seam
P
a

cL
P
p

Fill
Sand
Sand
L

assumed to act against vertical planes that are treated as "imaginary" retaining walls, and the
active and passive forces are computed the same as for retaining wall problems.

6.7.1.1 Computation of Forces - Simple Sliding Block Analysis

For the simple sliding block problem illustrated Figure 6-22 the forces used to compute the
factor of safety can be calculated by using the Rankine approach as follows:

Driving Force Rankine Active Force

P
a
=1/2 H
2
K
a
6-34

Where: P
a
= active force (kips) (kN)
= unit weight of soil in the active wedge (kcf) (kN/m
3
)
H = height of soil layer in active wedge (ft) (m)
K
a
= active earth pressure coefficient for level ground surface
K
a
= (1-sin)/(1+sin) =tan
2
(45
o
- /2) (see Chapter 2)
= angle of internal friction of soil in the active wedge.

Resisting Force Rankine Passive Force

P
p
=1/2 H
2
K
p
6-35

Where: P
p
= passive force (kips) (kN)
= unit weight of soil in the passive wedge (kcf) (kN/m
3
)
H = height of soil layer in passive wedge (ft) (m)
K
p
= passive earth pressure coefficient for level ground surface
K
p
= (1+sin)/(1-sin) =tan
2
(45
o
+/2) (see Chapter 2)
= angle of internal friction of soil in the passive wedge.

Resisting Force (kips or kN) = Clay cohesion (c in ksf or kPa) x
Length of central wedge (L in ft or m)

Computation Tips:

The following design tips should be kept in mind when a sliding block analysis is performed.

1. Be aware that the active or passive wedge can pass through more than one soil type
with different strengths or unit weights. If that is the case then the active or passive

pressure distribution changes at the boundary between the different soils. This abrupt
change in pressure is due to a change in either the angle of internal friction that
affects the value of the earth pressure coefficient K
a
or K
p
and/or a change in the unit
weight of the soil. The easiest way to handle this condition is to compute the active
or passive earth pressure distribution diagram for each soil. There may be a
discontinuity in the pressure diagram at the boundary between the two different soil
layers. Then compute the active or passive force for each segment of the pressure
distribution diagram from the area of each segment.

2. When the active or passive pressure is being computed for soils below the ground
water table, the buoyant (effective) unit weight of the soil must be used.

The step-by step procedure for the Sliding Block Method of Analysis is illustrated by the
following numerical example.

Example 6-3: Find the safety factor for the 20 ft high embankment illustrated in Figure 6-23
by using the simple sliding block method and Rankine earth pressure
coefficients. Consider a 1 ft wide strip of the embankment into the plane of
the paper.

Figure 6-23. Example simple sliding block method using Rankine pressure coefficients.

Solution

Step 1: Compute driving force, P
a
, by using Equation 6-34

Active Driving Force (P
a
) by using Equation 6-34
1
10
Firm Material
Soft Clay Layer c =400 psf
20
2
1
t
=110 pcf
=30
t
=110 pcf
=30


a
2
t a
K H
2
1
P = (use
t
as the water table is below the failure plane)

33 . 0
2
30
45 tan
2
45 tan K
o
2 2
a
=

=

kips 5 . 16 ) ft 1 )( 33 . 0 ( ) ft 30 )( kcf 110 . 0 (
2
1
P
2
a
= =

Step 2: Compute resisting forces

Central Block Resistance

kips 16.0 ft) ft)(1 ksf)(40 (0.400 cl = = (71.1 kN)

Passive Resisting Force by using Equation 6-35

p
2
t p
K H
2
1
P =

0 . 3
2
30
45 tan
2
45 tan K
o
2 2
p
=
+ =

+ =

kips 5 . 16 ) ft 1 )( 3 ( ) ft 10 )( kcf 110 . 0 (
2
1
P
2
p
=
=

Step 3: Compute factor of safety by using Equation 6-33

97 . 1
kips 5 . 16
kips 5 . 16 kips 0 . 16
P
P cl
Factor Safety
a
p
=
+
=
+
=

6.7.2 Computation of Forces - Complicated Sliding Block Analysis

The Rankine approach is a useful tool to portray the mechanism of a planar failure condition.
However a general force diagram applicable to a more difficult sliding block type problem
can account for the effects of water pressure, cohesion, friction, and a sloping failure plane in

the analysis. This analysis procedure, which is described in FHWA (2001a), can be used
both to estimate the factor of safety for assumed failure surfaces in design or to "back-
analyze" sliding block landslide problems.

