Political Philosophy of Allama Iqbal
Political Philosophy of Allama Iqbal
Political Philosophy of Allama Iqbal
SAAD UR REHMAN
ALLAMA IQBAL
Muhammad Iqbal was born at Sialkot on 9th November 1877 of a middle-class
and deeply religious family. He grew up at a time when Western civilization was
imposing a comprehensive dominance over the Muslim world and the Muslim
world was suffering a long time of decline in all aspects – political, cultural,
economic, and social life. The decline of the Muslim ummah, according to Iqbal,
was primarily due to the stagnation of religious thought. Therefore, he proposed
the need for the reconstruction of religious thought both in sphere of theology as
well as in law and jurisprudence.
KHUDI/SELF
For Iqbal, ethically, the word “khudi” means “self-reliance, self-respect, self-
confidence, self-preservation, even self-assertion when such a thing is necessary,
in the interests of life and the power to stick to the cause of truth, justice, duty.
Iqbal thought it necessary also to warn the readers “that ‘khudi’ is not used to
mean pride as in the common usage of the word in Urdu.”
The overview of the Western society according to Iqbal is its fasād-i-qalb-o-
naẓar29 – i.e. double standard or hypocrisy. To face this unethical, hypocrite
and immoral West, Iqbal comes up with a proposal to strengthen ego.
1. Desire
Keep desire alive in thy heart
Lest thy little dust become a tomb.
Throughout Iqbal’s writings, great stress is placed on Desire as the spring from
which the Self draws sustenance. A Self that is lacking in Desire, is, in fact, dead.
Life can be viewed as dynamic only when it is imbued with restless burning. All
that humanity has achieved is a product of Desire. Iqbal calls Desire by several
names such as “suz”, “hasrat”, “justuju”, “arzu”, “ishtiyaq” and “tamanna”. Desire
is a creative power even when it remains unfulfilled. The fulfilment of Desire is
“at the same time, extreme happiness and the end of happiness. The separation is
overcome. But without separation there is no love and no life. What makes a
human being what he is, is the capacity for endless yearning. In Iqbal’s eyes, it is
this capacity which lifts human being to a station where he would not change his
position even with God. Life means a passionate burning, an urge to make.
A hundred joys are to be found in our unrewarding quest
2. Love
Love is the active sense of positive Desire.29 Iqbal “lays great emphasis on
the value of love … for strengthening the Self.” He uses the word in a very
wide sense, and means by it “the desire to assimilate, to absorb. Its highest
form is the creation of values and ideals and the endeavour to realize
them.”
From Love, the Self acquires vitality and radiance. Love is creative of all
that is good in life, and the supreme guide of human destiny. For Iqbal, as
for Tillich, “Life is being in actuality and love is the moving prayer of life …
In man’s experience of love the nature of life becomes manifest. … The
power of love is not something which is added to an otherwise finished
process, but life has love in itself as one of its constitutive elements. Love is
the fundamental urge of Being, its elan vital and its raison d'etre.
For Iqbal, as for Rumi, only Love is an intrinsic value. All other values are
extrinsic and instrumental and are to be judged according to their capacity
for the realization of this primary value. Love is the only categorical
imperative and strikes no bargain with God or humankind.42 He who
denies Love is an infidel.
The strength and potency of our faith depend on the degree and depth of
Love. If one is steadfast in Love, one can win all things, and even “capture
God” The strength and potency of our faith depend on the degree and
depth of Love. If one is steadfast in Love, one can win all things, and even
“capture God”
Like Tillich, Iqbal thinks that “the power of a being is its possibility to
affirm itself against the non-being within it and against it. The power of a
being is the greater the more non-being is taken into its self-
affirmation.”62 Love is that which assimilates, which consolidates and
fortifies, therefore, “Love is the foundation, not the negation, of power.”63
That which negates power is not Love
3. FAQIR
The words “Faqir” (or its synonym Qalandar”) and “Faqr” (or “Istighna”)
appear very frequently in Iqbal's verse. There is more than one sense in
which “Faqr” is interpreted. Iqbal uses “Faqr” to denote an inner attitude of
detachment and superiority to material possessions. “It is a kind of
intellectual and emotional asceticism which does not turn away from the
world as a source of evil and corruption but uses it for the pursuit of good
and worthy ends.”9 Sometimes he identifies Islam with “Faqr
Iqbal points out repeatedly that a “Faqir” is not a monk or an ascetic who
has renounced the material world and who lives a life of abstinence and
self-denial, cut off from the rest of humankind. The “Faqir” undergoes all
the trials and tribulations arising from a daily encounter with the
temptations that flesh is heir to. His life is not calm like the green of the
meadows, but is always stormy like the rough waves in mid ocean
What knowledge does for the intellect, “Faqr” does for the soul. It clarifies
the vision and gives power and strength. A “Qalandar” is the faithful who
“has nothing and possesses everything.”75 His power is greater than the
power of kings:. Unless one is able to transcend the physical world, and
rise, as it were, above the rewards it has to offer, one cannot attain real
kingship. It is this attribute of God-loving persons which enables them to
conquer time and space.