Computer solutions are also available for failure modes defined by planar and non-circular
surfaces. However most of those solutions do not use the simplified Rankine block approach
but rather a more complex failure plane such as that used in J anbus method. In general a
computer solution is preferred for these planar failure problems because of the flexibility
they offer in handling a variety of conditions that result in a more complex failure plane.

6.8 SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS USING COMPUTER PROGRAMS

Slope stability procedures are well suited to computer analysis due to the interactive nature of
the solution. Also, the simplified hand solution procedures do not properly account for
interslice forces, irregular failure surfaces, seismic forces, and external loads such as line
load surcharges or tieback forces. Several user-friendly computer programs exist to analyze
two-dimensional slope stability problems. One of the advantages of a computer program is
that it allows parametric studies to be performed by varying parameters of interest, e.g., shear
strength parameters. More complex computer programs are available for three dimensional
slope stability analysis. As a minimum, a basic two-dimensional slope stability program is
recommended for routine use.

Desirable geotechnical features of such a program should include:

Multiple analysis capability
a. Circular arc (Bishop)
b. Non-circular (J anbu)
c. Sliding block

Variable input parameters to account for specific conditions
a. Heterogeneous soil systems
b. Pseudo-static seismic loads
c. Ground anchor forces
d Piezometric levels

Random generation of multiple failure surfaces with an option to analyze a specific
failure surface.

Desirable software features include:

User-friendly input screens including a summary screen that shows the cross section
and soil boundaries in profile.
Help screens and error tracking messages.
Expanded output options for both resisting forces in friction, cohesion or tieback
computations and driving forces in static or dynamic computations.
Ordered output and plotting capability for the failure surface of 10 minimum safety
factors.
Documentation of program.

A major problem for software users is technical support, maintenance and update of
programs. Slope stability programs are in a continual process of improvement that can be
expected to continue indefinitely. Highway agencies should implement only software that is
documented and verified and for which the seller agrees to provide full technical support,
maintenance and update. The following web page for the FHWA National Geotechnical
Team contains links to distributors of FHWA software:

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/geotech/index.cfm

Similar services are provided for commercially available slope stability programs such as the
ReSSA (2001), SLOPE/W, SLIDE, STABL series (e.g., PCSTABL, XSTABL, GSTABL),
and UTEXAS. Appendix D provides an overview of use of the ReSSA program.

Finally, it is extremely important for the designer to understand that the design is only as
good as the input parameters. Therefore, the designer should put major emphasis where it
belongs, which is on:

Investigation
Sampling
Testing
Development of soil profile
Design soil strengths
Ground water table location

Computer programs are only tools that aid in the design. The answers are only as good as the
input data. Don't get carried away with plugging in the numbers and examining the results.
You may learn the "garbage in - garbage out" principle the hard way.

6.9 IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF EMBANKMENTS

There are usually several technically feasible solutions to a stability problem. The chosen
solution should be the most economical considering the following factors:

1. Available materials.
2. Quantity and cost of materials.
3. Construction time schedules.
4. Line and grade requirements.
5. Right-of-way issues.

6.9.1 Embankment Stability Design Solutions

Table 6-2 presents a summary of practical solutions to mitigate embankment stability
problems. Figures 6-24 to 6-26 illustrate some of the mitigation methods listed in Table 6-2.
One of the solutions listed in Table 6-2 is the use of ground improvement. This solution can
be used for cases where the internal stability of the embankment is not an issue due to the use
of competent embankment materials, but the foundation materials are weak enough to affect
the stability of the embankment slope. By improving the ground under the embankment, the
resistance along the failure surface within the foundation is improved, thereby increasing the
safety factor against slope failure. Relatively poor soils can be reinforced with geosynthetics
to offset their low shear strength so that acceptable embankments can be constructed.