A “Faqir” not only does not accept charity, it is against the dignity of his
state to complain about the hardness of his lot. He bears his cross willingly
and patiently, else his “Faqr” is yet imperfect:
A nation which combines in its character the attributes of Love and “Faqr”
can never know defeat:
4. SAYYADI
Literally, “Sayyadi” means hunting, and “Sayyad” is a hunter. In Iqbal’s
thought where so many words find a new connotation, “Sayyadi” comes to
denote a kind of heroic idealism based on daring, pride and honour. It is
most often symbolized by the lion and the falcon (“Shahin”), the emblems
of royalty. A “Shahin” builds no nest because for it there is no rest or
repose. It lives not in comfort and security but in the wideness of the skies
or on the exposed wind-blown mountain-tops. It is the king of the birds
precisely because it disdains any form of safety or ease.
He possesses unlimited daring and courage. The “Sayyad” has a code of
honour which he must follow. He is truthful and bold and unfamiliar with
the ways of deceit and cunning:
5. SUFFERING
Since “all the results of individuality, of separate selfhood, necessarily
involve pain or suffering,” 108 Iqbal was right in observing that “No
religious system can ignore the moral value of suffering.” For Iqbal, too,
“Suffering is a gift from the gods in order to make man see the whole of
life.” Iqbal was well aware of the importance of suffering for the maturing
of the personality. In Iqbal’s verse we also find the idea taken from popular
piety, namely, that God sends afflictions to those whom He prefers
6. FORBEARANCE
“The principle of the ego-sustaining deed is respect for the ego in myself as
well as in others,” 122 said Iqbal. He was a great believer in forbearance
and tolerance. The tolerance in which Iqbal believes is born of strength
rather than weakness. It is “begotten of intellectual breadth and spiritual
expansion. It is the toleration of the spiritually powerful man who, while
jealous of the frontiers of his own faith, can tolerate and even appreciate all
forms of faith other than his own … only a true lover of God can appreciate
the value of devotion even though it is directed to gods in which he himself
cannot believe. However, when fanaticism involves an attitude of
irreverence towards other modes of thinking, it is not condoned by Iqbal.
As E M. Forster points out about Iqbal, “Whatever his opinions he was no
fanatic, and he refers to Hindus and Christians with courtesy and respect.”
7. Courtesy
While stressing that one must always be hard with oneself, Iqbal does not
forget to say, not once but repeatedly, that a leader must be kind and
courteous in speech and manner. The full-grown ego must possess “husn-i
akhlaq” (beauty of disposition). This makes Iqbal’s Perfect Person as
worthy of affection as he is of obedience, his heartwinning ways
supplementing his world-winning ways. He is no ruthless Superman
asserting his authority mercilessly. He is soft in speech and needs to be
both a warrior and a chivalrous person in order to be a leader:
8. Obstructions
are essential for the development of “Khudi.” Each hurdle that a person
passes over in his long journey brings him 128. Asrar-i Khudi, p. 21. 129.
Translation by Nicholson, op. cit., p. 33. 130. Javid Iqbal, Ed., op. cit., p.
23. 131. Ibid. 132. Forster, “Muhammad Iqbal,” op. cit., p. 296. 133. Bal-i
Jibril, p. 74. 25 nearer his goal. It strengthens his resolve by putting his
mettle to the test. One cannot struggle if there is nothing to struggle
against. Iqbal looks upon obstructions - whatever be their form - as being
necessary to human progress
9. Obstructions
Like Rumi, Iqbal considers evil to be extremely important in the
development of human personality. “Evil is the inevitable condition of
good: out of darkness was created light. From this standpoint it possesses a
positive value: it serves the purpose of God, it is relatively good.” 136 The
spirit of obstruction symbolized by Satan directs a person’s energies to
newer channels. It offers a challenge to his spirit and is one of the forces
behind his evolution, leading him from conquest to conquest.
MILLAT/NATIONALISM
Iqbal, while clarifying the nature of conflict between nationalism and Islam, wrote
to Jawaharlal Nehru:
“Nationalism in the sense of love of one’s country and even readiness to die for its
honour is a part of the Muslim’s faith; it comes into conflict with Islam only when
it begins to play the role of a political concept and claims to be a principle of
human solidarity demanding that Islam should recede to the background of a
mere private opinion and cease to be a living factor in the national life.”
It may be noted here that Iqbal’s proposition was that the nationalism was a
problem for the Muslims only in those countries where they were in a numerical
minority – such as India. However, Islam accommodates nationalism in the
countries where they were numerically large enough to assert their right to order
their individual and collective lives in accordance with the decrees of Shariah
Iqbal in his poem titled “Hussain Ahmad” on the concept of Islam and nationalism
launched into a strong condemnation of the thesis of Maulana Hussain Ahmed
Madani who insisted on territorial nationalism. Iqbal wrote:
است وطن از ملت کہ منبر سرِ بر سرود
است عربیﷺ محمدِ زمقام خبر بے چہ
“He [Husain Ahmad of Deoband] preached from the pulpit that the
Muslim nation can exist by devotion to one’s country!
How ignorant he is about the teaching of Muhammad Arabi (PBUH)!”
Allama Iqbal also discerned in the very DNA of nationalism a well-calculated
imperialistic design of Europe to enslave the nations, and shatter the religious
unity of the Muslims.
Moreover, Iqbal was particularly antipathetic towards West for its cutthroat
materialism, so natural it was for him to seek spiritualism in any concept. He
said:
“I am opposed to nationalism as it is understood in Europe. Because, I see in it
the germs of atheistic materialism which I look upon as the greatest danger to the
modern humanity.”
Hence, in the opinion of Iqbal, the Muslims should turn themselves as "strong
and powerful to form a living family of republics" and that is interwoven in a
"League of Nations (of Islam)" which "recognizes artificial boundaries and racial
distinctions for facility of reference only and not for restricting the social horizon
of its members. This is what constitutes millat for Iqbal. The overview of the
Western society according to Iqbal is its fasād-i-qalb-o-naẓar– i.e. double
standard or hypocrisy. To face this unethical, hypocrite and immoral West, Iqbal
comes up with a proposal to strengthen ego.
4. Instrument of Secularism
With nationalism, Iqbal discerned in the Western democracy the germs of
secularism and atheism. Secularism entails a divorce between state and religion –
something Iqbal could never digest. A system, wherein religion is reduced to an
immaterial state of ‘private life, brings societal fabric on the verge of moral and
social decadence; besides, bringing disgrace to the nation. Secularism, and as its
consequence, democracy, are anathemas to Iqbal.
Falling in with the views of Laski that the problem with democracy is moral
rather than technical in nature, Iqbal believes that its ideal is different from the
realities of realpolitik. In fact, popular revolution is possible only through
observance to the divine code embodied in Quran. Islamic democracy, which to
Iqbal is “Spiritual democracy,” is more suited, as it stresses the need for loftier
ethical values, instead of a cutthroat competition.
Spiritual Democracy
Allah says in the Quran: “…and consult with them upon the conduct of affairs.
And when you have taken a decision, repose your trust in Allah.” (Aal-e-Imran:
159)
Allama Iqbal advocates for a spiritual democracy nurtured under the divine
guidance. His is the democracy unhampered by the intrigues of the tumultuous
party politics, and oriented towards nothing else but securing people’s good in
this world and in the hereafter. Justice for everyone at the doorstep is its cardinal
principle. Rule of law reigns supreme in it. Iqbal makes a case for a democracy
the essence of which has been envisioned in the Quran. However, its form and
structure may be tailored on the basis of Ijtihad in view of the requirements of the
contemporary political realities.