Another solution is related to reinforcement of the embankment soils themselves. This
solution can be used where the foundation is adequate but the locally available soils may not
be suitable for construction of embankments at the desired slope angles. In this case, the
embankment soils may be strengthened by the inclusion of reinforcements. Such slopes are
called reinforced soil slopes (RSS). The RSS technology can be used to construct slopes at
angles up to 69-degrees from horizontal. The RSS design method is discussed here as an
example of a remediation method. Only the basics of the RSS design method are presented
herein. Detailed design procedures for RSS technology can be found in FHWA (2001b).

6.9.2 Design Approach for Reinforced Soil Slopes

The design of internal reinforcement for safe, steep slopes requires a rigorous analysis. The
design of the reinforcement for this application is critical, as failure of the reinforcement
would result in failure of the slope. The overall design requirements for reinforced slopes are
similar to those for unreinforced slopes. The factor of safety must be adequate for both the
short-term and long-term conditions and for all possible modes of failure.

Table 6-2
Practical design solutions to mitigate embankment stability problems

*1. Relocate highway
alignment.
A line shift of the highway to an area having better soils may be the most
economical solution.
*2. Reduce grade line.
(flatten slope)
A reduction in grade line will decrease the weight of the embankment and
will improve stability (Figure 6-24).
3. Counterweight
berms.

A counterweight berm outside of the center of rotation, as illustrated in
(Figure 6-25), provides an additional resisting moment that increases the
factor of safety. Berms should be built concurrently with the embankment.
The embankment should never be completed prior to berm construction since
the critical time for shear failure is at the end of embankment construction.
The top surface of a berm should be sloped to drain water away from the
embankment. Also, care should be exercised in selection of materials and
compaction specifications to assure the design unit weight will be achieved
for berm construction.
4. Excavation of soft
soil and replacement
with shear key.
The strength of soft soils is often insufficient to support embankments. In
such cases, the soft soils are excavated and replaced with granular material
that acts like a shear key (Figure 6-26).
5. Displacement of
soft soil.
For deep soft deposits, excavation is difficult. The soft soil can be displaced
by generating continuous shear failures along the advancing fill front until
the embankment is on firm bottom. The mudwave forced up in front of the
fill must be excavated to insure continuous displacement and prevent large
pockets of soft soil from being trapped under the fill
6. Slow rate or stage Many weak subsoils will tend to gain strength during the loading process as
consolidation occurs and pore water pressures dissipate. For soils that
consolidate relatively fast, such as some silts and silty clays, this method is
practical. Proper instrumentation is desirable to monitor the state of stress in
the soil during the loading period to insure that loading does not proceed so
rapidly that a shear failure occurs. Typical instrumentation consists of slope
inclinometers to monitor stability, piezometers to measure excess pore water
pressure, and settlement devices to measure the amount and rate of
settlement. Planning of the instrumentation program and data interpretation
should be done by a qualified and experienced geotechnical engineer. This
option could also be used if weak subsoils are pretreated with wick drains
7. Lightweight
embankment.
In some areas of the country lightweight materials such as blast furnace slag,
shredded rubber tires, or expanded shale are available. The slag material
weighs about 80 pcf (12.6 kN/m
3
). Sawdust fill weighs about 50 pcf (7.9
kN/m
3
) and has a friction angle of 35
o
or more. Expanded Polystyrene Foam
(EPS) is available throughout the country and weighs 1 to 3 pcf (0.15 to 0.5
kN/m
3
). Use of such materials decreases the driving force. Typical
advantages and disadvantages of the use of such materials, and specifications
for lightweight fills are included in FHWA (2006b).
8. Ground improvement Recently developed techniques such as stone columns, soil mixing,
geosynthetics, soil nailing, ground anchors, and grouting can be used to
increase resisting forces. Specialty contractors should be considered for
these design solutions.
9. Reinforcement of
embankment soils.
The embankment soils can be strengthened by incorporating reinforcements
with the compacted soil. The reinforcement generally permits steeper slopes
compared to unreinforced embankments.
*Always consider these solutions first since they are relatively simple and inexpensive.


Figure 6-24. Reduction of grade line to improve slope stability.

Figure 6-25. Use of counterweight berm to improve slope stability.

Figure 6-26. Use of shear key to improve slope stability.

As illustrated in Figure 6-27, there are three possible failure modes for reinforced slopes:

1. Internal - the failure plane passes through the reinforcing elements.

2. External - the failure surface passes behind and underneath the reinforced mass. The
reinforced mass is the mass of soil that contains the reinforcements.

3. Compound - the failure surface passes behind and through the reinforced soil mass.

Figure 6-27. Failure modes for Reinforced Soil Slopes.

In some cases, the calculated minimum safety factor can be approximately equal in two or
even all three modes if the reinforcement strengths, lengths, and vertical spacing are
optimized (FHWA, 2001b). FHWA (2001b) contains a detailed discussion of the analysis
and design of RSS. A convenient chart solution is presented in this manual for preliminary
feasibility-level design of the RSS.

6.9.2.1 Preliminary Feasibility Design of RSS

A preliminary design for a feasibility evaluation can be easily made by the use of design
charts. These charts can also be used for the final design of low slopes, i.e., slope height less
than 20 ft (6 m), where the consequences of failure are not critical. Figure 6-28 is a widely
used chart that presents a simplified method based on a two-part, wedge-type failure surface.
Use of the chart is limited by the assumptions noted on the figure. Figure 6-28 is not

intended to be a single design tool. Other design charts available from the literature could
also be used, e.g., FHWA (2001b), Leshchinsky and Perry (1987).

The procedure for using the charts shown in Figure 6-28 is as follows:

1. For an assumed (desired) safety factor, F, determine the factored friction angle,
f
, in
degrees as follows (Note: this is similar to the factored friction angle in Taylors
stability chart):

=
F
tan
arctan
f

2. Using
f
read the force coefficient K from Part A and determine T
S-MAX
as follows:

T
S-MAX
=0.5 K
f
(H)
2

where H =H +q/ is the effective height, q =surcharge, and
f
=fill unit weight.

3. Determine the length of the reinforcement at the top, L
T
, and bottom, L
B
, of the slope
from Part B.

4. Determine the distribution of reinforcement:

For low slope heights (H 20 ft) assume a uniform reinforcement distribution,
and use T
S-MAX
to determine the spacing or the required tension, T
MAX,
, for each
reinforcement layer.

For high slope heights (H > 20 ft), divide the slope into two or three
reinforcement zones of equal height, and use a factored T
S-MAX
in each zone for
spacing or design tension requirements.

For 2 zones: For 3 zones:
T
Bottom
= 3/4 T
S-MAX
T
Bottom
= 1/2 T
S-MAX

T
Top
= 1/4 T
S-MAX
T
Middle
= 1/3 T
S-MAX

T
Top
= 1/6 T
S-MAX

The force is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire zone.


Chart assumptions:
(1) extensible reinforcement, (2) slopes constructed with uniform cohesionless soils (c=0), (3) no pore water pressures within slope,
(4) competent, level foundation soils, (5) no seismic forces, (6) uniform surcharge, q, not greater than 0.2
f
H, (7) relatively high
soil/reinforcement interface friction angle =0.9 (may not be appropriate for some geotextiles).
Figure 6-28. Chart solution for determining the reinforcement strength requirements (after Schmertmann, et al., 1987).

Part A: Reinforcement
Force Coefficient
Part B: Reinforcement Length
Ratios
K

Determine the requirements for vertical spacing of the reinforcement, S
v
, or the
maximum design tension, T
MAX
, for each reinforcement layer.

For each zone, calculate T
MAX
for each reinforcing layer in that zone based on an
assumed S
v
or, if the allowable reinforcement strength is known, calculate the
minimum vertical spacing and number of reinforcing layers, N, required for each
zone based on Equation 6-36 and the use of consistent units.

N
T
H
S T
T R T
zone
zone
v zone
d c a
= = =
6-36
where:
T
a
= sum of available tensile force per width of reinforcement for all
reinforcement layers.

R
c
= coverage ratio of the reinforcement that equals the width of the
reinforcement, b, divided by the horizontal spacing S
h
.

S
v
= vertical spacing of reinforcement; multiples of compacted layer thickness
for ease of construction.