From Armughan-e-Hijaz, it is discernable to eye that Iqbal has a fascination for
Khilafah (caliphate) as an ideal form of government. Drawing inspiration from
the epoch of Khilafat-e-Rashida, he holds, democracy was literally put in place in
letter and spirit then. He firmly believes ‘democracy to be the most important
aspect of Islam where there is no aristocracy and monarchy’.
Moreover, the essence of Tauhid (Oneness of Allah Almighty) as lively ideal is
freedom, equality and solidarity, and liberation from all sorts of fetters –
something the modern democracy claims to secure. It brings the ruler and the
ruled unconditionally on an equal footing. Allah alone is the repository of
absolute sovereignty. Dismissing the parliaments as talking-shops which yield
only follies, he proposes the constitution of an assembly of enlightened men
versed in both modern scholarship and Islamic jurisprudence. The same should
be fully equipped with the authority of exercising ‘Ijtihad’ to find a way out to the
quandaries besetting the contemporary world. It can safely be construed from the
discussion that Iqbal is for a limited franchise, favouring a government by the
men of professional expertise and veritable integrity.
IQBAL ON IJTIHAD
Ijtihad was exercised from the earliest days of Islam. Some learned companions
of the Prophet (p.b.u.h) after his (p.b.u.h) demise, exercised ijtihad in matters
which had no specific solutions in the Quran and the Sunnah. Starting from this
early practice, ijtihad then was used extensively by the four great scholars of
Muslim jurisprudence in the second century of hijrah. The sphere of ijtihad at
that time was very wide. It covered all the aspects of religious, political, and civil
life, including the whole field of family laws, the laws of inheritance, and all legal
questions that arose in social life. However, in the third century of hijrah, the four
schools of jurisprudence were regarded as fully developed. This resulted in the
closing of the doors of ijtihad. Thus, after the third century of hijrah, ijtihad
completely disappeared as a practical intellectual force in Islam.
The closing of the doors of ijtihad is considered as one of greatest intellectual
disasters in the development of Islamic thought. It prevents the advancement of
the Muslims in social, political, and legal avenues of Islam. Therefore, Iqbal tried
to revive ijtihad and to bring back this dynamic element of Islamic civilization.
Iqbal observed that no law or institution can be truly Islamic unless it imbibes the
spirit of the dynamic outlook of the Quran. Iqbal emphasized that we have to
reevaluate our intellectual inheritance which involves exercising the right of
ijtihad. He discussed the subject in a comprehensive manner in the sixth lecture
of his Reconstruction entitled “The Principle Movement in the Structure of
Islam” in which some authors translated it as ijtihad.
Causes for Decay of Ijtihad
Iqbal mentioned three causes for the decay of ijtihad among the Muslims;
First, the adherence of the Muslim community to extreme positions. During the
age of the Abbasids, the rise of rationalist movements, such as, mu’tazilah was
considered as a danger to the Muslim society. The conservative ulama’ regarded
the rationalist movement as a destructive force. Therefore, in order to preserve
the social integrity of Islam, they made the structure of their legal system as
rigorous as possible. They did not regard ijtihad to be a source of advancement of
thought or knowledge.
Second, the rise and growth of ascetic Sufism which gradually developed under
the influence of a non-Islamic character turned the great Muslim intellectuals
into sufis who confined themselves to the preservation of faith and beliefs. When
such extremes penetrated into the Muslim society, the independent thinking and
the spirit of ijtihad, according to Iqbal, gradually deteriorated and decayed.
Third, Iqbal pointed out that the destruction of Baghdad, which was the centre of
Muslim intellectual life was responsible for the decay of ijtihad up to the second
half of the thirteenth century. It caused the Muslim community to think
pessimistically about the future of Islam.
Basis of Iqbal’s Support for Ijma
According to Iqbal, only religious obligations are permanent and cannot be
changed, such as, the times of prayer and the period of fasting during Ramadan.