T
zone
= maximum reinforcement tension required for each zone.
= T
S-MAX
for low slopes (H<20 ft)

H
zone
= height of zone.
= T
top
, T
middle
, and T
Bottom
for high slopes (H >20 ft)

N = number of reinforcement layers.

In general, use short (4 - 6.5 ft (1.2 2 m)) lengths of reinforcement layers to
maintain a maximum vertical spacing of 16 in (400 mm) or less for face stability and
compaction quality. This short reinforcement should be placed in continuous layers
and need not be as strong as the primary load bearing reinforcement, but it must be
strong enough to survive construction (e.g., minimum survivability requirements for
geotextiles in road stabilization applications in AASHTO M-288) and provide
localized tensile reinforcement to the surficial soils.

For detailed analyses required for final design, refer to FHWA (2001b). The computer
program ReSSA (2001) noted earlier, can perform analysis and design of reinforced soil
slopes using the methods described in FHWA (2001b).

6.10 IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF CUT SLOPES

The two most common types of cut slope failures are deep-seated and shallow surface
failures. Both of these types of failure and their mitigation are discussed in this section.

6.10.1 Deep Seated Failure

A deep seated failure usually occurs in slopes cut into clay. The clay has insufficient shear
strength to support the slope, and shear failure generally occurs along a circular arc. If the
clay contains water-bearing silt or sand layers, seepage forces will also contribute to the
instability. Figure 6-29 shows an example of a deep seated failure and a possible design
solution. Table 6-3 lists typical design solutions to potential cut slope stability problems in
clay.

Figure 6-29. Deep seated slope failure (left) and bench slope design (right) to prevent
slope failure.

Table 6-3
Typical design solutions to mitigate cut slope stability problems
Design Solution Effect on Stability
a. Flatten slope. Reduces driving force.
b. Bench slope. Reduces driving force.
c. Buttress toe. Increases resisting force.
d. Lower water table. Reduces seepage force.
e. Reinforcement (e.g., nails) Increases resisting force

The design of cut slopes in clay should NOT be based on the undrained strength of the
clay determined by tests on samples obtained before the cut is made. Designs based on
undrained strength will be unconservative since the effective stress is reduced when the cut is
made because load is removed. This decrease in effective stress allows the clay to swell and

lose strength if water is made available to the clay as shown in Figure 6-30. Therefore, the
design of cut slopes in clays should be based on effective strength parameters so that the
reduction in effective stress resulting from the excavation can be taken into account. It is
important to remember that an undrained clay in a cut gradually weakens and may fail long
after construction.

Figure 6-30: Typical cut slope failure mechanism in clay soils.

6.10.2 Shallow Surface Failures

Shallow surface failures (sloughs) are most common in cut slopes in layered clay or silt.
This type of failure may involve either an entire slope or local areas in the slope. The prime
cause of shallow surface failures is water seepage. Water seepage reduces the strength of the
surface soils, causing them to slide or flow.

Sloughing of slopes due to ground water seepage can often be remedied by placing a 2-3 ft
(0.6-1 m) thick rock or gravel blanket over the critical area. The blanket reduces the seepage
forces, drains the water, and acts as a counter-weight on the unstable soil. The blanket
should be "keyed" into the ditch at the toe of the slope. The key should extend about 4 feet
(1.2 m) below the ditch line and be about 4 ft (1.2 m) wide. A geotextile should be placed
both under the key and against the slope before placement of the gravel blanket.
Construction of the gravel blanket should proceed from the toe upwards. The most effective
placement is by a dozer that will track over and compact the lower areas of the gravel blanket
while the upper areas are being constructed.

6.10.3 Factor of Safety - Cut Slopes

As indicated previously, a minimum design safety factor of 1.25 is used for routine highway
embankment side slopes. A minimum factor of safety against sliding of 1.50 is recommended
for the stability of cut slopes in fine-grained soils. The greater factor of safety for cut slopes
is based upon the knowledge that cut slopes may deteriorate with time as a result of natural
drainage conditions that embankments generally do not experience. In addition, there is a
greater degree of uncertainty about the homogeneity of the soils in cut slopes than in
embankment slopes that are engineered and constructed under controlled conditions.

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PDHengi neer.

, is the average factor

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=1.6, the developed friction angle,

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