On the other hand, worldly affairs (muamalat) are subject to the law of change. It
includes all laws pertaining to civil and criminal matters, which can be changed
and reinterpreted in accordance with changing condition and needs as well as the
requirements of the Muslim community As the principle of movement in Islam,
ijtihad is the means whereby changes can be affected in the laws of Islam,
provided they are not inconsistent with the basis on which the system rests.
In fact, he regarded ijtihad as one of the dynamic elements and creative spirit of
Islam. Iqbal defined ijtihad as to exert with a view to form an independent
judgment but not to be independent of the Quran and Sunnah. He opposed
freedom of thought which makes man deviate from Divine guidance but endorsed
the freedom of ijtihad to oppose rigidity and stagnation.
Qualifications for Exercising Ijtihad
When he talked about the freedom of ijtihad or independent judgment, Iqbal did
not regard any independent judgment to be ijtihad, rather he believed that it
must be exercised by those who have knowledge and whose character can be fully
relied upon. In his emphasis on the qualifications of exercising ijtihad, Iqbal
explained in his Reconstruction, Iqbal suggested certain qualifications as follows;
1. Knowledge of Islam, deep understanding of the ultimate aims of its ideology,
institutions and politics.
2. Understanding of the modern problems that beset the Muslim world.
3. Closeness to the Prophet’s way and understanding of his methods and
approach.
4. Reliable moral character so that decisions may be looked upon with respect.
1. Qur’an
As the first source of ijtihad, according to Iqbal, contains not merely
substantive legal provisions, but also indicates the means by which it is to be
interpreted and supplemented. For example, the Quran insists that the
Muslims should abide by the decisions of the Prophet (p.b.u.h) whenever
some differences arise among them. Moreover, Iqbal regarded Quran as an
embodiment of both the lofty moral principles and positive legal rules. The
uniqueness of this two-fold nature of the Quran ensured the satisfaction of the
needs of people. Apart from setting the codes of law for guidance of the
people, the Quran endows man with a revolutionary outlook and awakens him
with a unique insight into life, so that he may reform and refashion his entire
life in accordance with the spirit of Islam.
2. Hadith
Iqbal was critical to tradition or hadith as the second source of ijtihad, He
observed that hadith is not fully valid in changing times and places. On this
ground, Iqbal highlighted that Abu Hanifah, the founder of Hanafi school of
law did not practically make use of the hadith but preferred to use istihsan.
However, Iqbal did not mean to reject the validity of hadith altogether; rather
suggested that the study of hadith must be taken more seriously and critically.
3. Ijma
The third source of ijtihad is ijma’, and Iqbal considered it as the most
important legal notion in Islam. It is a process through which new values are
established and preserved in Islam. In ijma’, the mujtahidun agreed on a point
of law and such a consensus becomes a permanent source of law. Iqbal
supported exercise of ijma’ through legislative assemblies and gave its power
to both the ulama’ and the modern lawyers. He was conscious of the
misleading and narrow interpretation of the non ulama’, therefore, insisted on
the vital participation of the ulama’ in the Muslim legislative assembly
4. Qiyas
The last source of ijtihad elucidated by Iqbal is qiyas or analogical reasoning
which is the process of applying Islamic principles to local problems or to
changing conditions. Iqbal mentioned some of the early jurists who practiced
qiyas particularly Abu Hanifah. He said Abu Hanifah made a great use of
analogical reasoning in view of changing socioeconomic conditions, which
arose by the extension of Muslim states.
Conclusion
Iqbal was highly critical of the contemporary Islamic thought which had become
narrow, rigid, and static. He considered ijtihad to be the key to updating the legal,
political, and social institutions of Islam. For him, ijtihad is the intellectual
method to create an intellectual creativity among Muslims. Iqbal’s ideas are part
of the continuing tradition of Muslim intellectuals’ concern about the problem of
stagnation of religious thought among Muslims. He also rejected the classical
concept of shura as being the exclusive privilege of the ulama’. He wanted to give
it a new meaning by assuming shura as a consensus which should be derived
from a parliamentary system of an Islamic state government. Iqbal’s attempt at
enlargement of the scope of shura was to show the compatibility of Islam with the
socio-political institutions of modern age